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Assessment in Learning 1

Our Vision

BACHELOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

PROF. ED. 3 – ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 1

Randy D. Gabon

SSU Paranas Campus

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PREFACE

Assessment in Learning 1 is a 3-unit course, taught for 54 hours in one semester. This
is the first of the two courses on assessment in the Professional Education Component in the
new Policies, Guidelines and Standard set by the CHED for pre-service teacher education
programs.
The content of this module is divided into 9 units to cover all the suggested topics to
discuss in this class given the learning outcome of the course.
The first unit of this module introduce the foundation of the lesson in this course on
assessment. The first lesson is about the Basic Concepts and Principles in Assessing Learning
which should be understood first by teacher education student to inform sound assessment
practice. The second unit will discuss about the Assessment Purposes, Learning Targets, and
Appropriate Methods, which will enable the teachers to understand why and what to assess
and appropriate method to use given the purpose and target of assessment. In the third unit
will tackle the different classifications of assessment which will help the pre-service teacher
to rationalize the use of the kinds of classroom assessment.
The unit IV in centers on the Planning a Written Test That will enable students to
design a good test and develop a table of specification. The unit V will also discuss the lesson
on the Construction of a written Test, which will set the guidelines in constructing different
test formats. The unit VI will focus on the Establishing the Validity and Reliability of the test,
it will provide the important information to ensure that the constructed test will measure
what intends to measure and will provide a reliable result.
The unit VII will focus on Organization of Test Data Using Tables and Graphs, which
provide skill to the teacher education students to in organizing, presenting, and
interpretation of data to improve teaching and learning. The unit VIII talks about the
Analysis, Interpretation, and Use of Test Data, which will enhance the skills of student
teacher to interpret test result properly. The unit IX will focus on the Grading and Reporting
Test Results which will enable teacher education student to gain techniques and ethical
consideration in communicating assessment data to the learner, parents and stakeholders.

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Table of Contents

Preface………………………………………………………………………………………i
UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES IN ASSESSING LEARNING
Assessment…………………………………………………………………………1
Measurement…………………………………………………………...………….2
Evaluation…………………………………………………………………………..2
Testing………………………………………………………………………………2
Measurement frameworks used in assessments………………………………..3
Types of assessment in learning………………………………………………….4
Principles in the assessment in learning…………………………………………5
Summative Assessment……………………………………………………………7

UNIT 2: ASSESSMENT PURPOSES, LEARNING TARGETS, AND APPROPRIATE

METHODS
Purposes of classroom assessment……………………………………..……….13
Roles of classroom assessment in the teaching-learning process……..……..14
Learning targets …………………………………………………………………..16
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives……………………………..….16
Levels of cognitive domain…………………………………………………...….17
Levels of psychomotor domain……………………………………………..…..18
Levels of affective domain…………………………………………………..…..19
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives…………………..….20
Types of learning targets……………………………………………………..….22
Summative Assessment……………………………………………………..…..24

UNIT 3: DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF ASSESSMENT

Classifications of Assessment…………………………………………………..29
Use of Educational and Psychological Assessment………………………….30
Use of Paper-and-Pencil and Performance-Based Type of Assessment …..31
Teacher-made from Standardized Tests………………………………………32
Achievement and Aptitude Tests ……………………………………………..33
Speed from Power Test…………………………………………………………34

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Norm-referenced from Criterion-referenced Test………………………….35

Summative Assessment……………………………………………………….36

UNIT 4: PLANNING A WRITTEN TEST

Why do we need to define the test objectives for assessment?....................40
Objectives for Testing………………………………………………………….41
Table of Specification………………………………………………………….43
Steps in developing a table of specification…………………………………43
Different formats of a test table of specification…………………………….45
Summative Assessment……………………………………………………….48

UNIT 5: CONSTRUCTION OF WRITTEN TESTS

General Guidelines in Choosing the appropriate Format…………………51
Major Categories and Formats of Traditional Tests………………………..53
Advantages and disadvantages of an objective test……………………….54
General categories of traditional tests for classroom assessment………...54
General Guidelines in Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items………….…...56
General Guidelines in Writing Matching-Type Items……………………..62
General Guidelines in Writing True or False Items………………………..66
General Guidelines in Writing Short-Answer Test Items…………………68
General Guidelines in Writing Essay Tests…………………………………70
Summative Assessment………………………………………………………72

UNIT 6: STABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Validity………………………………………………………………………….77
Different ways to establish validity………………………………………….78
Threats to Validity……………………………………………………………..80
Reliability…………………………………………………………………..…...80
Different factors that affects reliability………………………………….…...81
Different ways to establish test reliability…………………………………..81
Item Analysis………………………………………………………………..…82
How to determine if an item is easy or difficult?.........................................83

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Summative Assessment………………………………………………….….…87

UNIT 7: ORGANIZATION OF TEST DATA USING TABLES AND GRAPHS

Types of Graph…………………………………………………………………..91
Frequency Distribution…………………………………………………………92
Steps in constructing frequency distribution……………………………...…94
Types of graphs………………………………………………………….……….97
Normal distribution…………………………………………………….……....99
Features of normal distributions…………………………………………..…100
Skewness………………………………………………………………………..100
Types of Skewness……………………………………………………….…….101
Kurtosis…………………………………………………………………………102
Types of Kurtosis………………………………………………………………102
Summative Assessment……………………………………………………….103

UNIT 8: ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND USE OF TEST DATA

Measure of Central Tendency……………………………………………….106
Measures of Position………………………………………………………….114
Standard Score…………………………………………………………………120
Summative Assessment………………………………………………………125

UNIT 9: GRADING AND REPORTING TEST RESULTS

Grading and reporting……………………………………………………….127
Different methods in scoring tests or performance tasks…………………128
Nonconventional methods of scoring………………………………………129
Types of scoring authentic or performance-type assessment…………….131
Different types of test scores…………………………………………………132
Grading system of the Philippine K-12 Program…………………………..137
Summative Assessment………………………………………………………143

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UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES IN ASSESSING

LEARNING

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Describe assessment in learning and related concept;
b. Demonstrate an understanding of the different principles in assessing learning
through the preparation of an assessment plan.

1.1. Introduction
What comes into your mind when you hear the following word/s? (Assessment in
learning, measurement and evaluation, assessment and testing, and formative and
summative assessment). One of the major concerns in education is how to assess learning.
Students can be assessed properly if we fully understand the different terms.
In this lesson, we will discuss and define Assessment in Learning, differentiate
Testing, Measurement, assessment and evaluation, types of assessment, and discuss the
principles in assessing learning.

1.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

1.2.1 Basic Concepts and Principles in Assessing Learning

What comes into your mind when you hear the following words below?
a. Assessment in learning
b. Measurement and evaluation
c. Assessment and testing
d. Formative and summative assessment

What is Assessment in Learning?

Is assessment important in learning?

Assessment
▪ Assessment is a Latin word assidere which means “to sit beside another”.
▪ Assessment is generally defined as the process of gathering quantitative
and/or qualitative data to make decisions.
▪ Just like curriculum and instruction, assessment in learning is important to the
educational process. Schools and teachers will not be able to determine the

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impact of curriculum and instruction on students or learners without assessing

learning.

How does Assessment in Learning differ from Measurement or Evaluation?

Assessment in Learning
▪ Assessment in learning is a systematic purpose-oriented collection, analysis,
and interpretation of evidence of student learning to make an informed
decision relevant to the learners.
▪ It can be characterized as
a.)a process, b.) based on specific objectives,
c.) from multiple sources.

What are Measurement and Evaluation?

Measurement
▪ Measurement is the process of quantifying the attributes of objectives.

Evaluation
▪ Evaluation refers to the process of making a value judgment on the information
collected from measurement-based specified criteria.

What is Measurement and Evaluation in the context of Assessment in Learning?

Measurement
▪ Measurement refers to the actual collection of information on student learning
through the use of various strategies and tools.

Evaluation
▪ Evaluation refers to the actual process of making a decision or judgment on
student learning based on the information collected from a measurement.

Therefore, assessment can be considered as an umbrella term consisting of

measurement and evaluation. However, some authors consider assessment as distinct
and separate from the evaluation (e.g., Huba and Freed 2000, Popham 1998).

What are Assessment and Testing?

Testing
▪ Testing is the most common form of assessment.
▪ In the context of education, testing refers to the use of the test to collect
information on student learning over a specific period.

Test
▪ A test is a form of assessment, but not all assessment uses a test or testing.

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▪ A test can be categorized as either a selected response or a constructed

response.
▪ A test can make use of objective format or subjective format.
What is the Objective and Subjective Format of Test?

Objective Format
▪ The objective format provides a more bias-free scoring as the test items have
exact correct answers.

Subjective Format
▪ The subjective format allows for less objective means of scoring especially if no
rubrics are used.
When can we say that the test is good and effective?

▪ A test is good and effective if it has acceptable psychometric properties.

▪ This means that a test should be valid, reliable, has an acceptable level of
difficulty, and can discriminate between learners with higher and lower
ability.

What are Assessment and Grading?

Grading
▪ Grading is a related concept to assessment and learning.
▪ Grading is the process of assigning value to the performance or achievement
of the learner based on specified criteria or standards.
▪ It is a form of evaluation that provide s information on whether a learner
passed or failed a subject or a particular assessment task. But, teachers must
be competent in the design and development of classroom tests.

What are the different measurement frameworks used in assessments?

There two most common psychometric theories that serve as frameworks for
assessment and measurement.

1. Classical Test Theory (CTT)

▪ known as the true score theory
▪ It explains variation in the performance of examinees on a given
measure is due to the variations in their abilities.
▪ It also assumes that all measures are imperfect, and the scores obtained
from a measure could differ from the true score (true ability) of an
examinee.

2. Item Response Theory (IRT)

▪ Item response theory analyzes test items by estimating the probability
that an examinee answers items correctly or incorrectly.

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▪ It also assumed that the characteristics of an item can be estimated

independently of the characteristic or ability of the examinee and vice-
versa.

What are the different types of assessment in learning?

The most common types of assessments are formative, summative,

diagnostic, and placement. Other experts describe the type of assessment as
traditional and authentic.

1. Formative Assessment
▪ Formative assessment refers to assessment activities that provide
information to both teachers and learners on how they can improve the
teaching-learning process.
▪ It is used at the beginning and during instruction for teachers to assess
learners’ understanding.
▪ Through performance report and students’ feedback formative
assessment also inform learners about their strength and weaknesses to
enable them to take steps to learn better and improve their
performance as the class progress.

