2020–2021 Syllabus

1. Special Functions
This class will cover problems involving algebraic functions other than polynomials, such as square roots,
the floor function, and logarithms.
Example Problem: Let n be a positive integer. Show that for any real number x,
     
1 2 n−1
bxc + x + + x+ + ··· + x + = bnxc.
n n n
Example Problem: Show that for every positive integer n,
√ √ √
b n + n + 1c = b 4n + 1c.

2. Trigonometry/Complex Numbers A
3. Trigonometry/Complex Numbers B
These classes will explore the relationship between trigonometric identities and complex numbers.

Example Problem: Find the positive integer n such that

1 1 1 1 π
arctan + arctan + arctan + arctan = .
3 4 5 n 4
(2008 AIME I)
Example Problem: Show that
3π 2π √
tan + 4 sin = 11.
11 11

4. Algebraic Manipulations
This class will cover problems where skillful manipulation of algebra is required, involving techniques
like substitutions, factorizations, and applications of common identities.
Example Problem: The variables a, b, c, d, traverse, independently from each other, the set of posi-
tive real values. What are the values which the expression
a b c d
S= + + +
a+b+d a+b+c b+c+d a+c+d
takes? (IMO, 1974)
Example Problem: Let u and v be real numbers such that

(u + u2 + u3 + · · · + u8 ) + 10u9 = (v + v 2 + v 3 + · · · + v 10 ) + 10v 11 = 8.

Determine, with proof, which of the two numbers, u or v, is larger. (USAMO, 1989)

5. Geometry of the Circle A

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6. Geometry of the Circle B
These classes will cover results regarding the geometry of the circle, including cyclic quadrilaterals and
cyclic polygons, Ptolemy’s theorem, power of a point, the radical axis, and the radical center.

Example Problem: Let C be a circle and P a given point in the plane. Each line through P which
intersects C determines a chord of C. Show that the midpoints of these chords lie on a circle.
(Canada, 1991)
Example Problem: Two circles Ω1 and Ω2 touch internally the circle Ω in M and N and the center
of Ω2 is on Ω1 . The common chord of the circles Ω1 and Ω2 intersects Ω in A and B. M A and M B
intersects Ω1 in C and D. Prove that Ω2 is tangent to CD. (IMO, 1999)

7. Geometric Transformations
This class will introduce the use and applications of geometric transformations, such as homothety and
spiral similarity.
Example Problem: Circles Γ1 and Γ2 are internally tangent at P , with Γ1 as the larger circle. A line
intersects Γ1 at A and D, and Γ2 at B and C, so that points A, B, C, and D lie on the line in that
order. Show that ∠AP B = ∠CP D.
Example Problem: On the sides of an arbitrary triangle ABC, triangles ABR, BCP , CAQ are con-
structed externally with ∠CBP = ∠CAQ = 45◦ , ∠BCP = ∠ACQ = 30◦ , ∠ABR = ∠BAR = 15◦ .
Prove that ∠QRP = 90◦ and QR = RP . (IMO, 1975)

8. Locus/Construction
This class will examine locus and construction problems in geometry.
Example Problem: Let ABC be an equilateral triangle. For a point M inside ABC, let D, E, F be
the feet of the perpendiculars from M onto BC, CA, AB, respectively. Find the locus of all such
points M for which ∠F DE is a right angle. (Ireland, 1997)
Example Problem: Two circles Q and R in the plane intersect at A and Z. From A, a point S goes
around Q while a point T traverses R. Both points travel in the counterclockwise direction, pro-
ceed at constant speeds (not necessarily equal to each other), start together and finish together.
Prove the remarkable fact that there exists a fixed point P in the plane with the property that, at
every instant of the motions, it is the same distance from S as it is from T . (IMO, 1979)

9. Invariants & Monovariants

This class will introduce the topics of invariants and monovariants.
Example Problem: Let n be a positive integer. Define a sequence by setting a1 = n and, for each
k > 1, letting ak be the unique integer in the range 0 ≤ ak ≤ k − 1 for which a1 + a2 + · · · + ak is
divisible by k. For instance, when n = 9 the obtained sequence is 9, 1, 2, 0, 3, 3, 3, . . . . Prove that
for any n the sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . eventually becomes constant. (USAMO, 2007)

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Example Problem: To each vertex of a regular pentagon an integer is assigned in such a way that
the sum of all five numbers is positive. If three consecutive vertices are assigned the numbers x,
y, z respectively and y < 0 then the following operation is allowed: the numbers x, y, z are replaced
by x + y, −y, z + y respectively. Such an operation is performed repeatedly as long as at least one
of the five numbers is negative. Determine whether this procedure necessarily comes to an end
after a finite number of steps. (IMO, 1986)

