Semiconductors

Q.1 What are crystalline and amorphous solids, give the differences between them?
Ans: Crystalline Solid Amorphous solid
1. Arrangement of atoms/molecules/ions 1. Arrangement of constituent particle is not
is regular in three dimensional space regular
2. These solids are anisotropic 2. These solids are isotropic
3. These solids are true solids 3. Apparent physical state is solid but they
are actually super cooled liquids
4. X-ray or neutron photograph shows 4. Photograph of these solids with x-rays
regular pattern of spots show irregular spots.
5. Examples: Salts, Silica, diamond, 5. Examples: wood, plastic, coal, rubber etc.
graphite, quartz etc.
Q.2 Explain band theory of solids and differentiate metals, insulators and semiconductors on
the basis of band theory.
Ans: Band Theory of Solids
The material in atomic state possesses discrete energy levels as in gaseous state. In gaseous
state the atoms are much far away from each other and they do not influence the energy
levels of the other atom. When two atoms are brought closer than their valance electrons
interact with each other and significant changes in the energy levels of valance electron is
observed. In a solid a large number electrons are very close packed together and the outer
most energy level of individual is splitted into various energy levels very closely spaced,
these closely spaced energy levels forms a virtual continuum and is called as band of
energy. The electrons can occupy these bands obeying Pauli’s exclusion principle and as
consequence some of energy states cannot be occupied by the electrons resulting in the
formation of forbidden energy band. The lower band of energy is called as valance band
while the upper energy band is called conduction band.
The formation of bands is illustrated in the following diagrams. In the figure ‘a’ individual
atom is shown. In the figure ‘b’ the energy levels of the individual atom is shown on graph.
The length of horizontal lines parallel to x- axis indicates the circumference of the energy
level. While the position of horizontal line on y-axis gives the energy value of an energy
level.

0 x-axis

y-axis

Figure: a Figure: b
 In the figure c two atoms are shown closer and the overlapping of valence energy levels is
observed.

0 x-axis 0

y-axis y-axis

Figure: c
In the last figure n numbers of atoms are shown closer and the formation of bands is also
shown
0 x-axis 0 0 0 0

Conduction
Valance y- y- y-
Band
Band axi axi axi
s s s

Figure: d
Thus formed conduction and valence bands are separated by forbidden energy gap. This
forbidden energy gap is responsible in determination of electrical behavior of any solid.
The forbidden energy gap has large value in insulators up to 7 eV, while for the
semiconductor this value is typically up to 1 eV and in conductor the valance and
conduction band overlaps and no energy gap exists.
Thus insulators are characterized by completely filled valance band and an empty
conduction band, on the other hand metals have large number of electrons in the
conduction band as a result current easily flows through conductors. In the semiconductors
at ordinary temperatures few electrons are available in the conduction band hence
moderate current flows through conductors.
Q.3 What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
Intrinsic Semiconductors
The intrinsic semiconductors are the semiconductors are elemental semiconductors or also
called as pure semiconductors. These semiconductors are made up of one kind of atoms
only. The examples of intrinsic semiconductors are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). The
intrinsic semiconductors have several limitations when practical applications are
considered, because in intrinsic semiconductors the energy gap cannot be changed as per
requirement.
At T=0 K the intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulators. Because no electron exists in
the conduction band. But at ordinary temperatures due to thermal agitations the covalent
bonds are broken and some electrons move to conduction band. The number of electrons
and holes are equal inside an intrinsic semiconductor. The Fermi energy level inside an
intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of energy gap. The energy band diagram for
intrinsic semiconductor is shown below.
CONDUCTION BAND

