Fluid Mechanics

Topic 3.0 Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow

Overview
3.0 Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow 3.5 Flow measurement
3.1 Concepts of fluid flow, average velocity 3.5.1 Pitot tube
and flowrate 3.5.2 Venturi meter
3.1.1 Fluid Flow
3.1.2 Discharge and velocity 3.5.3 Pipe orifices
3.5.4 Small orifices
3.2 Uniform an steady flow
3.2.1 Laminar and turbulent flow
3.5.5 Large orifices
3.5.6 Notches & weir
3.3 Principles of conservation of mass and
the Continuity Equation 3.6 Application of Momentum
3.4 Principle of conservation of energy – Equation in fluid flow
Bernoulli’s Principle and Energy Equation 3.6.1 Momentum and fluid flow
3.4.1 Energy equation
3.6.2 Momentum equation for two-
3.4.2 Bernoulli’s equation dimensional flow
3.4.3 Energy losses & gains
3.4.4 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
3.6.3 Forces on stationary flat objects
3.4.5 Representation of energy changes in a 3.6.4 Forces on an inclined plane
fluid system
Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow
3.1 Concepts of fluid flow, average velocity and flowrate
Overview
3.1 Concepts of fluid flow, average velocity and flowrate
3.1.1 Fluid Flow
3.1.2 Discharge and velocity
Learning Outcomes
Explain the concept of fluid flow, average velocity and flowrate.
 3.1.1 Fluid flow
The motion of a fluid is
usually extremely complex.
Individual particles motion
is not easily analysed
mathematically, and it is
often necessary to
supplement theory by
experiment. How? Visual
observations are often
needed to supplement the
available analytical tools.

Concepts of flow visualisation

Pathline: an imaginary line which
traces the path of an individual
fluid particle i.e. it gives the
position of a particle at successive
time intervals.
Streakline: gives the paths taken by
all fluid particles which pass
through a predetermined point. If a
dye or tracer is injected into a flow
at a given point, then the path of
the dye will represent the
streakline.
Streamline: an imaginary line which
is drawn tangentially to the velocity
of fluid particles.
Streamtube: imaginary conduit
consisting a collection of
streamlines.
3.1.2 Velocity & Discharge
Velocity is a parameter that tells how fast and in what direction the fluid flows.
When fluid is in motions, velocity for each fluid particles will varies throughout the
flow.
However in most engineering problem, velocity variation over the cross-section can
be ignored, the velocity being assumed to be constant and equal to the mean
velocity v.
Discharge: total quantity of fluid flowing in a unit time past any particular cross-
section of a stream.
Can be expressed as:
Volume: Volume flowrate, Q  Av
Unit: m3/ s
Mass :Mass flowrate, M  Q
Unit: kg/s
Weight: Weight flowrate, W  gQ
Unit: N/s
Example
Benzene flows through a 100 mm   0.12
diameter pipe. The mean velocity A  0.007854m 2
of flow is 3 m/s. Find the volumetric 4
3
rate, weight of flow rate and mass Q  0.007854  3.0  0.0236 m
flow rate. Mass density of benzene s
is 879 kg/ m3. W  879  9.81 0.0236  0.203 kN
s
M  879  0.0236  20.7 kg
s
Determination of average velocity for a
full flow in a closed conduit.
Consider a small elemental area of the flow.
dA  2rdr
dQ  vdA
 v2rdr 
R
Q  2  vrdr
0

Q
vave 
A
Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow
3.2 Uniform flow and steady flow
Overview
3.2 Uniform flow and steady flow
Learning Outcomes
Categorize steady and unsteady flows, uniform and non-uniform flows, laminar and
turbulent flows.
 Steady uniform flow: Flow parameters remain constant wrt
space and time.

3.2 Uniform Steady non-uniform flow: Flow parameters change wrt

space. However, at any given point in the flow, parameters
are constant wrt time.
an steady Unsteady uniform flow: Flow parameters remain constant

flow wrt space at any given instant (@t1, velocities at any point is
equal to v1) but change wrt time (@t2, velocities at any
point is equal to v2).