The information collected on student learning allows teachers to make

adjustments to their instructional processes and strategies to facilitate learning.

2. Summative Assessment
▪ Summative assessment is assessment activities that aim to develop
learners’ mastery of content and attainment of learning outcomes.
▪ It provides information on the quantity or quality of what students
have learned or achieved at the end of instruction.
▪ It also informs learners about what they have done well and what they
need to improve on in their future classes or subjects.

While data from the summative assessment are used for evaluating learners’
performance in class, these data also provide teachers with information about the
effectiveness of their teaching strategies and how they can improve their instruction
in the future.

3. Diagnostic Assessment

▪ A diagnostic assessment aims to detect the learning problems or

difficulties of the learners so that corrective measures or interventions
are done to ensure learning.
▪ It is usually done right after seeing signs of learning problems in the
course of teaching.

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▪ It can also be done at the beginning of the school year for a spirally-
designed curriculum so that corrective measures are applied if pre-
requisite knowledge and skills for the targets have not yet been
mastered.
4. Placement Assessment
▪ Placement assessment is usually done at the beginning of the school
year to determine what the learners have already known or what are
their needs that could inform the design of instruction.
▪ The entrance examination given in the schools is an example of
placement assessment.

5. Traditional Assessment
▪ Traditional assessment refers to the use of conventional strategies or
tools to provide information about the learning of the students.
▪ Traditional assessments are often used as a basis for evaluating and
grading learners.
▪ They are commonly used in classrooms because they are easier to
design and quicker to score.

Typically, objective (e.g., multiple-choice) and subjective (e.g., essay)

paper-and-pencil tests are traditional assessments.

6. Authentic Assessment
▪ An Authentic assessment refers to the use of assessment strategies or
tools that allows the learner to perform or create a product that is
meaningful to the learners, as they are based on real-world contexts.
▪ The most authentic assessments are those that allow performances that
most closely resemble real-world tasks or applications in real-world
settings or environments. The authenticity of an assessment task is best
described in terms of degree rather than the presence or the absence of
authenticity.

What are the different principles in assessing learning?

There are many principles in the assessment in learning. The following may
be considered as core principles.

1. Assessment should have a clear purpose.

▪ Assessment starts with a clear purpose. The methods used in collecting

information should be based on this purpose.
▪ The interpretation of the data collected should be aligned with the
purpose that has been set.

2. Assessment is not an end in itself.

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▪ Assessment serves as a means to enhance student learning.

▪ Assessment is not a simple recording and documentation of what
learners know and do not know. Collecting information about student
learning, formative, or summative, should lead to the decisions that
will allow improvement of the learners.
3. Assessment is an ongoing, continuous, and formative process.

▪ The assessment consists of a series of tasks and activities conducted

over time.
▪ It is not a one-shot activity and should be cumulative. Continuous
feedback is an important element of assessment.

4. Assessment is learner-centered.

▪ Assessment is not about what the teacher does but what the learners
can do.
▪ Assessment of learners provides teachers with an understanding of
how they can improve their teaching, which corresponds to the goal of
improving student learning.

5. Assessment is both process and product-oriented.

▪ An assessment gives equal importance to learner performance or

product and the process they engage to perform or produce a product.

6. Assessment must be comprehensive and holistic.

▪ Assessment should be performed over a variety of strategies and tools

designed to assess student learning holistically.
▪ Assessment should be conducted in multiple periods to assess learning
over time.

7. Assessment requires the use of an appropriate measure.

▪ For assessment to be valid, the assessment tools or measures used have

sound psychometric properties, including, but not limited to, validity
and reliability.

8. Assessment should be as authentic as possible.

▪ Assessment tasks or activities should closely, if not fully, approximate

real-life situations or experiences. The authenticity of assessment can
be thought of as a continuum from less authentic to most
authentic, with more authentic tasks expected to be more meaningful
for learners.

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Assessment:

Develop
A.

Try to answer the following questions to check if you have acquired basic concept and
principles in assessing learning.

1. What is assessment in learning?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. How similar or different is an assessment from measurement, evaluation testing,
or grading?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What are the different types of assessment?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. Give three core principles in assessing learning.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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B.

Based on the lessons on the basic concept and principles in assessment in learning, select five core
principles in assessing learning and explain them in relation to your experiences with a previous or current
teacher in one of your courses or subjects.

Task
Example:
Principle Illustration of Practice

1. Assessment should In our practicum course, we were task to prepare a lesson

be as authentic as plan then execute the plan in front of the students with my
possible. critic teacher around to evaluate my performance.
The actual planning of the lesson and its execution in front
of the class and the critic teacher is a very authentic way of
assessing my ability to design and deliver instruction rather
than being assessed through demonstration in front of my
classmates in the classroom.

Given the example, continue the identification of illustrations of assessment practices

guided by the principles discussed in the class.
Principle Illustration of Practice

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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C.

Prepare a plan on how will you conduct assessment based on the core principles
you have learned. Refer to K-12 curriculum in identifying the competences
targeted by instruction and on how you intend to assess your future students
while following principles in assessing learning. Use the matrix provided to write
your ideas on how you should design and conduct assessment of student learning
based on the core principles

Principle Plan for Applying the Principles in your Classroom

Assessment

1. Assessment should
have a clear purpose.

2. Assessment is not an
end I itself.

3. Assessment is an
ongoing, continuous,
and formative process.

4. Assessment is
learner-centered.

5. Assessment is both
process and product-
oriented.

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6. Assessment must be
comprehensive and
holistic.

7. Assessment requires
the use of an
appropriate measure.

8. Assessment should
be as authentic as
possible.

D.
Evaluate the extent of your knowledge and understanding about assessment
of learning and its principles.

Indicators Great Extent Moderate Not at All

Extent

1. I can define an assessment.

2. I can explain the meaning of assessment

in learning.

3. I can compare and contrast assessment

with measurement and evaluation.

4. I can compare and contrast assessment

with testing and grading.

5. I can enumerate the different types of

assessment.

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6. I can differentiate between classical test

theory and item response theory.

7. I can explain what each of the principles

of assessment means.

8. I can give examples of assessment tasks

or activities that conform with one or
more core principles in assessments.

9. I can give examples of assessment tasks

or activities that do not conform with one
or more of the core principles in
assessments.

10. I understand what it means to have

good assessment practices in the
classroom.

E.
For each item, circle the option that corresponds to what you think is the best
answer.
1. Which of the following is true about measurement and evaluation.

A. measurement and evaluation involve the collection of information.

B. measurement and evaluation are part of the assessment process.
C. measurement and evaluation require the use of tests.
D. measurement and evaluation are similar processes.

2. Which of the following assessment task is LEAST AUTHENTIC?

A. essay test
B. field demonstration
C. multiple-choice-test
D. research project

3. “Assessment is not about what the teacher does but what the learners can do”.
This assessment is most reflective of which principle of assessment?
A. Assessment is learner-centered.
B. Assessment is not an end in itself.
C. Assessment should have a clear purpose.
D. Assessment should be as authentic as possible.

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4. Which of the following statements about assessment is NOT TRUE?

A. Assessment is systematic and purpose-oriented.
B. The word assessment is rooted in the Latin word assidere.
C. A test is a form of assessment, but not all assessments use tests or testing.
D. Assessment is the process of assigning a numerical score to the
performance of the student.

5. “Assessment should have a clear purpose”. If you are already a classroom teacher,
how would you best demonstrate or practice this assessment principle?
A. Discuss with the class the grading system and your expectations of your
students’ performance.
B. When giving a test, the purpose of each test is provided in the first page of
the test paper.
C. Explain during the first day of classes your assessment techniques and
your reasons for their use.
D. When deciding on an assessment task, its match with consistency with
instructional objectives and learning targets are ascertained.

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UNIT 2: ASSESSMENT PURPOSES, LEARNING TARGETS, AND

APPROPRIATE METHODS

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Explain the purposes of classroom assessment;
b. Formulate learning targets; and
c. Match appropriate assessment methods for specific learning targets.

2.1. Introduction
One of the major concerns in education is to have a meaningful assessment.
To attain this, educators will have to design an assessment tool that can be utilized
and be given to the students.
To be able to successfully prepare an assessment plan based on learning
targets, you need to read first the information about the purposes of assessing
learning in the classroom, the basic qualities of effective classroom assessment,
learning targets, and the use of appropriate assessment methods.

2.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

2.2.1 Assessment Purposes, Learning Targets, and Appropriate Methods

In this chapter we will discuss the following:
1. Purposes of classroom assessment
2. The roles of classroom assessment in the teaching-learning process
3. The learning targets and their types
4. Appropriate methods of assessment
What is the purpose of the classroom assessment?
▪ Assessment works best when its purpose is clear. Without a clear purpose, it
is difficult to design or plan assessment effectively and efficiently.
▪ In the classroom, teachers are expected to know the instructional goals and
learning outcomes, which will inform how they will design and implement
their assessment.

What are the classifications of the purposes of classroom assessment?

1. Assessment Of learning
▪ Assessment Of learning is generally summative in nature.

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▪ Assessment Of learning refers to the use of assessment to determine learners’

acquired knowledge and skills from instruction and whether they were able
to achieve the curriculum outcomes.

2. Assessment For learning

▪ Assessment For learning refers to the use of assessment to identify the needs of
the learners in order to modify instruction or learning activities in the
classroom.
▪ Assessment For learning is formative and it is meant to identify gaps in the
learning experiences of learners so that they can be assisted in achieving the
curriculum outcomes.

3. Assessment As learning
▪ Assessment As learning refers to the use of assessment to help learners become
self-regulated.
▪ Assessment As learning is formative and meant to use assessment tasks,
results, and feedback to help learners practice self-regulation and make
adjustments to achieve the curriculum outcomes.

Assessments must be aligned with instruction and the identified learning

outcomes for learners. Knowing what will be taught (curriculum content,
competency, and performance standards) and how it will be taught (instruction) are
as important as knowing what we want from the very start (curriculum outcome) in
determining the specific purpose of why we are performing the assessment.
The alignment is easier if the teacher has a clear purpose on why they are
performing the assessment.
Typically, teachers use classroom assessment for assessment of learning more
than assessment for learning and assessment as learning.

What are the roles of classroom assessment in the teaching-learning process?