Fermi Energy Level Forbidden Energy gap Eg

VALANCE BAND

Extrinsic Semiconductors
The energy gap and conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors cannot be tailored as per the
requirement of application. This problem can be overcome by doping suitable impurity in
the intrinsic semiconductors. Thus obtained semiconductors are called as extrinsic
semiconductors. Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductors
can be classified as N-type and P-type semiconductors.
N-type Semiconductors
When intrinsic semiconductors either Si or Ge are doped with pentavalent material, then
the obtained semiconductor material is called N-type semiconductor. The Si or Ge are
tetravalent materials hence the four electrons in the outer shell of these materials forms the
covalent bond with another Si or Ge atoms to complete their octet. When a pentavalent
impurity Like Arsenic (As) is added to the Si or Ge then the four out of five valance
electrons are shared by the host atoms(Si or Ge) while the fifth electrons of the impurity is
loosely bound to its parent atom. These loosely bound electrons give rise to new energy
levels which exists in the energy gap just below the conduction band and are called as
donor levels. At ordinary temperature all the electrons of the donor level move to the
conduction band. Thus the electrons become majority charge carriers as compared holes.
Since the number of carriers are more in conduction band as compared to holes in valance
band the Fermi level in N-type semiconductor shifts towards conduction band. The band
diagram for N-type semiconductor is shown in figure below
CONDUCTION BAND
Donor Energy Level
Fermi Energy Level
Forbidden Energy gap Eg

VALANCE BAND

Band diagram of N-type semiconductor

 P-type Semiconductors
When intrinsic semiconductors either Si or Ge are doped with trivalent material, then the
obtained semiconductor material is called P-type semiconductor. The Si or Ge are
tetravalent materials hence the four electrons in the outer shell of these materials forms the
covalent bond with another Si or Ge atoms to complete their octet. When a trivalent
impurity Like Arsenic (Al) is added to the Si or Ge then the three valance electrons of
impurity atom is shared by the host atoms (Si or Ge) and one of the electrons of host atom
remain unshared. This result in the deficiency of an electron which tries to capture the
electron from nearby covalent bond. Thus electron deficiency exists in valance band which
give rise to new energy levels which exists in the energy gap just above the conduction
band and are called as acceptor levels. Thus the holes become majority charge carriers as
compared electrons. Since the numbers of carriers are more in valance band as compared
to electrons in conduction band the Fermi level in P-type semiconductor shifts towards
valance band. The band diagram for P-type semiconductor is shown in figure below

CONDUCTION BAND

Forbidden Energy gap Eg

Fermi Energy Level

VALANCE BAND Acceptor Energy Level

Band diagram of P-type semiconductor

Q.4 What is Fermi energy level? Explain the variation of Fermi level with the temperature>
Ans: Fermi Energy level:
The Fermi Dirac distribution function gives the probability of finding an electron in energy
state E for a given temperature t. mathematically it is expressed as
1
𝐹(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 Where 𝐸𝐹 is Fermi energy level and 𝐾 is Boltzmann’s constant.
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 +1
Behavior of Fermi energy level with temperature is shown in the figure
below: T3> T2>T1