Unsteady non-uniform flow: Flow parameters change wrt

both time and space.
3.2.1 Laminar and turbulent flow
Reynolds number is used to define Fluid flows can be classified based
flow types. on the motion of fluid particles.
vd Turbulent flow: random and
Re  irregular movement of fluid

particles accompanied by small
unit: dimensionless fluctuations in pressure.
Laminar : Re < 2000 Laminar flow: orderly movement of
fluid particles in well defined path
Transition : 2000 < Re < 2300 and flow tends to move in layers.
Turbulent : Re > 2300
Example
A pipe of 20 mm diameter carries 1000  0.5  0.02
water at an average velocity of 1.5 Re 
m/s. Calculate the Reynolds 0.001
number for the flow and determine  30000  turbulent
the flow regime. The absolute
viscosity of water at room
temperature is about 0.001 Pa s.
Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow
3.3 Principles of conservation of mass and the Continuity
Equation
Overview
3.3 Principles of conservation of mass and the Continuity Equation
Learning Outcomes
Discuss the principle of mass conservation and continuity equation.
Solve problems related to mass conservation and continuity equation.
3.3 Principles of conservation of mass
and the Continuity Equation
Matter is neither created nor destroyed.
In steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control volume remains constant , therefore:
Mass of fluid entering per unit = Mass of fluid leaving per unit
time time
Applying this principle to steady flow in streamtube with constant cross-sectional area
small enough for velocity to be considered constant,

Mass of fluid entering per unit = Mass of fluid leaving per unit
time at section 1 time at section 2
Mass entering per unit time at 1  1A1u1
Mass leaving per unit time at 2   2A2u 2
For steady flow,
1A1u1   2A2u2  constant
Using mean velocity,
1 A1 u1   2 A2 u 2  m
Consider incompressible fluid, 1   2
A1 u1  A2 u 2  Q
Or Q1  Q2 Continuity Equation
Continuity equation can also be applied to determine
the relation between the flows into and out of a
junction.

Total inflow to junction  Total outflow from junction

1Q1   2Q2
Q1  Q2 ( 1   2 incompressible fluid)
A1v1  A2 v2
Example
Water flows through a pipeline in which the diameter reduces from 500 mm at A to
300 mm at B as shown in Figure. The pipe then forks, one branch has a diameter of
150 mm discharging at C, while the other branch with diameter of 200 mm
discharges at D. Given that the velocity at A is 2.0 m/s and the velocity at D is 3.6 m/s,
find discharges at C and D and the velocities at B and C.
QA  AAv A QA  QB  QC  QD
  0 .5 2
 2
4 3
3 QC  QA  QD  0.28 m
 0.309 m s
s
0.393
QD  AD vD vB   5.56 m
  0 .3 2 s
  0 .2 2 4
 2 0.28
4 vC   15.84 m
3   0.152 s
 0.113 m 4
s
Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow
3.4 Principle of conservation of energy – Bernoulli’s Principle
and Energy Equation
Overview
3.4 Principle of conservation of energy – Bernoulli’s Principle and Energy Equation
3.4.1 Energy equation
3.4.2 Bernoulli’s equation
3.4.3 Energy losses & gains
3.4.4 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
3.4.5 Representation of energy changes in a fluid system
Learning Outcomes
Explain Bernoulli’s principle and energy equation.
Evaluate engineering fluid problems by applying Bernoulli’s equation and continuity
equation.
3.4.1 Energy equation
To analyze flow problems, consider
3 forms of energy i.e. potential
energy, kinetic energy & pressure
energy.
Consider an element of fluid as
shown in the next figure.
Potential energy, PE. WE  Force x Distance AA
 pAx m
PE  mgz A
PE per unit weight  z WE per unit weight  p
g
Kinetic energy, KE.
KE  1 mv 2 Total Energy, H  WE  KE  WE
2
v2 p v2
KE per unit weight  H   z
2g g 2 g