▪ Assessment is an integral part of the instructional process where teachers

design and conduct instruction, so learners achieve the specific target learning
outcomes defined by the curriculum.
▪ While the purpose of assessment may be classified as an assessment of
learning, assessment for learning and assessment as learning, the specific
purpose of an assessment depends on the teachers’ objective in collecting and
evaluating assessment data from the learners.

Roles of classroom assessment in the teaching-learning process

1. Formative

▪ Teachers conduct assessments because they want to acquire information on the

current status and level of learners’ knowledge and skills or competencies.

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▪ Teachers may also need information on learners during instruction to allow

them to modify instruction or learning activities to help learners to achieve the
learning outcomes.

2. Diagnostic

▪ Teachers can use assessment to identify specific learners’ weaknesses or

difficulties that may affect their achievement of the intended learning outcome.
▪ Identifying these weaknesses allows teachers to focus on specific learning
needs and provides opportunities for instructional interventions or
remediation inside or outside the classroom.
▪ The diagnostic role assessment may also lead to differentiate instruction or
even individualized learning plans when deemed necessary.

3. Evaluative

▪ The teachers conduct an assessment to measure learners’ performance or

achievement to make judgments or grading.
▪ Teachers need information on whether the learner has met the intended
learning outcomes after instruction has fully implemented.
▪ The learners’ placement or promotion to the next educational level is informed
by the assessment result.

4. Facilitative

Classroom assessment may affect student learning.

▪ On the part of the teachers, assessment for learning provides information on
students learning or achievement that teachers can use to improve instruction
and the learning experiences of learners.
▪ On the part of the learners, assessment as learning allows them to monitor,
evaluate, and improve their learning strategies.

5. Evaluative

▪ Classroom assessment can serve as a mechanism for learners to be motivated

and engaged in learning and achievement in the classroom.
▪ Grades, for instance, motivate and demotivate learners.
▪ Focusing on progress, providing effective feedback, innovating assessment
tasks, and using scaffolding during assessment activities provide opportunities
for assessment to be motivating rather than demotivating.

What do we mean by learning targets?

To fully understand the learning targets, let us first define the educational
goals, standards, and objectives.

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What are the educational goals? Standard? Objective?

Goals
▪ Goals are desired learner outcomes in a given year or during the duration of a
program (e.g., junior high school or senior high school).

Standards
▪ Standards are specific statements about what learners should know and are
capable of doing at a particular grade level, subject, or course.

Four different types of educational standards according to McMillan

(2014, p. 31)
1. Content (desired outcomes in content area)
2. Performance (what the student do to demonstrate competence)
3. Developmental (sequence of growth and changes over time)
4. Grade-Level (outcome for specific grade)

Educational Objectives
▪ Educational Objectives are specific statements of learner performance at the
end of the instructional unit.
▪ Sometimes referred to as behavioral objectives and are typically started with
the use of verbs.
▪ The most popular taxonomy of behavioral objectives is Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives

What is Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives?

Bloom's taxonomy
▪ Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify
educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity.
▪ Bloom's taxonomy was developed to provide a common language for teachers
to discuss and exchange learning and assessment methods.
▪ The goal of an educator using Bloom's taxonomy is to encourage higher-order
thought in their students by building up from lower-level cognitive skills.
▪ Bloom’s taxonomies of educational objectives provide teachers with a
structured guide in formulating more specific learning targets as they provide
an exhaustive list of learning objectives.
▪ The taxonomies do not only serve as a guide for teacher’s instruction but also
as a guide for their assessment of student learning in the classroom.

What are the different domains of Bloom’ Taxonomy?

These three domains correspond to the three types of goals that a teacher wants to
assess
The Blooms taxonomy consists of three domains:
▪ Cognitive Domain or knowledge-based gaols

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▪ Psychomotor Domain or skills-based goals

▪ Affective Domain or affective

What are the popular taxonomies in Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives?

The most popular taxonomies are the cognitive domain, which is also known
as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objective for Knowledge-Based Goals.

What is the other type of taxonomy of educational objectives?

A test is good and effective if it has acceptable psychometric properties.

• This means that a test should be valid, reliable, has an acceptable level of
difficulty, and can discriminate between learners with higher and lower
ability.

How many levels of expertise does a cognitive domain have?

The cognitive domain has six levels namely:
• Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and
Evaluation

Figure 1

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Figure 2

What are the different levels of expertise Psychomotor?

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What are the different levels of Affective Domain?

Figure 3

What is Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives?

• Anderson and Krathwohl proposed a revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy in the
cognitive domain by introducing a two-dimensional model for writing
learning objectives (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001).
• Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy provides teachers with a more structured and
more precise approach in designing and assessing learning objectives.

What is the first dimension of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives?
▪ The first dimension of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives is the knowledge dimension.

Knowledge dimension includes four types, Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and

Metacognitive.

What is the second dimension of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives?
What are the types of cognitive processes in the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives?
▪ The second dimension of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives is the cognitive process dimension that consists of six types.

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The cognitive process consists of Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze,

Evaluate, and Create.

Figure 4

Figure 5
What does a learning target mean?

Learning Target
• A learning target is a statement of student performance for a relatively
restricted type of learning outcome that will be achieved in a single

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lesson or a few days and contains both a description of what the

student should know, understand, and be able to do at the end of the
instruction and something about the criteria of judging the level of
performance demonstrated (McMillan 2014, p. 43).
• learning targets are statements on what the learners are supposed to
learn and what they can do because of instruction.
• learning targets should be congruent with the standards prescribed by
the program or level aligned with the instructional learning objectives
of a subject or course.
• learning targets should be meaningful for the learners, it should be
clear and specific as possible.

How are learning targets compared with educational goals, standards, and objectives?
• Compared with educational goals, standards, and objectives, learning
targets are the most specific and lead to more specific instructional and
assessment activities.
• Teachers must inform learners about the learning targets of the lesson
before classroom instruction.
• It is suggested that learning targets must be stated in the learners' point
of view, typically using the phrase I can… For example, “I can
differentiate between instructional objectives and learning targets”.

What are the five criteria for selecting learning targets according to McMillan?

1. Establish the right number of learning targets. (Are the learning targets too many
or too few?)
2. Establish comprehensive learning targets. (Are all important types or learning
included?)
3. Establish learning targets that reflect school goals and 21st-century skills (Do the
target reflect school goals and 21st-century knowledge, skills, and dispositions?)
4. Establish learning targets that are challenging yet feasible (Will the target
challenge students to do their best work?)
5. Establish learning targets that are consistent with current principles of learning
and motivation (Are targets consistent with research on learning and motivation?)

What are the types of learning targets?

Many experts consider four primary types of learning targets: knowledge, reasoning,
skill, and product.

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Description and sample learning targets

Type of Description Sample
Learning
Targets
Knowledge This refers to factual, conceptual, and I can explain the role of
Targets procedural information that learners must the conceptual
learn in the subject or content. framework in a
research
Reasoning Knowledge-based thought processes that I can justify my
Targets learners must learn. It involves the research problem with
application of knowledge in problem- the theory.
solving, decision-making, and another task
that requires mental skills.
Skill Targets Use knowledge and/or reasoning to I can facilitate a focus
perform or demonstrate physical skills. group discussion with
research participants.
Product Use knowledge, reasoning, and skills in I can write a thesis
Targets creating a concrete or tangible product. proposal.

What are the appropriate methods of assessment?

Once the learning targets are identified, appropriate assessment methods can
be selected to measure student learning. The match between a learning target and the
assessment method used to measure if the student has met the target is very critical.

Matching Learning Targets with Paper-and-Pencil Type of Assessment

Learning Selected Response Constructed Response

Targets Multiple True or Matching Short Problem- Essay
Choice False Type Answer Solving
Knowledge /// /// /// /// /// ///
Reasoning // / / / /// ///
Skill / / / / // //
Product / / / / / /
Note: More checks mean a better match.

Matching Learning Target with Other Type of Assessment

Learning Project-Based Portfolio Recitation Observation
Targets
Knowledge / /// /// //

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Reasoning // // /// //
Skill // /// / //

Product /// /// / /

The table shows that the more checks it means that it has a better match.
There are other types of assessments, and it is up to the teacher to select the method
of assessment and design appropriate assessment tasks and activities to measure the
identified learning targets.

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Assessment:
A. Let us check the ideas you have acquired.
1. What are the different purposes of assessing students’ learning in the classroom?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________
2. Why is classroom assessment important in the teaching-learning process?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________
3. What is the difference between instructional objectives and learning targets?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________
4. Why is it important that learning targets and assessment tasks/activities are
matched?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________

5. Explain the difference between Bloom’s Taxonomy and Revised Bloom’s

Taxonomy.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________

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B. To know if you have acquired the information you need to learn in this lesson, kindly
complete the table below.
1.

Assessment of Assessment for Assessment as

Learning Learning Learning

What?

Why?

When?

2.
Goals Standard Objectives Learning Targets

Description

Sample
Statement

C.
Select a specific lesson for a subject area and grade level that you think you should
be able to teach and handle when you are already a teacher in a school. Using the DepEd
Curriculum Guide for the subject, create an assessment plan for student learning by
formulating learning targets and proposing specific assessment tasks or activities to
measure the identified learning targets. Use the table below for this task.
Assessment Plan

Subject
Specific Lesson

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Learning Outcomes/Instructional
Objectives

Learning Targets

Assessment of Task/Activities

Why use this assessment

task/activity?

How does this assessment/activity

help you improve your
instruction?

How does this assessment

task/activity help your learners
achieve the intended learning
outcomes?

D.
Evaluate the learning targets and assessment tasks and activities that you have
developed in your assessment plan by using the following checklist.
Item Criteria Yes No

1. I was able to formulate specific learning targets.

2. The learning targets I made contain information

on what students must know and what they need
to do to demonstrate what they know.

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3. The learning target I made are congruent with at

least one learning outcome or instructional
objectives in the subject.

4. I was able to identify an assessment task/s or

activity/ies that match the learning targets.

5. I was able to complete the task in the table by

applying what I have learned about learning
targets and appropriate assessment methods.