10. Combinatorial Games

This class will show how to analyze combinatorial games.
Example Problem: A game starts with four heaps of beans, containing 3, 4, 5, and 6 beans. The two
players move alternately. A move consists of taking either
(a) one bean from a heap, provided at least two beans are left behind in that heap, or
(b) a complete heap of two or three beans.
The player who takes the last heap wins. To win the game, do you want to move first or second?
Give a winning strategy. (Putnam, 1995)
Example Problem: The Y2K Game is played on a 1 × 2000 grid as follows. Two players in turn write
either an S or an O in an empty square. The first player who produces three consecutive boxes
that spell SOS wins. If all boxes are filled without producing SOS then the game is a draw. Prove
that the second player has a winning strategy. (USAMO, 1999)

11. Algorithms
This class will look at problems involving algorithms and other kinds of processes.
Example Problem: Let p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . be the prime numbers listed in increasing order, and let x0 be a
real number between 0 and 1. For positive integer k, define

  0  if xk−1 = 0,


xk = pk
 if xk−1 6= 0,
xk−1

where {x} denotes the fractional part of x. (The fractional part of x is given by x − bxc where bxc
is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.) Find, with proof, all x0 satisfying 0 < x0 < 1 for
which the sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . eventually becomes 0. (USAMO, 1997)
Example Problem: On an infinite chessboard, a game is played as follows. At the start, n2 pieces
are arranged on the chessboard in an n×n block of adjoining squares, one piece in each square. A
move in the game is a jump in a horizontal or vertical direction over an adjacent occupied square
to an unoccupied square immediately beyond. The piece which has been jumped over is removed.
Find those values of n for which the game can end with only one piece remaining on the board.
(IMO, 1993)

12. Combinatorial Geometry

This class will cover problems in combinatorial geometry and discuss techniques like discrete continuity
and the convex hull that are often used to solve these problems.

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Example Problem: In a plane a set of n ≥ 3 points is given. Each pair of points is connected by a
segment. Let d be the length of the longest of these segments. We define a diameter of the set
to be any connecting segment of length d. Prove that the number of diameters of the given set is
at most n. (IMO, 1965)
Example Problem: Let n be an integer greater than 1. Suppose 2n points are given in the plane, no
three of which are collinear. Suppose n of the given 2n points are colored blue and the other n
colored red. A line in the plane is called a balancing line if it passes through one blue and one red
point and, for each side of the line, the number of blue points on that side is equal to the number
of red points on the same side. Prove that there exist at least two balancing lines. (USAMO, 2005)

13. Digits and Bases

This class will cover problems and techniques dealing with digit representations of numbers, possibly
in bases other than 10. It will also apply these techniques to problems that can be modeled by base
representations.
Example Problem: Show that the equation

bxc + b2xc + b4xc + b8xc + b16xc + b32xc = 12345

has no real solutions. (Canada, 1981)

Example Problem: A function f is defined on the positive integers by

f (1) = 1, f (3) = 3,
f (2n) = f (n),
f (4n + 1) = 2f (2n + 1) − f (n),
f (4n + 3) = 3f (2n + 1) − 2f (n),

for all positive integers n. Determine the number of positive integers n, less than or equal to 1988,
for which f (n) = n. (IMO, 1988)

14. Primes
This class will look at properties of primes, particularly powers of primes.
Example Problem: Let p be a prime number. Show that
 
2p
≡ 2 (mod p).
p
Example Problem: Find the highest positive integer k for which 1991k divides the number
1992 1990
19901991 + 19921991 .

(IMO Short List, 1991)

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15. Linear Number Theory
This class will cover advanced topics relating to the Euclidean Algorithm, the Chinese Remainder Theo-
rem, and Farey Fractions.
Example Problem: Start with the empty set S, and repeatedly do the following: choose a number
k that cannot be written as the sum of elements of S (elements may be repeated in the sum
any number of times), and add k to S. Show that we will eventually be unable to add any more
elements to S while S is still finite.
Example Problem: Prove that there are n consecutive positive integers, none of which are a sum
of two perfect squares.

16. Vieta Jumping and LTE

This class will cover Vieta Jumping and Lifting the Exponent, two results in advanced olympiad number
theory that are useful in many problems.
Example Problem: Let a and b be positive integers. Show that if 4ab − 1 divides (4a2 − 1)2 , then
a = b. (IMO, 2007)
Example Problem: Let b, m, n be positive integers such that b > 1 and m 6= n. Prove that if bm − 1
and bn − 1 have the same prime divisors, then b + 1 is a power of 2. (IMO Short List, 1997)

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