Pressure energy, WE, Where,

Force exerted on AB  pA p
 pressure head (m)
g
when section moved to A’B’,
v2
Volume passing AB  mg
 velocity head (m)
g 
m
 2g
Distance AA  m z  potential head (m)
A
3.4.2 Bernoulli’s equation
States, for a steady flow of frictionless fluid along a streamline, the total energy per unit
weight remains constant from point to point although its division between the three forms of
energy may vary.
p v2
H  z
g 2 g
Assumptions:
Velocity on the flow cross section is uniform, i.e. average velocity is used.
Effect of viscous forces are very small compared to the gravitational forces, therefore there
are no losses of energy due to friction
Energy of flow is not converted into any other form apart from kinetic, potential and
pressure energies.
Bernoulli’s equation between 2 points
H1  H 2
2 2
p1 v1 p 2 v2
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
3.4.3 Energy losses & gains
Energy losses between two points,
2 2
p1 v1 p 2 v2
  z1    z 2  hL
g 2 g g 2 g
Including energy losses by turbine (hq) and additional energy by pump (hp)
2 2
p1 v1 p 2 v2
  z1    z 2  hL  hq  h p
g 2 g g 2 g
3.4.4 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
As correction to kinetic energy (vave)
Consider a small elemental fluid mass dm moving with velocity v.
True kinetic energy,
KE  1  2 dmv
2

But the KE across the section per unit time,

 
KE  1 dMv 2
2

where M is the mass flow rate.


Integrating over the flow cross-section (total KE), KE   v 3dA
2
Considering vave ,

2
  2
2
 
KE  1 Qvave  1 Avave
3

True KE  Average KE x KE correction factor, 

 1
 v3
dA     Av ave 3

2 2

1  v3  Uniform velocity,   1.0

    dA
3 
A  vave   Turbulent flow, 1.02    1.15
Laminar flow,   2.0
Example
A siphon has a uniform circular B
section of 70 mm diameter and
consists of a bent pipe with its crest 1.6 m
1.6 m above the water level as A
shown in figure. The siphon
discharges into the atmosphere at a 3m
level 3.0 m below the water level.
Calculate the velocity and the C
discharge. The pressure head at the
end of the siphon is equivalent to
10 m head of water. Calculate the
pressure head at the crest. Neglect
all losses.
3.4.5 Representation of energy changes
in a fluid system
The changes of energy, and its transformation from one form to another which occurs
in a fluid system, can be represented graphically. In a real fluid system, the total
energy per unit weight will not remain constant. Unless energy is supplied to the
system at some point by means of a pump, it will gradually decrease in the direction
of motion due to losses resulting from friction and from the disturbance of flow at
changes of pipe section or as a result of changes of direction.
 Velocity negligible, Patm
– total energy = HA/HD Contraction loss - hC
Exit loss - hL

Change of energy from

one form to another can
be represented by:
Total Energy Line (TEL)
: total head
Hydraulic Grade Line
(HGL): elevation +
pressure head

Entry loss - hL Friction loss - hf

Pump adds energy - hp
A graphical representation is useful to identify sections of pipeline which are under
negative pressure (below atmospheric pressure). This can be detected if the HGL is
located lower than the pipeline as in Figure below – section PQ. Flow of water under
negative pressure may lead to cavitation and flow separation. Water will boil and turn
to gas, leading to discontinuous flow in the pipeline.
Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow
3.5 Flow measurement
Overview
3.5 Flow measurement
3.5.1 Pitot tube
3.5.2 Venturi meter
3.5.3 Pipe orifices
3.5.4 Small orifices
3.5.5 Large orifices
3.5.6 Notches & weir
Learning Outcomes
Identify flow measurements for open and close channel.
Solve engineering problems related to open or close channel flow measurements.
3.5 Flow measurement
Flow measurements are required for many reasons e.g. monitoring fluid systems,
ensure adequacy of water distribution network. Some instrument gives direct reading
while others measure other parameters which then converted to flow parameters
using formulae or empirical correlation curves.
Pitot tube
Factors in selecting flow measurement instruments:
Range: Amount of fluid flow Notches &
Venturimeter
weirs
Accuracy required: Required level of accuracy
Energy losses: Needs proper factor adjustment Flow
measurement
for correction
Costs: Normally the deciding factor Large orifice Pipe orifices