E.
For each item, circle the option that corresponds to what you think is the best answer.

1. What is the purpose of assessment that aims to identify students’ needs to inform
instruction?
A. Assessment as Learning
B. Assessment for Learning
C. Assessment of Learning
D. Assessment with Learning

2. Use the internet in performing a search for related research literature.

The aforementioned learning objectives is an example of which type of cognitive
learning outcome in the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy?
A. Applying
B. Understanding
C. Knowledge
D. Creating

3. Explain the difference between learning targets and instructional objectives.

The aforementioned learning target is an example of which type of learning targets?
A. Knowledge
B. Product
C. Reasoning
D. Skills

4. Which of the following types of paper-and-pencil test is best matched with the
reasoning type of learning targets?
A. Essay
B. Matching-Type
C. Multiple-Choice
D. Skills

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5. If you are a values education teacher who intends to design an assessment task to
determine your learners’ motivation in participating in pro-environmental
behaviors, which of the following assessment strategies would best address your
purpose?

A. Learners developing and producing a video of their pro-environmental

advocacy.
B. Learners answering an essay question on “Why Pro-environmental
Behavior Matters?”
C. Learners writing individual blogs on their pro-environmental activities and
why they do it.
D. Learners conducting action research on students’ motivation in pro-
environmental behavior.

F. Evaluate the extent of your knowledge and understanding of the purposes of assessment
and appropriate assessment methods.

Indicators Great Moderate Not at

Extent Extent All
1. I can enumerate the different purpose of
assessment.
2. I can explain the role of assessment in
the teaching and learning process.
3. I can explain the purpose of conducting
classroom assessment.
4. I can differentiate between goals,
standards, objectives, and learning
targets.
5. I can explain the different levels of
expertise in Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives in the Cognitive
Domain.
6. I can explain the difference between
Bloom’s Taxonomy and Revised Bloom’s
Taxonomy.
7. I can compare and contrast instructional
objectives and learning targets.
8. I can formulate specific learning target
given a specific lesson.
9. I can match assessment methods
appropriate to specific learning targets.
10. I can select and design an assessment task
or activity to measure specific learning
targets.

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UNIT 3: DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF ASSESSMENT

3.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Identify the use of different classifications of assessment;
b. Illustrate scenarios in the use of different classifications of assessment.;
c. Rationalize the purpose of different forms of assessment; and
d. Decide on the kind of assessment to be used

3.1. Introduction
To plan, create, and select the appropriate kind of assessment, we need first to
know the characteristics of the different types of assessments according to purpose,
function, and the kind of information needed about learners.
In this chapter we will discuss the Classifications of Assessment, Use of
Educational and Psychological Assessment, Use of Paper-and-Pencil and
Performance-Based Type of Assessment, Distinguish Teacher-made from
Standardized Tests, Information about Achievement and Aptitude Tests, Difference
between Speed from Power Test and Norm-referenced from Criterion-referenced
Test.

3.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

In this chapter we will discuss the following:

1. Classifications of Assessment
2. Use of Educational and Psychological Assessment
3. Use of Paper-and-Pencil and Performance-Based Type of Assessment
4. Distinguish Teacher-made from Standardized Tests
5. Information about Achievement and Aptitude Tests
6. Differentiate the following:
a. Speed from Power Test
b. Norm-referenced from Criterion-referenced Test

What are the different classifications of assessment?

The different forms of assessment are classified according to purpose, form,
interpretation of learning, function, ability, and kind, of learning.

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Classifications of Assessment

Classification Type
Purpose Educational
Psychological
Form Paper-and pencil
Performance-Based
Function Teacher-made Test
Standardized
Kind of Learning Achievement
Aptitude
Ability Speed
Power
Interpretation of Learning Norm-referenced
Criterion-referenced

What are educational and psychological assessments?

When can we use them?
Educational Assessment
• Educational assessments are used in every school setting to track the growth
of the learners and grade their performance.
• This assessment in the educational setting comes in the form of formative and
summative assessment. Formative and summative assessment work hand-in-
hand to provide information about student learning.

Psychological Assessment
• Psychological assessments are measures that determine the learner’s cognitive
and non-cognitive characteristics.

Cognitive tests
➢ Cognitive tests are those measures ability, aptitude, intelligence, and
critical thinking.

Non-cognitive
➢ Non-cognitive are affective measures for personality, motivation,
attitude, interest, and disposition.

The result of psychological assessments is used by the guidance counselor to

perform interventions on the learner’s academic, career, and social and emotional
development.

What are the formative and summative assessments?

What is the purpose of formative and summative assessments?

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.
Summative Assessment
▪ The purpose of summative assessment determines and records what the
learners have learned.

Formative Assessment
▪ Formative assessment is a continuous process of gathering information about
student learning at the beginning, during, and after instruction so that
so that teachers can decide how to improve their instruction until
learners are able to meet the learning targets.
▪ The purpose of formative assessment is to track and monitor students learning
and their progress toward the learning target.
▪ Formative assessment can be in a form of paper-and-pencil or performance-
based assessment that is conducted before, during and after instruction.

What can be determined by a formative assessment at the start of the lesson?

1. What the learners know and do not know so that instruction can be
supplement what learners do not know.
2. Misconceptions of learners so that they can be corrected.
3. Confusion of learners so that they can be clarified.
4. What learners can and cannot do so that enough practice can be given to
perform the task.

When do we use paper-and-pencil and performance-based assessment?

What is the Paper-and-Pencil Assessment?

Paper-and-Pencil Assessment
▪ Paper-and-pencil types of assessment are cognitive tasks that require a single
correct answer.
▪ Paper-and-pencil usually comes in a form of test types, such as binary (true or
false), short answer (identification), matching type, and multiple choice.

What is a Performance-Based Assessment?

Performance-based assessment
▪ Performance-based assessment are type of assessments that require learners to
perform tasks, such as demonstrations, arrive at a product, show
strategies, and present information.
▪ The skills applied are usually complex and require integrated skills to arrive at
a target response.
▪ Performance-based assessment includes writing an essay, reporting in front of
the class, reciting a poem, demonstrating how a problem was solved, creating

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a word problem, reporting the result of an experiment, dance and song

performance, painting, and drawing, playing a musical instrument, etc.
▪ Performance-based task are usually open-ended, and each learners arrives with
various possible responses.

The use of paper-and-pencil and performance-based task depends on the

nature and content of the learning targets.

What are the examples of learning targets that require a paper-and-pencil type of
assessment?

Below are examples of learning targets that require a paper-and-pencil type of

assessment
• Identify the parts of the plants
• Label the parts of the microscope
• Classify the phases of mater
• Provide the appropriate verb in the sentence
• Identify the type of sentence

What are the examples of learning targets that require performance-based

assessment?

Below are examples of learning targets that require performance-based assessment

• Varnish a wooden cabinet
• Draw a landscape using a paintbrush in the computer
• Write a word problem involving multiplication of polynomials
• Deliver a speech convincing your classmates that you are a good candidate for
the student council
• Write an essay explaining how humans and plant benefit from each other
• Mount a plant specimen on a glass slide

How do we distinguish a teacher-made test from a standardized test?

Standardized Test
▪ Standardized-test have fixed directions for administering and scoring.
▪ They can be purchased with test manuals, booklets, and answer sheets.
▪ When these tests were developed, the items were sampled to a large number of
targets called the norm.

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What are the categories and examples of standardized-assessment?

Category Specific Example Visit the site for their description

Intelligence Wechsler Adult http//wechslertest.com/
Test Intelligence Scale
Achievement Metropolitan http//www.test.com/MAT-8-Testing
test Achievement Test
Aptitude test Raven’s Progressive http//www.pearsonclinical.co.uk/Psychology/
Matrices
Critical Watson Glaser http//www.assessmentday.co.uk.
thinking test Critical Thinking /Watson-Glaser-critical-thinking.htm
Appraisal
Interest test RIASEC Markers http//openpsychometers.org/test/RIASEC/
Scale
Personality test NEO Personality http//www.hogrefe.co.uk/neopir.html
Inventory

Non-standardized or teacher-made test

▪ Non-standardized or teacher-made tests are tests usually intended for

classroom assessment.
▪ They are used for classroom purposes, such as determining whether the teacher
have reached the learning target.
▪ Examples of the teacher-made test are quizzes, long tests, and exams.
Formative and summative assessments are usually a teacher-made test.

Can a teacher-made test become a standardized test?

Yes, it can be a standardized test as long as it is valid, reliable and with a

standard procedure for administering, scoring, and interpreting result.

What information is sought from the aptitude test and achievement test?

Achievement Test

▪ An achievement test measure what learner have learned after instruction or

after going through a specific curricular program.
▪ It provides information on what learners can do and have acquired after
training and instruction.
▪ It is a measure of the accomplished skills and indicates what a person can do at
present (Atkinson 1995).
▪ Achievement is a measure of what a person has learned within or up to a given
time (Yaremko et al. 1982).

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▪ Kimbal noted that the greater number of courses taken by the learners their
more extensive classroom experience with a subject may give them an
advantage.
▪ Achievement tests can be reflected in a final grades of the learners within a
quarter.

Aptitude Test
▪ Aptitude test are the characteristics that influences a person’s behaviour that
aid goal attainment in a particular situation according to Lohgman (2005).
▪ Aptitude test refers to the degree of readiness to learn and perform well in a
particular situation or domain (Corno et al. 2002).

Magno (2009) created a taxonomy of aptitude test that provides item writers
with a guide on the type of items to be included when building an aptitude test
depending on the skills specified.

How do we differentiate speed from the power test?

Speed Test
▪ Speed test consist of easy items that needs to be completed within a time limit.

Example of speed test is a typing test in which examinees are required to

correctly type as many words as possible given a limited amount of time.

Power Test
▪ A power test consist an item with increasing level of difficulty, but time is
sufficient to complete the whole test.

Example of power test was the one developed by the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics that determines the ability of the examinees to use
data to reason and become creative, formulate, solve, and reflect critically on
the problems provided.

How do we differentiate norm-referenced from a criterion-referenced test?

There are two types of test based on how the scores are interpreted: norm-referenced
and criterion-referenced test.

Criterion-Referenced Test

▪ Criterion-referenced test has a given set of standards, and the scores are
compared to the given criterion.
▪ One approach in criterion-referenced interpretation is that the score is
compared to a specific cut off.

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An example in the grading in schools where the range of the grades 96-100 is
highly proficient, 90-95 is proficient, 80-89 is nearly proficient, and below 80 is
beginning.

Norm-referenced Test
▪ Norm-referenced test interprets the result using the distribution of scores of a
sample group.
▪ The standing of every individual in a norm-referenced test is based on how far
they are from the mean and standard deviation from the sample. Standardized
test usually interpret scores using a norm set from a large sample.

