AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF

ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE-1: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL DESIGN

1.1: DIGITAL/BINARY LOGIC:
 Binary logic deals with variables that take on two discrete values and with operations that assume
logical meaning.

 The two values the variables assume may be called by different names (true and false, yes and no, etc.).

 It is convenient to think in terms of bits and assign the values 1(usually indicates logical state true/yes)
and 0 (usually indicates logical state false/no) for performing binary operations.

 3-main logical operations associated with binary logic are as follows:

 AND
 This operation is represented by a dot or by the absence of an operator.
 For example, x . y = z or xy = z is read “x AND y is equal to z.”
 The logical operation AND is interpreted to mean that z = 1 if and only if x = 1 and y = 1;
 otherwise, z = 0.
 x, y, and z are binary variables and can be equal either to 1 or 0, and nothing else.
 The result of the operation (x . y) is z.

 OR
 This operation is represented by a plus sign.
 For example, x + y = z is read “x OR y is equal to z,” meaning that z = 1 if x = 1 or if y = 1 or if both x
= 1 and y = 1.
 If both x = 0 and y = 0, then z = 0

 NOT
 This operation is represented by a prime (sometimes by an overbar).
 For example, x’ = z (or x = z) is read “not x is equal to z,”
 Meaning is that z is not of x.
 In other words, z is the result obtained after performing NOT operation on x.
 i.e., if x = 1, then z = 0, but if x = 0, then z = 1.
 The NOT operation is also referred to as the complement operation, since it changes a 1 to 0 and a
0 to 1, i.e., the result of complementing 1 is 0, and vice versa.

 Difference between binary logic and arithmetic operations.

Binary logic operations Arithmetic operations

The binary logic variables take only two The arithmetic variables take more than 2-
values ‘1’ or ‘0’. values.
Binary logic all the operations done will be
In arithmetic all the operations done will be
base-2 operations. E.g.
base-10 operations.
1 + 1 = 10 (where the result is 2 but in
E.g., In arithmetic operations 1+1 = 2
binary form it is 10)
Best suitable to represent all the practical
operations and digital logic signal
Not suitable to use for representing digital
operations, since it is having only 2-values
signal voltage levels.
and the binary variables also take on 2-
values.
In positive logic system: Binary number 1 Not suitable for representation.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
is used for representing logic high/high
voltage level and binary number 0 is used
to represent logic low/low voltage level.

In negative logic system: Binary number 0

is used for representing logic high/high
voltage level and binary number 1 is used
to represent logic low/low voltage level.
Boolean algebraical rules, theorems and Can apply only normal algebraic rules,
laws can be applied theorems and laws will be applied.

 REPRESENTATION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BINARY LOGIC VARIABLES & THE RESULTS OF

LOGICAL OPERATIONS:
 TRUTH TABLE FORMAT
 EXPRESSION FORMAT
 TIMING DIAGRAM FORMAT

 TRUTH TABLE FORMAT:

 A truth table is a table containing all possible combinations for the input variables, showing the
relation between the values that the variables may take and the result of a logical operation for each
combination.
 Truth table for AND operation:

X Y Z = X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

 Truth table for OR operation:

X Y Z=X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

 Truth table for NOT operation:

X Z = X’
0 1
1 0

 EXPRESSION FORMAT:
 In expression format the relationship between the different combinations and their result after a
particular logic operation is performed will be represented in the form of expression called as
Boolean logic expression.
 For AND expression is Z = X.Y
 For OR expression is Z = X + Y
 For NOT expression is Z = X’
 In this the combination values have to be substituted in the expression and then get the result for
each possible combination.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 TIMING DIAGRAM FORMAT.

 Timing diagram is one more format in which the relationship/variation of inputs and outputs
provided for a logic.

 SIGNAL LEVELS IN DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION:

 Electrical signals such as voltages or currents exist as analog signals having values over a given
continuous range, say, 0 to 3 V, but in a digital system these voltages are interpreted to be either of
two recognizable values, 0 or 1.

 Voltage‐operated logic circuits respond to two separate voltage levels that represent a binary
variable equal to logic 1 or logic 0.

 For example, a particular digital system may define logic 0 as a signal equal to 0 V and logic 1 as a
signal equal to 3 V.