Small orifice
3.5.1 Pitot tube
Used to measure velocity in an open channel.
Consists of simple L-shaped tube facing the oncoming
flow.
If the velocity of stream at A is u, a particle moving
from A to B will be brought to rest, so that u0 at B is
zero.
 HA  HB
2
p u2 p uO
 z  z
g 2 g g 2 g
2
p u2 p u
  O O
g 2 g g 2 g
Substituting,
Since u0  0
 p0  p u 2  pO  p 
 h
2g g
And,
Velocity at A  u  2 gh  vtheory
p pO
 z,  h z vreal  Cu  C 2 gh
g g
3.5.2 Venturi meter
Consists of a short converging conical
tube leading to a cylindrical portion,
called the throat, of smaller diameter than
that of that pipeline, which is followed by
a diverging section in which the diameter
increases again to that of the main
pipeline.
The pressure difference (to determine the
volume flowrate/velocity) can be
determined by U-tube manometer.
Obtain pressure difference by applying
Bernoulli’s equation between entry
section 1 and the throat section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to 1 & 2:
H1  H 2
2 2
p1 v1 p 2 v2
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
  p1  p2  
v2  v1  2 g    z1  z 2 
2 2

 g 

For continuous flow,

Q1  Q2
A1v1  A2 v2
 A1 
 v1  v2
 A2 
Pressure difference between 1 and 2, Theoretical discharge,
considering pressures are level XX
must be the same in both limbs, Q  A1v1

px  px
Actual discharge,
p1  g  z1  z   p2  g  z 2  z  h    man gh
Qact  Cd Q
p1  p2   gh   man gh

Substituting,

  man 
  1

v1  2 gh  2 
 A1  a2 2 
 
 a2 
 2 
 Example
A venturi meter having a throat of 120 mm is
fitted horizontally in a pipeline with a diameter
of 250 mm as shown in figure. Oil of specific
gravity 0.85 flows at a rate of 0.15 m3/s.
Tappings at the inlet and the throat of the
venturi meter is connected to a U-tube
manometer with mercury (specific gravity 13.6)
as the manometer fluid. If the difference in
mercury levels is 0.63 m, calculate the
coefficient of discharge for the venturi meter.

  0.252  13600  Qact  Qtheory  Cd

A1   0.0491m 2   1
v1  2  9.81 0.63   850  Cd 
0.15
4
 0.04912  0.01132  0.0491 3.22
 
 0.01132   0.95
  0.12 2  3.22 m
a2   0.0113m 2 s
4
Example
A pipe inclined at 450 to the horizontal
converges over a length l of 2 m from a
diameter d1 of 200 mm to a diameter d2 of
100 mm at the upper end. Oil of relative
density 0.9 flows through the pipe at a
mean velocity v1 at the lower end of 2 m/s.
Find the pressure difference across the 2 m
length ignoring any loss of energy, and the
difference in level that would be shown on a
mercury manometer connected across this
length. The relative density of mercury is
13.6 and the leads to the manometer are
filled with the oil.
3.5.3 Pipe orifices
A similar effect with venturi meter can be
achieved by inserting an orifice plate which has
an opening in it smaller than the internal
diameter of the pipeline.
The orifice plate produces constriction of the
flow at A2.
The flow immediately downstream of the plate
will be same as the orifice.
Cheaper than venturi meter but there are
substantial energy loss.
vtheory : same as venturimeter
Qactual: ~ two-third of this value.
Introduce Cd: typical value for sharp edged
orifice – 0.65
3.5.4 Small orifices
Orifice is an opening, usually circular, in the side or base of
a tank or reservoir, through which fluid is discharged in the
form of a jet, usually into the atmosphere.
The volume flow rate depends on the head of the fluid
above the level of an orifice.
Small orifice: has diameter or vertical dimension smaller
compared to the head producing flow. Hence assumed
that the head does not vary much from point to point
across the orifice.
Referring to the figure, at point A on the free surface, the
pressure pA is atmospheric and if the tank is large, vA is
negligible.
At point B in the jet, just outside of the orifice, pB again will
be atmospheric but velocity vB is equal to v (jet velocity).
Taking datum at the centre of orifice
and applying Bernoulli’s equation to A
and B and assuming no loss of energy,