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Assessment:
A. Development Activity
Check the ideas you have acquired about the classification of assessment.
1. Why are different kinds of assessment classified?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________

2. How does the knowledge of the classifications of assessment help improve

learning?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________

3. How does the knowledge of the classifications of assessment help improve

teaching?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________

4. Which classification of assessment is commonly used in the classroom setting and

why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________

B.
Write on the blank if the task requires paper-and-pencil or performance-based
assessment.
_______1. State the domain and range of the given function
_______2. Solve systems of linear equations in two variables by graphing method
_______3. Draw the slope of the given equation
_______4. Simplify complex fraction
_______5. Deliver a speech to persuade people to donate for the orphanage
_______6. Multiply and divide rational algebraic expressions
_______7. Observe the chemicals in the laboratory and list down their hazards

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_______8. Classify substances according to their physical or chemical and intrinsic and
extrinsic properties
_______9. Cite evidence of chemical changes
_______10. Present ways to prevent walls from easily cracking during earthquakes

C.
To know more about the different kinds of assessment, complete the table by providing other
specific examples of each kind of assessment. You may use other references.

Type Example
Educational
Psychological
Paper-and-pencil
Performance-based
Teacher-made
Standardized
Achievement
Aptitude
Speed
Power
Norm-referenced
Criterion-referenced

D.
Evaluate your self
Read carefully each item. Choose the letter of the correct and best answer in every
item.

1. What are the two kinds of assessment based on forms?

A. Teacher-made test and Standardized
B. Educational and Psychological
C. Formative and Summative
D. Achievement and Aptitude

2. Which best describes a paper-and-pencil type of assessment?

A. it determines whether students have attained the learning targets.

B. it provides a cognitive task that requires a single correct answer.
C. it used to measure what students have learned after instruction.
D. it determines students’ cognitive and non-cognitive characteristics.

3. When are educational and psychological assessment used?

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A. When tracking the growth of the students and marking their performance.
B. When designing objectives that match the content of instruction.
C. When giving feedback on how well students have understand the lesson.
D. When gathering information at any point of instruction.

4. What is the difference between speed and power test?

A. Speed Test is the ability to type fast in a limited time, while power test
contains item that vary in difficulty.

B. Speed test consists of a few pre-calculated difficult items, and time is also
limited; power test consist of easy items, but time is limited.

C. Speed test consists of easy items, but time is limited; power test consists of a
pre-calculated difficult items, and time is also limited.

D. Speed test contains items that vary in difficulty to the point that no subject
is expected to get all items right even with unlimited time, while speed test
is the ability to type fast in a limited time.

5. Can a teacher-made test become a standardized test?

A. Yes, as long as it is valid and reliable with standard procedure for

administering, scoring, and interpreting result.

B. Yes, because the test is not developed by teacher to ascertain the student’s
achievement and proficiency in a given subject.

C. No, because it cannot determine the purpose and objectives of the test as to
what to measure and why to measure.

D. No, because this test cannot be used as a tool for formative, diagnostic, and
summative evaluation.

Read each case and identify what kind of assessment is referred to.

Type of Assessment Situations

1. The science teacher at the end of the lesson on the
phases of matter provided a 20-item test to record how
much the learner have learned. What kind of assessment
is used?

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2. The teacher in music required learners to demonstrate

how the ¾ beats are conducted. What kind of assessment
is used?
3. A student got a score of 25 in Mathematics achievement
test, which is considered low compared to the scores
found in the test manual. What kind of assessment is
used?
4. A teacher in English raised 3 questions to determine if
the learners understood the story read. The learners who
could not answer the questions will be further helped on
the skills needed. What kind of assessment is used?
5. A teacher made a 10-item spelling test where the words
are pronounced and the learners will write the correct
spelling. What kind of assessment is used?
6. A teacher in science tested the learner’s familiarity with
the parts of the heart. An illustration of a heart is provided
as they need to label the parts. What kind of assessment is
used?
7. A teacher used a Jackson’s Vocational interest to
determine which track of senior high school the learners
can select. What assessment is used according to the
function?
8. A guidance counsellor, as part of the career orientation
of Grade 12 learners, administer a test to evaluate their
abstract reasoning logic, and identification of missing
parts. What kind of test is used?
9. The learner who got a perfect score in the science
achievement test were invited to join a science club. In this
way, how was the score is used?
10. The teacher in mathematics wanted to determine how
well the learners have learned in mathematics curriculum
at the end of the school year. The Iowa test for basic skills
on math was administered. What kind of assessment is
used?

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UNIT 4: PLANNING A WRITTEN TEST

4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Set appropriate instructional objectives for a written test;

b. Prepare a table of specification for a written test.;
c. Decide on the kind of assessment to be used;

4.1. Introduction
A good and effective classroom assessment depends on how the assessment is
being planned. In this unit, you will be taken through the planning a written test
that will discuss about learning outcomes targeted for assessment.
It will also tackle the objectives for testing, and the general steps in developing
table of specifications in different forms.

4.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

4.2.1 Define Test Objectives Targeted for Assessment

Why do we need to define the test objectives for assessment?

In designing a well-planned written test, the first thing that you will have to do is to
identify the intended learning outcomes in a course, where a written test is appropriate
method to use.
These learning outcomes are knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that every
students should develop throughout the course.

▪ Clear articulation of learning outcomes is the primary consideration in lesson

planning because it serves as a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the teaching
learning process determined through testing or assessment.
▪ Learning objectives or outcomes are measurable statements that articulate (at the
beginning of the course) what the students should know and be able to do or value
as a result of taking the course.
▪ Learning goals provide teachers the focus and direction on how the course is to be
handled, particularly in course content, instruction, and assessment.
▪ It also provide the students with the reasons and motivation to study and persevere.
▪ Test objectives gives students the opportunities to be aware of what they need to do
to be successful in the course, take control and ownership of their progress, and
focus on what they should be learning.

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▪ Setting objectives for assessment is the process of establishing direction to guide both
the teacher teaching and student in learning.

4.2.2 Objectives for Testing

What are the objectives for testing?

The cognitive behaviors of learning outcomes are usually targeted in developing a

written test. It is important to identify the levels of behaviour expected from the students.

▪ Bloom’s Taxonomy was used to classify learning objectives based on the levels of
complexity and specificity of the cognitive behaviors.

▪ The six levels of Bloom’ Taxonomy are Knowledge, comprehension, application,

analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

▪ Anderson and Krathwohl (Bloom’s students) came up with a revised taxonomy in

which the nouns used to represent the levels of cognitive behavior were replaced by
verbs, and the synthesis and evaluation were switched.

▪ The six levels of taxonomy developed by Anderson and Krathwohl are remember,
understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create.

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In developing domain of instructional objectives, the key verbs can be used.

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4.2.3 Table of Specification

What is a table of specification?
What is the use of table of specification?

Table of Specification
▪ Table of specification is sometimes called a test blueprint.
▪ It is a tool used by teachers to design a test
▪ It helps ensure that the course’s intended learning outcomes, assessments, and
instruction are aligned.
▪ It is a table that maps out the test objectives, contents or topics covered by the test;
the level of cognitive behaviour to be measured; the distribution of items, number,
placement, and the weight of the test items; and the test format.

Generally, TOS is prepared before a test is created. However, it is ideal to prepare one even
before the start of the instruction.

How important is the Table of Specification?

TOS is important because it does the following:

▪ Ensures that the instructional objectives and what the test captures match.
▪ Ensures that the test developer will not overlook details that are considered
essential to a good test.
▪ Makes developing attest easier and more efficient.
▪ Ensure that the test will sample all important content areas and processes.
▪ Useful in planning and organizing.
▪ Offers opportunities for teachers and students to clarify achievement
expectations.

How can we develop a table of specification?

What are the steps in developing TOS?
Learner assessment within the framework of classroom instruction requires planning.
The following are the steps in developing a table of specification.

1. Determine the objective of the test.

The first step is to identify the test objectives.
▪ Test objectives should be based on the instructional objectives.
▪ Instructional objectives or intended learning outcomes are identified at the
start, when a teacher creates a syllabus.

There are three types of objectives.

a. Cognitive Objectives
• Are designed to increase an individual knowledge, understanding,
and awareness.
• Cognitive objectives ranging from remembering to creating
ideas that could be measured using test formats for testing (multiple

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choice, alternative response, matching type, and essay or open-ended

test).

b. Psychomotor Objectives
• Are objectives designed to build physical or motor skills
• This objectives requires demonstration or creation of something
tangibles that can be assessed through performance-based
assessment.

c. Affective Objectives
• Affective Objectives are objectives that aims to change an
individual’s attitude into something desirable.

2. Determine the coverage of the test.

▪ Only topic or contents that had been discussed in the class and are relevant
must be included in the test.

3. Calculate the weight of each topic.

▪ The weight assigned per topic in the test is based on the relevance and the time
spent for that topic covered in the test.
▪ The percentage of time for the topic in a test is determined by dividing the time
spent for that topic during instruction by the total amount of time spent for all
the topics covered in the test.
General Psychology 101 class
Topic Time Spent Percent of
Time
(weight)
I. Theories and Concept 30 minutes 30/300 10%
II. Psychoanalytic Theory 90 minutes 90/300 30%
III. Trait Theories 60 minutes 60/300 20%
IV. Humanistic Theories 30 minutes 30/300 10%
V. Cognitive Theories 30 minutes 30/300 10%
VI. Behavioral Theories 30 minutes 30/300 10%
VII. Social Learning Theories 30 minutes 30/300 10%
TOTAL 300 minutes or 5 100%
hours

4. Determine the number of items for the whole test.

▪ As a general rule, students are given 30-60 seconds for each item in test formats
with choices. This means that the test should not exceed 60 items.
▪ The number of items should be less than 60 or maybe just 50 items because you
should also give time for the distribution and giving instruction.

5. Determine the number of items per topic.

▪ To determine the number of items to be included in the test, the weight per
topic are considered.
▪ The number of items per topic must be proportional to the number of time
spent in each topic.