1 T1=00 K
k
T2
T3

0.5

0
 EF
Let 𝑇 = 0 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 and 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹 then
𝐹(𝐸) = 0
This implies that all the energy levels above the Fermi energy levels are empty at 𝑇 =
0 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛.
If 𝑇 = 0 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 and 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 then
𝐹(𝐸) = 1
This implies that all the energy levels below the Fermi energy levels are completely
occupied by electrons at 𝑇 = 0 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 or we can say that Fermi energy level is the highest
possible level of energy for electron at 𝑇 = 0 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛.
For the temperature above 0 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 and 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹 then
1
𝐹(𝐸) =
2
Hence we can say that for the temperatures above 0 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 the Fermi level is the level of
1
energy for which the probability of occupancy of electron is 2.
Q.5 Show that Fermi level lies in the middle of energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor
Ans: Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor
As we know that the number of electrons and holes are same in an intrinsic semiconductor
i.e.
𝑛=𝑝
Or
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣
𝑁𝑐 𝑒 − 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑁𝑣 𝑒 − 𝐾𝑇
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣
𝑁𝑐 𝑒 − 𝐾𝑇
= 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐
𝑁𝑣
𝑒 − 𝐾𝑇
Or
𝑁𝑐 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐
= 𝑒− 𝐾𝑇
𝑁𝑣
Taking log of the equation and on rearranging terms we get
𝑁𝑐 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐
𝑙𝑛 =−
𝑁𝑣 𝐾𝑇
As 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗
The equation above becomes 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 = 0
Or 2𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑐
𝐸 +𝐸
Hence 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑣 2 𝑐
𝐸 +𝐸 +𝐸 −𝐸 𝐸𝑔
We can write 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑣 𝑐 2 𝑣 𝑣 or 𝐸𝐹 = 2 + 𝐸𝑣 as 𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣
On considering the top of valance band as zero then
𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝐹 =
2
This shows that the Fermi level lies in the middle of energy gap inside an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Q.6 What is mobility?
Ans: Mobility is defined as drift velocity per unit applied electric field. It is given as
 𝑣
𝜇=
𝐸
Mobility signifies the current contribution of various carriers in a semiconductor.
Q.7 What is P-N junction explain with its V-I characteristics?
Ans: PN Junction diode When a slab of intrinsic semiconducting material is doped with
trivalent impurity at one end while other end of the slab is doped with pentavalent impurity
then a PN junction diode is formed.
PN Junction under no bias When the junction is formed the flow of electrons starts
across the junction due to concentration gradient. As the density of electron is more on N-
side as compared to P-side. The electrons and holes recombine across the junction; as a
result the ions are uncovered on both P and N-side in a small region around the junction.
On N-side +ve ions are uncovered while on P-side –ve ions are uncovered these uncovered
ions sets a potential barrier across the junction and prevents the flow of electrons and
holes. Hence no current flows across the junction under no bias condition. Figure below
represents the diagram of PN junction.

N P

Immobile positive and negative ions

The symbol of PN junction diode is shown in the diagram below.

Forward biased PN junction When a PN diode is connected in a circuit such that its P
side is connected to the positive terminal of battery and N side is connected to negative of
battery. Then the diode is said to be under forward bias.

Figure: Forward Biased

Diode Characteristics

The negative potential at the N side forces the electrons to cross the junction. Initially
when the value of applied potential is less than the potential barrier no current flows across
the junction as the potential applied becomes greater than potential barrier electrons starts
to cross the junction further increase in applied potential forces more electrons to cross the
junction and a current in the circuit increases rapidly while the voltage across the diode
does not change significantly as shown in the curve below.

Current I

Voltage V
Reverse biased PN junction When a PN diode is connected in a circuit such that its P side
is connected to the negative terminal of battery and N side is connected to positive of
battery. Then the diode is said to be under forward bias. V

Figure: Reverse Biased Diode

The positive potential at the N side forces the electrons to move away from the junction.
Similarly holes also moves away from the junction as consequence majority charge carriers
do not contribute to the current in the circuit. But the minority electrons from P side and
minority holes from N side moves towards junction and a small current flows across the
junction due small number of charge carriers. Further increase in the applied potential does
not result in the increase of current. The current is called as reverse saturation current and
it depends upon the junction temperature rather than applied potential.

Voltage V

Reverse saturation
Current I

Current
 Reverse bias and Breakdown When a diode is connected in the reverse bias then the
majority charge carriers moves away from the junction and the immobile ions on P and N
side gets uncovered resulting in the widening of depletion layer and minority charge
carriers contribute to small current. When the applied potential is increased it leads to
abrupt increase of reverse current this is called as breakdown. Two kind of mechanism are
responsible for the abrupt current change
1. Avalanche breakdown: This kind of break down occurs when the impurity
concentration is lower. The increase in the reverse applied potential does not leads to
increase in the current but increase in the potential results in the increase in the kinetic
energy of electron, when electron acquires the kinetic energy of the order of the
strength of covalent bond then this electron breaks the covalent bond of the atom
resulting in the electron hole pair. Thus produced electrons get accelerated and break
another covalent bond and the process continues in the generation of large number of
current carriers and large current starts to flow across the junction. The avalanche
breakdown results in the damage of diode. The breakdown curve in this case is gradual
near breakdown voltage.
2. Zener breakdown: This kind of break down occurs when the impurity concentration
is higher. The increase in the reverse applied potential does not leads to increase in the
current but increase in the potential results in the widening of depletion layer. Thus a
large electric field is set across junction, when the strength of internal field is of the
order of the strength of covalent bond then this field breaks the covalent bond of the
atoms resulting in the generation of large number of electron hole pairs and large
current starts to flow across the junction. The zener breakdown does not damage the
diode. When reverse potential is removed then the diode acquires its original state. The
breakdown curve in this case is sharp near breakdown voltage.