HA  HB Hence,
2 2
vA pA vB pB
zA    zB   Qtheory  A 2gH 
2 g g 2 g g
z A  zB  H Qact  Cd Qtheory
vA  0
 Cd A 2 gH 
vB  v
p A  pB
vtheory  2 gH 
Actual velocity (velocity of jet) will be Comparing,
less than vtheory because of energy loss
between A and B.
C d  Cc  Cv Qact
Cd 
Actual velocity at B  CV  vtheory Qtheory
 CV 2 gH  Cc 
Aj
Ao
The jet area B is less than the area of vj
the orifice A at C and the pressure at C Cv 
is greater than atmospheric pressure. vtheory
The section through B is called the
vena contracta.
Cd  Coefficient of discharge
Actual area at B  Cc  A
Cc  Coefficient of contraction
Qactual  Cc A  Cv 2 gH  Cv  Coefficient of velocity
 Cc  Cv A 2 gH 
The theory of small orifice can be
extended to calculate the times
required to empty a tank.

T

2 A H1  H 2
0 .5 0 .5

Cd a 2 g
Example
A sharp-edged orifice 4 cm in diameter, at the
base of the storage tank discharges water under
the head of 6 m as shown in figure. If Cv = 0.97
and Cc = 0.62, determine:
a. The diameter of the jet at the vena contracta
b. Velocity of the jet at the vena contracta
c. Discharge in m3/s.
   0.04 2 v j  vact  CV 2 gh
a  1.257  10 3 m 2
4
 0.97  2  9.81 6  10.52 m
aj 3 4
s
CC   a j  1.257  10  0.62  7.8  10 m 2

a
Qact  CV CC a 2 gh
d j 2

aj   0.97  0.62  1.257  10 3  2  9.81 6

4
3
4  1.257  10 3  0.0082 m
dj   0.0315m s

 Example
Water discharges from an orifice
under a head of h = 1.2 m as
shown in Fig. Determine the
coefficient of velocity Cv, if the jet
falls vertically to a distance of y =
0.5 m and horizontally to a
distance of x = 1.5 m from the
vena contracta.
Rewriting x  vt and y  1 gt 2
2
x 2y vtheory  2  9.81 1.2  4.852 m
v , t s
t g
4 .7
CV   0.968
Substituti ng to velocity jet, 4.852
gx 2 9.81 1.52
vact    4.70 m
2y 2  0 .5 s
3.5.5 Large orifices
If the vertical height of an orifice is larger,
that the head producing flow is
substantially less at the top of the
opening than at the bottom, formulas
used for small orifices are no longer Consider water leaving through the strip,
applicable. v  2 gh
Method used: integrate from top to dQ  vdA  vBdh
bottom of the opening to get Qtheory,
hence, Qactual if Cd is known. Integrating,

Qtheory  2 B 2 g H 21.5  H11.5
3

Example
Water flows from a storage tank
through a rectangular orifice 2 m
high and 1.2 m wide as shown in
Fig. Calculate the discharge when
the free surface in the tank is 0.5 m
above the opening. Assume Cd =
0.64.

Qact  Cd  2 B 2 g H 21.5  H11.5
3


 0.64  2  1.2  2  9.81 2.512.5  1.511.5
3

3
 8.16 m
s
3.5.6 Notches & weir
A notch is an opening in the side
of a measuring tank or reservoir
extending above the free surface.
A weir is a notch in a large scale.
Same method applied for large
orifice. Area of strip  bh
Velocity through strip  2 gh 
Discharge through strip, Q  Av  bh  2 gh 
H
1
Qtheory  2 g  bh 2 dh
0
For rectangular notch,  2
Vee notch, b  2H  h  tan 
b = constant = B

  H  hh
H H
Q  2 g tan 
1 1
Q  B 2 g  h dh 2
2
2
dh
0 0

 
h
2 3
 B 2g H 2  2 3 2 52 
 2 2 g tan Hh  h 
2  3
2
3 5 0


8
15
 
2 g tan  H 2
2
5
Example
The discharge over a rectangular notch is 0.15 m3/s when water level is 25 cm above
the sill. Taking Cd = 0.6, calculate the width of the notch.