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Topic Time Percent of Number

Spent Time of Items
(weight)
I. Theories and Concept 30 minutes 10% 50 x 0.1 5
II. Psychoanalytic Theory 90 minutes 30% 50 x 0.3 15
III. Trait Theories 60 minutes 20% 50 x 0.2 10
IV. Humanistic Theories 30 minutes 10% 50 x 0.1 5
V. Cognitive Theories 30 minutes 10% 50 x 0.1 5
VI. Behavioral Theories 30 minutes 10% 50 x 0.1 5
VII. Social Learning Theories 30 minutes 10% 50 x 0.1 5
TOTAL 300 100% 50 items
minutes or
5 hours

What are the different formats of a test table of specification?

There are three different formats of TOS:

1. One-way
2. Two-way
3. Three-way

What is one-way table of specification?

One-Way Table of Specification

▪ One-way TOS maps out the content or topic, test objectives, number of hours spent,
and format, number, and placement of the items.
▪ This type of TOS is easy to develop and easy to use because it just works around the
objectives without considering the different levels of cognitive behaviour.
▪ This type of TOS cannot ensure that all levels of cognitive behaviours that had been
developed by the course are covered in the test.

One-Way Table of Specification

Topic Test Objectives No. of Format and No. and
Hours Placement of Percent of
Spent Items Items
I. Theories and Recognize important 0.5 Multiple choice 5 (10%)
Concept concepts in personality Items #s 1 to 5
theories.
II. Identifies the different 1.5 Multiple choice 15 (30%)
Psychoanalytic theories of personality items #s 6 to 20
Theories under the Psychoanalytic
Model
Etc. 2 50 (100%)
Total

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What is two-way table of specification?

Two-Way Table of Specification

▪ A two-way table of specification reflect not only the content, time spent, and number
items but also the levels of cognitive behaviour targeted per test content based on the
theory behind cognitive testing.
▪ Two-Way TOS allows one to see the levels of cognitive skills and dimension of
knowledge that are emphasized by the test.
▪ It shows the framework of assessment used in the development of the test.

Two-Way Table of Specification

Content Time No. of KD Levels of Cognitive Behavior, Items,
Spent Items Format. No. and Placement of Items.
R U Ap An E C
I. Theories and 0.5 5 (10%) F (I. 3)
Concept hrs I. 1,
2, 3
C (I. 2)
I. 4,
5
II. 1.5 15 F (I. 2)
Psychoanalytic hrs (30%) I. 6,
Theories 7
C (I. 2) (I. 2)
I. 8, I. 10,
9 11
P (I. 2) (I. 2)
I. 12, I. 14,
13 15
M (I. 3) II. 1 II. 1
I. 16, #41 #42
17,
18
etc
Scoring 1 point per 3 points per 5 points per
item item item
OVERALL 50 20 20 20 10
TOTAL (100%)

Legend: KD =Knowledge Dimension (Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, Metacognitive)

I = Multiple Choice, II = Open-Ended

What is three-way table of specification?

Three-Way Table of Specification

▪ This reflect the features of one-way and two-way TOS.

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▪ It challenges the test writer to classify objectives based on the theory behind the
assessment.
▪ It also shows the variability of thinking skills targeted by the test.
▪ I takes much time to develop this kind of TOS.

Three-Way Table of Specification

Content Learning Tim No. of Levels of Cognitive Behavior, Items, Format. No.
Objectives e Items and Placement of Items.
Spe R U Ap An E C
nt
I. Theories Recognize 0.5 5 (10%) I. 1, 2, I. 4, 5
and important hrs 3 (F) (C)
Concept concepts in
personality
theories.
II. Identifies 1.5 15 I 6, 7 I. 8, 9 I. 10, I. 14, II. #41 II. #42
Psychoana the hrs (30%) (F) (C) 11 (C) 15 (P) (M) (M)
lytic different I. 12, I. 16,
Theories theories of 13 (P) 17, 18
personality (M)
under the
Psychoanal
ytic Model
etc
Scoring 1 point per 3 points per 5 points per
item item item
OVERALL 50 20 20 10
TOTAL (100%)

Legend: KD =Knowledge Dimension (Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, Metacognitive)

I = Multiple Choice, II = Open-Ended

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Assessment:
A. Development Activity
Answer the following questions:
1. What should you do first in planning a test?
2. Are all Objectives of instruction measured by a paper-and-pencil test?
3. When constructing a TOS, where objectives are set without classifying them according to
their cognitive behaviour, what format do you see?
4. If you will design a two-way TOS for your test, what does this format have?
5. Why would one teacher consider a three-way TOS than the other formats?

B. Below are sets of competencies targeted for instruction taken from a particular subject area in the
K to 12 curriculum. Check the assessment method appropriate for the given competencies.

1. Sample 1 in Mathematics
Check the competencies appropriate for the given test format/method.
Appropriate Appropriate Appropriate
for Objective for for the
Competencies Test Format Constructed Method
type of Test Other than a
Format Written Test
1. Order of fractions less than one.
2. Construct plane figures using a ruler and
compass.
3. Identify cardinal numbers from 9,001
through
900,000.
4, Solve 2-3 steps word problems involving
the
four operations.
5. Transform a division sentence into
multiplication sentence and vice-versa.

2. Sample 2 in Science
Check the competencies appropriate for the given test format/method.
Appropriate Appropriate
Appropriate for for the
Competencies for Objective Constructed Method
Test Format type of Test Other than a
Format Written Test
1. Infer that the weather changes during the
day and day to day
2. Practice care and concern for animals
3. Participate in campaigns and activities for
improving/managing one’s environment.
4, Compare the ability of land and water to
absorb and release heat.
5. describe the four types of climate in the
Philippines.

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Sample 3 in Language
Check the competencies appropriate for the given test format/method.
Appropriate Appropriate
Appropriate for for the
Competencies for Objective Constructed Method
Test Format type of Test Other than a
Format Written Test
1. Use words that describe person, place,
animals, and events.
2. Draw conclusions based on picture-
stimuli/passages.
3. Write different story endings

4. Write simple friendly letter observing the

correct format.
5. Compose riddles, slogans, and
announcements from the given stimuli.

C. Apply what you have learned in creating a Two-Way TOS of the final examination. Take into
consideration the content or topic, time spent for each topic; Knowledge dimension; and item format,
number, and placement for each level of cognitive behaviour.
An example of a TOS for a long exam for Abnormal Psychology class is shown below.
Complete the TOS based on the given information.

TOS for a long exam for Abnormal Psychology Class

Content Tim No. of K Levels of Cognitive Behavior, Items, Format. No.

e Items D and Placement of Items.
Spe R U AP AN E C
nt
1. Disorder 3 hrs ? F (I. 10) (I. 10) I. 10
Diagnosed in I. I. #? I. #?
infancy. Childhood 1, 2, 3,
or adolescence. 4, 5, 6,
8, 9,
10
2. Cognitive 3 hrs ? C (I. 10) (I. 10) (I. 10)
disorder I. # ? I. #? I. #?
3. Substance related 1 hr 10 P (I. 5) (I. 5) I.
disorder (10%) I. #? 65, 66,
67, 68,
69, 70

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4. Schizophreia and 3 hrs ? M (I. 10) (I. 10) (I. 10)

other psychotic I. #? I. #? I. #?
disorder.
Total ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
OVERALL TOTAL 10 100 45 items 25 items 30 items
hour items
s (100%)

D. Evaluate:
Choose the letter of the correct answer to every item given.
1. The instructional objective that focus on the development of learners’ knowledge. Can this
objective be assessed using the multiple choice format?
A. No, this objective requires an essay format.
B. No, this objective is better assessed using matching type test.
C. Yes, multiple choice is appropriate in assessing knowledge.
D. Yes, multiple choice is the most valid format when assessing learning.

2. You prepared an objective test format for your quarterly test in mathematics. Which of the
following could NOT have been your test objective?
A. Interpret a line graph
B. Construct a line graph
C. Compare the information presented in a line graph
D. Draw conclusions from the data presented in a line graph

3. Teacher Myra prepared a TOS as her guide in developing a test. Why is this necessary?
A. To guide the planning of instruction
B. To satisfy the requirements in developing a test
C. To have a test blueprint as accreditation usually require this plan
D. To ensure that the test is designed to cover what it tends to measure

4. Ms. Zamora prepared a TOS that shows both objectives and the different levels of cognitive
behaviour. What format could she have used?
A. One-way format
B. Two-way format
C. Three-way format
D. Four-way format

5. The school principal wants the teacher to develop a TOS that used the two-way format than
a one-way format. Why do you think is the principal preferred format?
A. Sa that the different levels of cognitive behaviour to be tested are known.
B. So that the format of the test are known by just looking at the TOS.
C. So that the test writer would know the distribution of test items.
D. So that objectives for instruction are also reflected in the TOS.

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UNIT 5: CONSTRUCTION OF WRITTEN TESTS

5.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Identify the appropriate test format to measure learning outcomes.;
b. State the general guidelines in constructing test items for different test
formats.;
c. Apply the general guidelines in constructing test items for different test
formats.

5.1. Introduction
Classroom assessments are important part of students’ learning. It inform the
learners what needs to be learned and to what extent and how to learn more. As a
teacher, we do not only set instructional objectives or learning outcomes along the
different domains of learning but we also try determine or do some measurement
of learning outcomes called for in the instructional objectives.
In this unit you will have to tour in the development of the different classroom
test in assessing learning along cognitive level.

5.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

5.2.1 General Guidelines in Choosing the appropriate Format

There are many ways by which leaners can demonstrate their knowledge and
skills and show evidence of their proficiencies at the end of the lesson, unit, or
subject.
While authentic or performance-based assessment have been advocated as the
better and more appropriate method in assessing learning outcomes, because they
assess higher-level thinking skills, traditional assessment methods, such as
multiple-choice tests are also considered as appropriate and efficient classroom
assessment tools for some types of learning targets. This is true for large classes and
when test result are needed immediately for some educational decisions.
Traditional tests or assessments are also deemed reliable and exhibit excellent
content and construct validity.

What are the general guidelines in choosing the appropriate test formats?
Not all test is universally valid for every type of learning outcome. For instance, if

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the intended learning outcome for Research Method course is “to design and
produce a research study relevant to one’s field of study,” we cannot measure this
outcome through a multiple-choice test or matching-type test.

To guide us on choosing the appropriate test format we should be guided with

the following important questions:

1. What are the objectives or desired learning outcomes of the

subject/unit/lesson being assessed?
▪ To decide the test format to be use depends on the learning objectives or
the desired learning outcomes of the subject/unit/lesson.
▪ The desired learning outcomes (DLOs) are statements of what learners
are expected to do or demonstrate as a result of engaging in the learning
process.