 In practice, each voltage level has an acceptable range, as shown in Fig. 1.3. The input terminals of
digital circuits accept binary signals within the allowable range and respond at the output terminals
with binary signals that fall within the specified range.

 The intermediate region between the allowed regions is crossed only during a state transition.

 Any desired information for computing or control can be operated on by passing binary signals
through various combinations of logic gates, with each signal representing a particular binary
variable.

 When the physical signal is in a particular range it is interpreted to be either a 0 or a 1.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 LOGIC GATES:
 Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal.

 The graphic symbols used to designate the three types of gates are shown in Fig. 1.4.

 The gates are blocks of hardware that produce the equivalent of logic‐1 or logic‐0 output signals if
input logic requirements are satisfied.

 The input signals x and y in the AND & OR gates may exist in one of four possible states: 00, 01, 10
and 11. These input signals are shown in Fig. 1.5 together with the corresponding output signal for
each gate.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Truth table for AND operation:
X Y Z = X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Truth table for OR operation:

X Y Z=X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Truth table for NOT operation:

X Z = X’
0 1
1 0

 The timing diagrams illustrate the idealized response of each gate to the 4-input signal combinations.

 The horizontal axis of the timing diagram represents the time, and the vertical axis shows the voltage
level of the signal as it changes between the two possible voltage levels.

 In reality, the transitions between logic values occur quickly, but not instantaneously.

 The low level represents logic 0, the high-level logic 1.

 The AND gate responds with a logic 1 output signal when both input signals are logic 1.

 The OR gate responds with a logic 1 output signal if any input signal is logic 1.

 The NOT gate is commonly referred to as an inverter. The reason for this name is apparent from the
signal response in the timing diagram, which shows that the output signal inverts the logic sense of
the input signal.

 AND & OR gates may have more than two inputs.

 An AND gate with 3-inputs and an OR gate with 4-inputs are shown in Fig. 1.6.

 The 3‐input AND gate responds with logic 1 output if all 3-inputs are logic 1. The output produces
logic 0 if any one of the inputs is logic 0.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 The 4‐input OR gate responds with logic 1 if any one of the input is logic 1; its output becomes logic 0
only when all inputs are logic 0.

1.2: INTRODUCTION TO BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:

 Binary logic is used in all of today’s digital computers and devices.

 The cost of the circuits that implement it is an important factor addressed by designers today—whether
they are computer engineers, electrical/electronic engineers, or computer scientists.

 Finding simpler and cheaper, but equivalent, realizations of a circuit can reap huge payoffs in reducing
the overall cost of the design.

 All the mathematical methods that are applied in simplifying circuits rely primarily on Boolean algebra.

 Boolean algebra, like any other deductive mathematical system, may be defined with:
 A set of elements and a set of operators with a finite count, and
 A number of unproved axioms or postulates, basic mathematical rules, formulas, theorems etc.

 SET:
 A set of elements is any collection of objects, usually having a common property. I.e., If S is a set, and
x and y are certain objects, then the notation x ∈ S means that x is a member of the set S and y ∉ S
means that y is not an element of S.

 REPRESENTATION OF SET: A set with a denumerable/finite number of elements is specified by

braces: A = {1, 2, 3, 4} indicates that the elements of set A are the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4.

 OPERATOR DEFINITION W.R.T SET: A binary operator defined on a set S of elements is a rule that
assigns, to each pair of elements from/belonging to S, which yields a unique element as a result from
S.

 As an example, consider the relation a * b = c.

 Then * is a binary operator which specifies a rule for finding c from the pair (a, b)
where a, b & c ∈ S.
 However, * is not a binary operator if a, b ∈ S, and if c ∉ S.

 POSTULATES/AXIOMS/PROPERTIES OF ALGEBRA:
 The postulates of a mathematical system form the unproved basic assumptions from which it is
possible to deduce the rules, theorems, laws and properties of the system, which can be used in
simplification process.

 The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic structures are as follows:

 PROPERTY OF CLOSURE (related with an operator defined in relation to set):

 A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, any pair of elements of S, when operated with
the binary operator specified rule provides a unique element result also belonging to set S.