2 3
Qact  Cd B 2 g H 2
3
2 3
0.15  0.6  B 2  9.81  0.25 2
3
B  0.677 m
Example
A 900 triangular notch is used to measure flow rate in the laboratory flume. Calculate
the flow rate of the flume if the water level above the notch is 150 mm. Assume Cd =
0.63.

Qact  Cd
8
15
 
2 g tan 
2
5
H 2

Qact
8
 0.63   2  9.81  tan
15

90 
2
 5
 0.15 2
3
 0.013 m
s
Hydrodynamics – Fluid Flow
3.6 Application of Momentum Equation in fluid flow
Overview
3.6 Application of Momentum Equation in fluid flow
3.6.1 Momentum and fluid flow
3.6.2 Momentum equation for two-dimensional flow
3.6.3 Forces on stationary flat objects
3.6.4 Forces on an inclined plane
Learning Outcomes
Correlate the principle of conservation of momentum and momentum equation on
stationary object.
Evaluate and solve jet impacts problems on stationary flat and curve object by
applying the momentum equation and propose suitable solution.
3.6.1 Momentum and fluid flow
In fluid mechanics, the analysis of motion is performed by using Newton’s laws of
motion.
Newton’s Second Law: the rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the
resultant force acting on the body and takes place in the direction of the force.
Consider a control volume in the figure and assuming steady non-uniform flow.

Mass entering stream tube, Mass leaving stream tube,

 volume  density  volume  density
 1  A1  v1  t   2  A2  v2  t

Momentum of fluid entering stream tube, Momentum of fluid leaving stream tube,
 mass  velocity  mass  velocity
 1  A1  v1  t  v1   2  A2  v2  t  v2
Applying Newton’s Second Law to determine the force exerted by the fluid: force
is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
Force  rate of change of momentum

F
 2  A2  v2  t  v2  1  A1  v1  t  v1 
t
Applying continuity equation and assuming constant density:
Q1  Q2  Q
1   2  
Therefore,
F  Qv2  v1 
Assuming the inlet and
outlet velocities are in the
F  M v2  v1  same direction – one
dimensional system
 3.6.2 Momentum equation
y
v2 for two-dimensional flow
x 2 Consider 2-D flow where v1 makes an
angle θ1 with x-axis while v2 makes an
angle θ2. The momentum and force can
be resolved into components in x and y
v1
direction.

1
 y
v2
Fx  Rate of change of momentum of fluid in x - direction
 Rate of change of mass  velocity in x - direction x 2
 M v2 x  v1x 
 M v2 cos θ2  v1 cos θ1 
 Qv2 cos θ2  v1 cos θ1 
 Qv2 x  v1x  v1

1
Fy  Rate of change of momentum of fluid in y - direction
 Rate of change of mass  velocity in y - direction
 M v2 y  v1 y 
 M v2 sin θ2  v1 sin θ1  Fy FR
 Qv2 sin θ2  v1 sin θ1  FR  Fx  Fy
2 2

 Q v2 y  v1 y 

Fy
  tan 1
Fx

 Fx
To summarize,
The total force exerted on the fluid  rate of change of momentum through the control volume
FT  M vout  vin  The value of F is positive in the
direction in which v is assumed to be
FT  Qvout  vin  positive.

Force F is made up of 3 components:

F1 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in the control
volume by any solid body within the control volume or coinciding
with the boundaries of the control volume.
 FT  F1  F2  F3
F2 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in the control
volume by body forces such as gravity.
F3 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in the control
volume by fluid outside the control volume.