Q.8 What is zener diode explain its V-I characteristics?

Ans: Zener Diode: Zener diode is made by heavily doped P and N type semiconductors and the
surface are of the junction is also increased to avoid the increase in junction temperature in
case of break down. When the break down occurs then the zener curve suggests that the
voltage becomes constant and increase in the applied potential results in the increase in the
reverse current. This property of the zener diode is used for the voltage regulator
applications. The symbol of zener diode is shown in the figure below.

V-I characteristics: Forward biased When a zener diode is connected in a circuit such
that its P side is connected to the positive terminal of battery and N side is connected to
negative of battery. Then the zener diode is said to be under forward bias.
 V

Figure: Forward Biased Zener

Diode

The negative potential at the N side forces the electrons to cross the junction. Initially
when the value of applied potential is less than the potential barrier no current flows across
the junction as the potential applied becomes greater than potential barrier electrons starts
to cross the junction further increase in applied potential forces more electrons to cross the
junction and a current in the circuit increases rapidly while the voltage across the diode
does not change significantly as shown in the curve below.
Current I

Voltage V

Reverse bias and Breakdown When a zenerdiode is connected in the reverse bias then the
majority charge carriers moves away from the junction and the immobile ions on P and N
side gets uncovered resulting in the widening of depletion layer and minority charge
carriers contribute to small current. When the applied potential is increased it leads to
abrupt increase of reverse current this is called as breakdown. The mechanism responsible
for the abrupt change in current is zener breakdown.This kind of break down occurs when
the impurity concentration is higher. The increase in the reverse applied potential does not
leads to increase in the current but increase in the potential results in the widening of
depletion layer. Thus a large electric field is set across junction, when the strength of
internal field is of the order of the strength of covalent bond then this field breaks the
covalent bond of the atoms resulting in the generation of large number of electron hole
pairs and large current starts to flow across the junction. The zener breakdown does not
damage the diode. When reverse potential is removed then the diode acquires its original
state. The breakdown curve in this case is sharp near breakdown voltage.
 Voltage V

Zener

Current I
Breakdown

Q.9 Explain the construction working of solar/photovoltaic cell.

Ans: Solar cell: A solar cell converts the optical energy into the electrical energy it is a PN
junction diode. When the light is incident on the PN junction the flow of electron and hole
pair results in the photocurrent. The equivalent circuit for solar cell is given in the diagram
below

RL

The construction of solar cell is given in the diagram below

Glass

+
P
vcc N

-
Working; when a photon collides with the valance electron either in P-type material or N-
type material, it imparts sufficient energy to the electron to leave its parent atom. As a
result, free electrons and holes are generated on each side of junction. In P-type material
electrons are minority carriers and similarly holes are minority in N-type materials. These
holes and electrons move towards junction without applied bias. The result is increase in
minority carriers flow.
Characteristics of solar cell: Let us consider a solar cell with a resistive load R. when the
 light is incident on the PN junction it produces photocurrent IL. This current produces a
voltage drop across the solar cell and the PN junction becomes effectively forward bias.
The current IF due to forward bias is into opposite direction to photocurrent IL. Therefore
the net current is given by
𝑞𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) 1
Where 𝐼𝑆 is reverse saturation current.
Under open circuit condition I=0. Therefore,
𝑞𝑉𝑂𝐶
0 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)
Or
𝐼𝐿 𝑞𝑉𝑂𝐶
= (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝐼𝑆
𝐼𝐿 𝑞𝑉𝑂𝐶
+ 1 = (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )
𝐼𝑆
On taking log
𝐼𝐿 𝑞𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( + 1) =
𝐼𝑆 𝑘𝑇
Or
𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( + 1)
𝑞 𝐼𝑆
𝑞𝑉𝑂𝐶
The power delivered to load will be 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) 𝑉
𝑞𝑉𝑚 𝑞𝑉𝑚
𝑑𝑃 𝑞
For maximum power 𝑑𝑉 = 0 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝑆 𝑉𝑚 𝑘𝑇 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)