 For example, the set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4 ….} is closed with respect to the binary
operator + by the rules of arithmetic addition, since, for any a, b ∈ N, there is a unique c ∈ N such
that a + b = c.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 The set of natural numbers is not closed with respect to the binary operator - by the rules of
arithmetic subtraction, because 2 - 3 = -1 and 2, 3 ∈ N, but (-1) ∉ N.

 PROPERTY OF COMMUTATIVE LAW:

 A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative, if
(x * y) = (y * x) is true for all x, y, z, ∈ S

 PROPERTY OF ASSOCIATIVE LAW (related with operation precedence):

 A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative, if
(x * y) * z = x * (y * z) is true for all x, y, z, ∈ S

 PROPERTY OF DISTRIBUTIVE LAW (always related with 2-operators):

 If ‘ * ’ and ‘ . ’ are two binary operators on a set S, * is said to be distributive over . whenever
x * (y . z) = (x * y) . (x * z) is true for all x, y, z, ∈ S

 PROPERTY OF IDENTITY ELEMENT LAW:

 A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists
an element e ∈ S with the property that:
(e * x) = (x * e) = x for every x ∈ S

 Example: The element 0 is an identity element with respect to the binary operator + on the set of
integers I = {… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}, since
(x + 0) = (0 + x) = x for any x ∈ I

 PROPERTY OF INVERSE ELEMENT LAW:

 A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary operator * is said to have an inverse
whenever, for every x ∈ S, there exists an element y ∈ S such that,
(x * y) = e

 Example: In the set of integers, I, and the operator +, with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a),
since
a + (-a) = 0

 SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES/POSTULATES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:

 Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure defined by a set of elements, B, together with two binary
operators, ‘+’ and ‘.’, provided that the following (Huntington) postulates are satisfied:

COMMON POSTULATES TO BE SATISFIED BY BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107
 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA ARITHMETIC ALGEBRA

Distributive property of ‘+’ over ‘.’ not
exists: The distributive law of ‘+’ over ‘.’
Not valid in case of ordinary algebra
(i.e., x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z)) is valid for
Boolean algebra,
Inverse element property not exists:
Boolean algebra does not have additive or But in normal algebra this property is
multiplicative inverses; therefore, there supported and can be applied.
are no subtraction or division operations.
Compliment element property exists:
For every element x ∈ set B, there exists an
element x’ ∈ set B (called the
But in normal algebra does not support.
complement of x) such that
(x + x’) = 1 and
(x . x’) = 0.
Boolean algebra deals with the undefined
set of elements, B only.
But in the two‐valued Boolean algebra Ordinary algebra deals with the real numbers,
important W.R.T digital system is defined which constitute an infinite set of elements.
as a defined set B, with only two elements,
0 and 1.

1.2: INTRODUCTION TO 2-VALUED BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:

 Binary logic is used in all of today’s digital computers and devices.

 A 2‐valued Boolean algebra is a mathematical model/technique having a set of two elements, 1 and 0,
two binary operators (. and +) with rules equivalent to the “AND” and “OR” operations, and a
complement operator equivalent to the NOT operator and various postulates, formulas, theorems, rules
etc. for evaluating the elements of the 2-valued set.

 The rules for 2-binary operators (. and +) in two‐valued Boolean algebra consisting a set of two
elements, B = {0, 1}, is as shown in the following operator tables:

2-VALUED BOOLEAN ALGEBRA OPERATOR TABLE

 HUNTINGTON’S POSTULATES & 2-VALUED BOOLEAN ALGEBRA PROPERTIES:

 CLOSURE PROPERTY: It is clear that structure is closed with respect to the 2 operators, since the
result of each operation is either 1 or 0 and 1, 0 ∈ B.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

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ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 IDENTITY ELEMENT PROPERTY:
 From the tables, we see that
(a) (0 + 0) = 0 (0 + 1) = (1 + 0) = 1;
(b) (1 . 1) = 1 (1 . 0) = (0 . 1) = 0. This establishes the two identity elements, 0 for ‘+’ and 1
for ‘.’ as defined by postulate 2.

 COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY:
 From the tables, we see that
(a) (x + 0)= (0 + x ) = x (0 + 1) = (1 + 0) = 1 and (1 . 0) = (0 . 1) = 0 which proves the commutative
nature of it.

 DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY:
 From the tables below, we see that the distributive property of ‘.’ over ‘+’
x . (y + z) = (x . y) + (x . z)

 This proves the associative property of 2-valued Boolean algebra

OPERATOR TABLE FOR DISTRIBUTIVE LAW

 Similarly the distributive property of ‘+’ over ‘.’

x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z) can also be proved.

 COMPLEMENT ELEMENT PROPERTY:

 From the complement table, it is easily shown that

(a) x + x ‘ = 1, since (0 + 0’) = (0 + 1) = 1 and (1 + 1’) = (1 + 0) = 1.

(b) x . x’ = 0, since (0 . 0’) = (0 . 1) = 0 and (1 . 1’) = (1 . 0) = 0.

 HUNTINGTON’S PROPERTY-6:

 Postulate 6 is satisfied because the 2‐valued Boolean algebra has two elements, 1 and 0,
with 1 ≠ 0.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.3: BASIC THEORMS AND PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
 PRINCIPLES OF DUALITY:
 Every Huntington postulate is listed in pairs and designated by part (a) and part (b).
 One part may be obtained from the other if the binary operators and the identity elements are
interchanged.
 This important property of Boolean algebra is called the DUALITY PRINCIPLE.
 It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra remains
valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged.
 If the dual of an algebraic expression is desired, it can be obtained by simply interchanging OR with
AND operator and replace 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s in the expression.
 E.g., If we consider the law/property/postulate of identity element we have part-A postulate of it
defined for ‘.’ Operator as follows:
(a) (0 + 0) = 0 (0 + 1) = (1 + 0) = 1; To obtain part-b statement of this just interchange all the
0’s with 1’s & ‘+’ operator with ‘.’
 Then we will get the PART-B postulate statement of the above one as follows:
(b) (1 . 1) = 1 (1 . 0) = (0 . 1) = 0.

THEOREM PART-A STATEMENT PART-B STATEMENT

NUMBER (Applicable to ‘+’ operator) (Applicable to ‘.’ operator)
Theorem-1 x+x=x x.x=x

Theorem-2 x+1=1 x.0=0

Theorem-3
(x’)’ = x -
(INVOLUTION)
Theorem-4
(ASSOCIATIVE x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z x . (y . z) = (x . y) . z
)
Theorem-5
(x + y)’ = x‘. y’ (x . y)’ = x’ + y’
(DEMORGAN)
Theorem-6
x + (x . y) = x x . (x + y) = x
(ABSORPTION)
LIST OF THEORMS OF 2-VALUED BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

POSTULATE PART-A STATEMENT PART-B STATEMENT

NUMBER (Applicable to ‘+’ operator) (Applicable to ‘.’ operator)
Postulate-1 For the operators after operating the result belongs to the 2-valued Boolean
(CLOSURE) algebra set only
Postulate-2
x+0=x x.1=x
(IDENTITY)
Postulate-3
(x + y) = (y + x) (x.y) = (y.x)
(COMMUTATIVE)
Postulate-4
x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z) x . (y + z) = (x . y) + (x . z)
(DISTRIBUTIVE)
Postulate-5
x + x ‘ = 1, x . x’ = 0
(COMPLEMENT)
Postulate-6
2-valued Boolean algebra includes a set which is having only 2 elements ‘0’ & ‘1’
(MINIMUM SET
and it is clearly known that 1 ≠ 0
ELEMENTS)
LIST OF POSTULATES OF 2-VALUED BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107
 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
PROOF OF THEOREMS:
 THEOREM-1a: x + x = x

 THEOREM-1b: x . x = x

 THEOREM-2a: x +1 = 1

 THEOREM-2b: x . 0 =0 (by principle of duality applied to Theorem-2a)

 THEOREM-6a: x + (x . y) = x

 THEOREM-6b: x . (x + y) = x ( by applying principal of duality to theorem 6a)

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107

 AIT/IQAC/Aca/23-24/CF
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Accredited by NBA & NAAC)
Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road, Achitnagar Post, Soladevanahalli,
BENGALURU - 560107
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.3: BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS:
 PRINCIPLES OF DUALITY:

∈ ∉
 B.
 S.
 V.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Bengaluru-560107