2. What level of thinking is to be assessed (remember, understand, apply, analyze,

evaluate, and create)? Does the cognitive level of the question match your instructional
objectives or DLOs?
▪ The level of thinking to be assessed is also an important factor to
consider when designing a test, because this will guide you in choosing
the appropriate test format.
For example, if you intend to assess how much your learners are able to
identify important concepts discussed in the class (remember or
understand level), a selected-response format such as multiple-choice or
matching-type test is appropriate. But, if you intend to assess how your
students will be able to explain and apply in another setting a concept
or framework learned in the class (apply and/or analyze level), you can
utilize constructed-response test format such as essays.
▪ It is important when constructing classroom assessment tools, all levels
of cognitive behaviors are expected from Remember (R), Understand
(U), Apply(Ap), Analyze (An), Evaluate (E), and Create (C).
▪ Consider also the Knowledge Dimensions like Factual (F), Conceptual
(C), Procedural (P), and Metacognition (M).

3. Is the test matched or aligned with the course’s desired learning outcomes (DLOs)
and the course content or learning activities?
▪ It is a must that the assessment task should be aligned with the
instructional activities and the desired learning outcomes (DLOs).

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▪ It is important that you understand about what desired learning

outcomes (DLOs) are to be addressed by the test and what course
activities or tasks are to be implemented to achieve the DLOs.

For example, if a teacher want his learners to articulate and justify their
stand on ethical decision-making and social practices in business (i.e.,
DLO), then the teacher can give an essay test and class debate are
appropriate measures and tasks for this learning outcomes. A multiple-
choice test can also be utilized but only if the teacher intend to assess
learners’ ability to recognize what is ethical and unethical decision-
making practice. In the same manner, matching-type items may be
appropriate if the teacher want to know whether the students can
differentiate and match the different approaches or terms of their
definitions.
4. Are the test items realistic to the students?
▪ Test items should be meaningful and realistic to the learners.
▪ They should be relevant or related to their everyday experiences.
▪ The use of concepts, terms, or situation that have not been discussed in
the class or that they have never encountered, read, and heard about
should be minimized or avoided to prevent learners from making wild
guesses, which will undermine your measurement of what they have
really learned from the class.

5.2.2 Major Categories and Formats of Traditional Tests

What is an objective type of test?
Objective Test
▪ An objective test items are those test that are set in such a way that one and
only one correct answer is available to a given item.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of an objective test?

Advantages of Objective test

The following are some advantages of an objective test:
1. Objective test enhances the assessment of learner’s response to test items
because the scoring is not influenced by the scorer’s bias at the time of scoring
but by the correctness of the answer.
2. Scoring of objective test is easy and takes little time. It can also be scored by

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machine and facilitates high efficiency in testing a large number of examinees.

3. The result of the objective test can be used for diagnostic purposes.

4. It efficient for measuring knowledge of facts. It can also be designed to measure

understanding, thinking skills and other complex outcomes.

5. Objective test can be pre-tested, refined through item analysis, standardized and
reused a number of times if properly handled.

6. It is fair to all examinees since it does not call on other skills outside the skills it is
intended to measure. That is its validity is not affected by good hand writing,
bluffing or the verbiage.

Disadvantages of an Objective Test

1. It does not encourage the development of the examinees originality in desirable
skills such as the ability to select, organize or synthesize ideas.

2. It tends to measure only factual knowledge.

3. Development of good objective test items requires a good training of the test
developers in the skills necessary for constructing effective, valid and reliable items.

4. It needs time, commitment and adequate planning.

5. Objective test lend only guessing when the test items are not skilfully developed.

What are the major categories and formats of traditional tests?

General categories of traditional tests for classroom assessment.
A. Selected-response type
▪ A selected –response type requires learner to choose the correct answer or
the best alternative for several choices.
▪ It can cover a wide range of learning materials efficiently and measure a
variety of learning outcomes but they are limited when assessing learning
outcomes that involve more complex and higher level order thinking skills.
The following are the types of selected-response type of tests.
1. Multiple-Choice Test

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▪ The multiple-choice test is the most commonly used format in testing.

▪ It consist of stem (problem), one correct or best alternative (correct answer),
and three or more incorrect or inferior alternatives (distractors).

Stem
Stem is the part of the item in which the problem is stated for the
examinee. It can be in a form of question, a set of directions or a
statements with an embedded blank.
Alternatives or Options
Alternatives are the choices given for the item.
Key or Answer
Answer is the correct or best choice of the item.
Distractors
Distractors are the incorrect choices of the item.
2. Alternative Response Test
▪ It is a test item stated in declarative form which allows the examinee to
choose between two options concerning the item, where one is the correct
answer and the other is wrong.
▪ The two options could be true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect,
yes or no, fact or opinion, agree or disagree and so on.
▪ Alternative response test item is limited only to a simple learning outcomes.

3. Matching-Type Test
▪ The matching type test usually consist of two parallel column. One column
contains a list of word, number, symbol or other stimuli (premises) to be
matched to a word, sentence phrase, or other possible answer from the other
column (responses) lists.

B. Constructed-Response Test
▪ Are test that require learners to supply answer to the given question or
problem.

Constructed response test include the following:

1. Short Answer Test
▪ It consist of open-ended questions or incomplete sentence that require
learners to create an answer to each item, which is actually a single word or
a short phrase.

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This includes the following:

Completion:
A completion consist of incomplete statements that requires the
learners to fill in the blanks with the correct word or phrase.
Identification:
It is a test consist of statements that requires the leaners to
identify or recall the terms, concepts, people, place or events
that are being describe.
Enumeration:
An enumeration requires the learners to list down all possible
answers to the question.

2. Essay Test
▪ It is a test that consist of problems/questions that require the learners to
compose or construct written responses, usually long ones with several
paragraphs.

3. Problem-Solving Test
▪ It consist of problems/questions that require learners to solve problems in
quantitative or non-quantitative settings using knowledge and skills in
mathematical concepts and procedures, and or other higher-order cognitive
skills (reasoning, analysis and critical thinking skills).

5. 2.3 General Guidelines in Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items

What are the general guidelines in writing multiple-choice test items?
Writing a multiple–choice items requires content mastery, writing skills, and time.
Only good and effective items should be included in the test. Poorly-written test
items could be confusing and frustrating to the learners and yield test scores that
are not appropriate to evaluate their learning and achievement.

General guidelines in writing multiple-choice test items

The guidelines in writing multiple-choice test are classified in terms of content, stem
and option.

General Rules used for writing multiple-choice items. Recognize that these are
general rules; not all rules will be applicable to all types of testing.

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1. When possible, state the stem as a direct question rather than an incomplete
statement.
Poor: Alloys are ordinarily produced by ______.

Better: How are alloy ordinarily produced?

2. Eliminate excessive verbiage or irrelevant information from the stem.

Poor: While ironing her formal dress, Jane burned her hand accidentally on
the hot iron. This due to transfer of heat between …
Better: Which of the following ways of heat transfer explains why Jane’s hand
has burned after she touched the hot iron?

3. Include in the stem any word/s that might otherwise be repeated in each
alternative.
Poor: If the pressure of the certain amount of gas is held constant, what will
happen if its volume is increased?
A. The temperature of the gas will decreased.
B. The temperature of the gas will increased.
C. The temperature of the gas will remains the same.
Better: If you increase the volume of certain amount of gas while holding its
pressure constant, its temperature will:
A. Decreased
B. Increased
C. Remain the same

4. Use negatively stated stems sparingly. When used, highlight, underline and
or capitalized the negative word.
Poor: Which of the following is not cited as an accomplishment of the Aquino
administration?
Better: Which of the following is NOT cited as an accomplishment of the
Aquino administration?

5. Avoid double negative.

Poor: All of the following are correct procedures for putting out a fire in a pan
on the stove except:

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A. Do not move the pan.

B. Pour water into the pan.
C. Slide a fitted lid into the pan.
D. Turn off the burner controls.
Better: All of the following are correct procedures for putting out a fire in a pan
on the stove except:
A. Leave the pan where it is.
B. Pour water into the pan.
C. Slide a fitted lid into the pan.
D. Turn off the burner controls.

6. Make the alternatives mutually exclusive.

Poor: What is the minimum required amount of milk a 10 year old child s
hould drink?
A. 1-2 glasses . C. 3-4 glasses.
B. 2-3 glasses D. at least 4 glasses.
Better: What is the minimum required amount of milk a 10 year old child
should drink?
A. 1 glass . C. 3 glasses.
B. 2 glasses D. 4 glasses.

7. Write options that are parallel or similar in form and length to avoid giving
clues about the correct answer.
Poor: Which of the following is the best indication of high moral in a
supervisor’s unit?
A. The employee are rarely required to work overtime.
B. The employee are willing to give first priority in attaining group
objectives, subordinating any personal desires they may have.
C. The supervisor enjoys staying late to plan the next day.
D. The unit gives expensive birthday present to each other.
Better: Which of the following is the best indication of high moral in a
supervisor’s unit?
A. The employee are rarely required to work overtime.
B. The employee are willing to give first priority in attaining group
objectives.
C. The supervisor enjoys staying late to plan the next day.

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D. The unit gives expensive birthday present to each other.

8. There should be no grammatical clues to the correct answer.

Poor: Albert Einstein was a:
A. Anthropologist C. Astronomer
B. Chemist D. Mathematician
Better: Who was Albert Einstein?
A. An anthropologist C. An astronomer
B. Chemist D. Mathematician

9. Have diagrams and tables above the item using the information, not below.

10. Keep the alternatives parallel in form. If the answer is worded in a certain
way and the distractors are worded differently, the student may take notice
and respond accordingly.
Poor: You have just spent ten minutes trying to teach one of your new
employees how to change a typewriter ribbon. The employees still
having a great deal of difficulty changing the ribbon even though you
have found it simple to do. At this time you should ________.

A. Tell the employee to ask an experienced employee working nearby

to change the ribbon in the future.
B. Tell the employee that you never found this difficult, and ask what he
or she finds difficult about it.
C. review each of the steps you have already explained and determine
whether the employee understand them.
D. Tell the employee that you will continue teaching him or her later,
because you are becoming irritable.
Better: You have just spent ten minutes trying to teach one of your new
employees how to change a typewriter ribbon. The employees still
having a great deal of difficulty changing the ribbon even though
you have found it simple to do. At this time you should ________.