𝑞𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝐿 +𝐼𝑆
𝑞𝑉 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ) 2
[1+( 𝑚 )]
𝑘𝑇
Using equation 1 for maximum current 𝐼𝑚 we get
𝑞𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)
Or
𝑞𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = (𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑆 ) − 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ) 3
Using equation 2 and 3 we get
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = (𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑆 ) [ 𝑘𝑇
]
𝑉𝑚 + ( 𝑞 )
Hence the maximum power delivered by solar cell will be
𝑉𝑚2
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = (𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑆 ) [ 𝑘𝑇
]
𝑉𝑚 + ( 𝑞 )

Q.10 Explain Hall effect and derive expression for Hall voltage, Hall coefficient, direction of
Hall voltage.
Ans: Hall Effect:
When a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying current I is placed in transverse
magnetic field. Then a potential is induced in the specimen in the perpendicular direction
to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called as Hall Effect.

Derivation
Let us consider an n-type material placed in an electric field in positive x-direction and a
magnetic field is applied normal to the field in z-direction. Then the transverse magnetic
field will exert Lorentz force on the electrons and electrons will accumulate at one side of
specimen giving rise to potential.

When the value of force due to generated field equals the Lorentz force then the induced
potential acquires the equilibrium in this condition.
Hall force = Lorentz force
𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝐿
−𝑞𝐸𝐻 = 𝑣𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝑞
Where 𝑣𝑥 is drift velocity of electrons.
Or 𝐸𝐻 = −𝑣𝑥 𝐵𝑧
𝐸 𝑉
As 𝑗𝑥 = −𝑁𝑣𝑥 𝑞 we get 𝑗𝑥 = −𝑁 𝐵𝐻 𝑞 = −𝑁 𝑑𝐵𝐻 𝑞
𝑧 𝑧
𝑗𝑥𝑑𝐵𝑧 𝐼 𝐵𝑧 𝑑
Or𝑉𝐻 = − =
𝑁𝑞 𝑁𝑞𝐴
𝐼𝐵
Since t is thickness 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑁𝑞𝑡𝑧
The expression above is called as hall voltage. The value of Hall field per unit magnetic
field and per unit current density is called as hall coefficient and is denoted by 𝑅𝐻 .
𝑉ℎ⁄
𝐸𝐻 𝑑 1
𝑅𝐻 = 𝑗 = Or 𝑅𝐻 = − 𝑁𝑞
𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝑗𝑥 𝐵𝑧
𝐼 𝐵𝑧
In terms of Hall coefficient the Hall voltage is given by𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝑡
𝜎
Since the electron mobility is given as 𝜇𝑛 = 𝑁|𝑞| therefore𝜇𝑛 = |𝑅𝐻 |𝜎
The direction of Hall field is the direction the net field in the semiconductor. The net field
in the semiconductor is the vector sum of applied field 𝐸𝑥 and Hall field 𝐸𝐻 as shown in
figure below
 𝐵𝑧
𝐸𝐻 𝑉𝐻 ⁄𝑗
𝑥
tan 𝜃𝐻 = as 𝐸𝐻 = =
𝐸𝑥 𝑑 𝑁|𝑞|
also 𝐸𝑥 = 𝜌𝑗𝑥 ;
𝐵𝑧
Therefore tan 𝜃𝐻 = 𝑁|𝑞|𝜎 or tan 𝜃𝐻 = 𝜎𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝑧 ;
Since 𝜎𝑅𝐻 = 𝜇𝑛
Therefore tan 𝜃𝐻 = 𝜇𝑛 𝐵𝑧
Hence 𝜃𝐻 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜇𝑛 𝐵𝑧 ) this is known as direction of Hall field.