The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume is opposite of F1.
So the reaction force R is given by,
R   F1
 Example
Water flows at a constant rate in a
tapering pipe which converges from a
50 cm diameter as shown in figure. If
the water accelerates from an initial
velocity of 2 m/s to a final velocity of
4.5 m/s, determine the flow rate and
Q  Q1  Q2 
  0 .5 2
 2 .0  0 .4 m
3 the accelerating force.
4 s

F  Qv2  v1 
 1000  0.4  4.0  2.5
 1000 N
3.6.3 Forces on stationary flat objects
v2
Fluid forces on stationary flat
objects at right angles to the
direction of flow that is solved
directly using equation.
v1

v2
 y
v2

Example +ve
x
A hose and a nozzle discharge a
horizontal jet of water against a v1
vertical plate as shown in figure.
Given that the diameter of the
nozzle is 25 mm and the
discharge is 0.025 m3/s,
calculate the force necessary to v2
hold the plate in place.   0.025 2
A  4.91 10  4 m 2
4
0.025
v1  4
 50.93 m
4.91 10 s
v2  0
R  1000  0.025  50.93  1.273kN
3.6.3 Force on a stationary curved vane
2D flow where pressures are equal i.e. atmospheric, and both the cross-section and
velocities (in the direction of flow) remain constant.
v2

v1
θ
Example
y
v2
A jet of water which is flowing freely in
the atmosphere is deflected horizontally
x
by a 900 curved vane as shown in figure.
The water jet has a diameter of 20 mm
and velocity of 5 m/s. Find the force
required to hold the vane.
v1=5m/s
 y
F2  0, F3  0 v2
  0.02 2
A  3.1416  10  4 m 4
4 x
4 3 4
Q  3.1416  10  5  1.57  10 m
s
v1x  5 m , v2 x  0
s
F1x   Rx v1=5m/s
Rx  1000  1.57  10  4  5  7.855 N Rx

v1 y  0, v2 y  5 m
s
F1 y   R y
4
R
R y  1000  1.57  10  5  7.855 N
R  7.8552  7.8552  11.11N Ry

 7.855 
  tan 1    45
 7 . 855 
3.6.4 Forces on an inclined plane
v2

v1 θ

v3
For easier analysis, the previous diagram is rotated asv2such,
y

+ve
x θ

v1

v3
Applying Bernoulli’s equation,
2 2 2
p1v p v p v
 1  z1  2  2  z 2  3  3  z3
 2g  2g  2g

Considering negligible height differences & atmospheric pressure,

v1  v2  v3  v
By continuity equation,

Q1  Q2  Q3
A1v1  A2 v2  A3v3

Q1  A1v
Q2  A2 v
Q3   A1  A2 v
Step 1: Draw CV & decide co-ordinate
axis v2

+ve
x θ

v1

v3
Step 2: Calculate F1
F1x  Qvout  x  vin  x  F1y = 0 in order for the plane to stay
  Q2 v2 x  Q3v3 x   Q1v1x 
stationary

v2 x  v3 x  0
v1x  v1 cos 

F1x   Qv1 cos 

STEP 3: CALCULATE F2 STEP 4: CALCULATE F3

As the control volume is small, the The pressure force is zero as the
body force due to the weight of pressure at both inlet and outlets
gravity can be ignored. F2 = 0 to the control volume are
atmospheric. F3 = 0
STEP 5: CALCULATE THE RESULTANT
STEP 6: CALCULATE THE REACTION, R
FORCE, FR

FRx  F1x  F2 x  F3 x R   FRx

  Qv1 cos   Qv1 cos 
To find discharge in all direction,
v2 y  v2
0  A2  A3   A2  A3 sin 
v3 y  v3
 1  sin  
v1 y  v1 sin  A2  A3  
 1  sin  

F1 y  0
 1  sin  
F1 y  Q vout  y  vin  y  Q2  Q3 
 1  sin 



0   Q2 v2 y  Q3v3 y   Q1v1 y   1  sin  
Q1  Q3    Q3
0   Q2 v2  Q3v3  Q1v1 sin    1  sin  
0  A2  A3  A1 sin   1  sin  
 Q3 1  
 1  sin  
A1  A2  A3
Example
A jet of water 50 mm in diameter with a velocity of 18 m/s strikes a flat plate inclined
at an angle 250 to the axis of the jet. Determine the normal force exerted on the plate
when the plate is stationary. (269 N)
End of Topic 3