A. Ask an experienced employee working nearby to change the

ribbon in the future.
B. Mention that you never found this difficult, and ask what he or she
finds difficult about it.

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C. Review each of the steps you have already explained and determine
whether the employee understand them.
D. Tell the employee that you will continue teaching him or her later,
because you are becoming irritable.

11. Avoid textbook, verbatim phrasing since student may recognize the
phrasing and choose correctly out of familiarity rather than achievement.
Poor: The operant conditioning refers to the learning situation in which:
A. A familiar response is associated with the new stimulus.
B. Individual associations are linked together in sequence.
C. A response of the learner is instrumental in leading to a subsequent
reinforcing event.
D. Verbal response are made to verbal stimulus.
Better:The operant conditioning refers to the learning situation in which:
A. A familiar response is associated with the new stimulus.
B. Individual associations are linked together in sequence.
C. Learner’s response leads to reinforcement.
D. Verbal response are made to verbal stimulus.

12. Avoid the use of specific determiners in the distractors.

Poor: To avoid infection after receiving a puncture wound to the hand, you
should ______.
A. Always go the immunization center to receive a tetanus shot.
B. Be treated with an antibiotic only if the wound is painful.
C. Ensure that no foreign object has been left in the wound.
D. Never wipe the wound with alcohol unless it is still bleeding.
Better: To avoid infection after receiving a puncture wound to the hand, you
should ______.
A. Go to the immunization center to receive a tetanus shot.
B. Be treated with an antibiotic only if the wound is painful.
C. Ensure that no foreign object has been left in the wound.
D. Wipe the wound with alcohol unless it is still bleeding.

13. Use plausible distractors.

Poor: Which of the following artists is known for painting the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel?

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A. Darna C. Duterte
C. Michaelangelo D. Santa Clause
Better: Which of the following artists is known for painting the ceiling of the
istine Chapel?
A. Boticelli C. Da Vinci
C. Michaelangelo D. Rafael

14. Place options in logical or numerical order.

Poor: Which experimental gas law that describe how the pressure of a gas
tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases?
A. Faraday’s Law D. Charles Law
B. Beer Lambert Law E. Boyle’s Law
C. Avogadro’s Law
Better: Which experimental gas law that describe how the pressure of a gas
tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases?
A. Avogadro’s Law D. Charles Law
B. Beer Lambert Law E. Faraday’s Law
C. Boyle’s Law
15. Avoid “all of the above” as an option especially if it is intended to be the
correct answer.
Poor: Who among the following has become the President of the Philippine
Senate?
A. Ferdinand Marcos D. Quintin Paredes
B. Manuel Quezon E. All of the above
C. Manuel Roxas
Better: who was the first ever President of the Philippine Senate?
A. Eulogio Rodriguez D. Manuel Roxas
B. Ferdinand Marcos E. Quintin Paredes
C. Manuel Quezon
16. Use “none of the above” carefully and only when there is one absolute
answer, such as in spelling or in math items.
Poor: Which of the following is a nonparametric statistic?
A. ANCOVA D. T-test
B. ANOVA E. None of these
C. Correlation
Better: Which of the following is a nonparametric statistic?

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A. ANCOVA D. Mann-Whitney U
B. ANOVA E. T-test
C. Correlation

17. Keep the vocabulary simple and understandable based on the level of the
learner or examinees.
18. Place the correct response randomly to avoid a discernable pattern of
correct answer.
19. If the students are to hand-write the letters of their chosen answer, let them
use CAPITAL LETTERS. The lower case letter a, b, c, and e can be difficult to
distinguish when scoring.
20. Edit and proofread the items for grammatical and spelling before
administering them to the learners.

5.2.4 General Guidelines in Writing Matching-Type Items

What are the general guidelines in matching-type items?
Matching-type test format requires learners to match a word, sentence, or
phrase in one column (premise) to the corresponding word, sentence, or phrase in
a second column (response) list. It is most appropriate when you need to measure
the learner’s ability to identify the relationship or association between similar terms.

The following are the guidelines in writing a good and effective matching-type test.

1. Use only homogeneous materials in a single matching test.

Example:
Person ----------------- Achievements
Dates ------------------Historical events
Terms------------------ Definitions
Rules ------------------ Examples
Symbols -------------- Concepts
Authors ---------------Title of the books
Plants/animals -----Classifications

Direction:
On the line to the left are achievement listed in Column A, write the
letter of man’s name in Column B who is noted for that achievements.

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Column A Column B
___1. Invented telephone A. Alexander Bell
___2. Discovered America B. Christopher Columbus
___3. First US astronaut to orbit on Earth C. John Glen
___4. First President of the Philippines D. Allan Shepard
E. Ferdinand Magellan
The list of achievement may appear homogeneous but the truth it is a
homogeneous collection of inventors, explorers, and presidents. In order to
obtain homogeneity, it is necessary to have only inventors and their inventions,
explorers and their discoveries, etc.

2. Clearly state in the directions the basis for matching the stimuli with the
responses.
Poor:
Direction: Match the following.
Better:
Direction: Column A is a list of countries while Column B
presents the continent where this countries are located. Write the letter
of the continent corresponding to the country on the line provided in
column A.

3. Provide more responses options than the number of stimuli.

Poor: Match the following fractions in Column A with their corresponding
decimal equivalent in Column B.
Column A Column B
___1. ¼ A. 0.25
___2. 5/4 B. 0.28
___3. 7/25 C. 0.90
___4. 9/10 D. 1.25

Better: Match the following fractions in Column A with their corresponding

decimal equivalent in Column B.
Column A Column B
___1. ¼ A. 0.09
___2. 5/4 B. 0.25

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___3. 7/25 C. 0.28

___4. 9/10 D. 0.90
E. 1.25

4. Ensure that the stimuli are longer and the responses are shorter.
Poor: Match the country in Column A to the description of its flag in Column
B.
Column A Column B
___1. Bangladesh A. Green background with red circle in the center.
___2. Indonesia B. One red strip on top and white strip at the bottom.
___3. Japan C. Red background with white five-petal flower in the
center.
___4. Singapore D. Red background with large yellow circle in the center.
___5. Thailand E. Red background with large yellow pointed star in the
center.
F. White background with large red circle in the center.

Better: Match the description of the flag in Column A to its country in Column

Column A Column B
___1. Green background with red circle in the center. A. Bangladesh
___2. One red strip on top and white strip at the bottom. B. Hong Kong
___3. Red background with white five-petal flower in the C. Indonesia
center.
___4. Red background with large yellow pointed star in the D. Japan
center.
___5. White background with large red circle in the center. E. Singapore
F. Vietnam

5. Make the response option short, homogeneous, and arranged in logical

order.
Poor: Match the chemical elements with their characteristics.
Column A Column B
___1. Gold A. Au
___2. Hydrogen B. magnetic metal used in steel
___3. Iron C. Hg

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___4. Potassium D. K
___5. Sodium E. With lowest density
F. Na
Better: Match the chemical elements in Column A with their symbols in
Column B.
Column A Column B
___1. Gold A. Au
___2. Hydrogen B. Fe
___3. Iron C. H
___4. Potassium D. Hg
___5. Sodium E. K
F. Na

6. Include response option that are reasonable and realistic, similar in length
and grammatical form.
Poor: Match the course descriptions in Column A to the subject in Column B.
Column A Column B
___1. Understand the role of mental functions A. History
In social behavior.
___2. Study of politics and power. B. Political Science
___3. Study of society C. Sociology
___4. Uses narratives to examine and D. Psychology
analyze the past events. E. Zoology

Better: Match the course descriptions in Column A to the subject in Column B.

Column A Column B
___1. Study of living things A. Biology
___2. Study of mind and behavior. B. History
___3. Study of politics and power. C. Political Science
___4. Study of recorded events in the past. D. Psychology
___5. Study of society. E. Sociology
F. Zoology

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5.2.5 General Guidelines in Writing True or False Items

What are the general guidelines in writing true or false items?
True or false items are used to measure learner’s ability to identify whether
statement or proposition is correct or incorrect. They are best used when learner’s
ability to judge or evaluate is one of the desired learning outcomes of the course.

Different variations of the true or false items.

1. T-F Correction or modified True-False Question.
In this format, the statement presented with a key word or phrase that
is underlined, and supply the correct word or phrase.
Example:
Multiple-choice test is authentic.
2. Yes-No Variation.
In this format, you will have to choose yes or no rather than true or false.
Example:
The following are kinds of test. Circle YES if it is authentic test
and NO if not.
Multiple-choice test YES NO
Debates YES NO
End-of- the-term project YES NO
True or False Test YES NO

3. A-B Variation.
In this format, the learner has to choose A or B, rather than true or false.
Example:
Indicate which of the following are traditional or authentic test
by circling A if it is traditional and B if it is authentic.
Traditional Authentic
Multiple-choice test A B
Debates A B
End-of- the-term project A B
True or False Test A B

General Guidelines in Writing True or False Items

1. Include the statements that are completely true or completely false.

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Poor: The presidential system of government, where the president is the only
head of the state, is adopted by the United States, Chile, Panama, and
South Korea.

Better: The presidential system, where the president is the only head of the
state, is adopted by Chile.

You can notice in item # 1 is of poor quality because the countries

given are not all correct. South Korea has a presidential form of
government, it has also a prime minister who govern alongside with the
president.

2. Use simple and easy-to-understand statements.

Poor: Education is a continuous process of higher adjustment for human being

who have evolved physically and mentally, which is free and conscious
of God, as manifested in nature around the intellectual, emotion, and
humanity of man.
Better: Education is the process of facilitating learning or the acquisition of
knowledge, skills, and habits.

Item # 1 is confusing to the learners because there are many

ideas in one statement.

3. Refrain from using negatives, especially double negatives.

Poor: There is nothing illegal about buying goods through the internet.
Better: It is illegal to buy things or goods through the internet.

Double negation are sometimes confusing and could result to a

wrong answer, not because the student does not know the answer but
because of how the test items are presented.

4. Avoid using absolutes such as “always and never.”

Poor: The news and information posted on the CNN website is always
accurate.

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Better: The news and information posted on the CNN website is usually
accurate.
Absolute words such as “always and never” restrict possibilities
and make a statement true all the time. They are also hint for a false
answer.
5. Express a single idea in each test item.

Poor: If the object is accelerating, a net force must be acting on it, and the
acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force applied
to the object.
Better: If an object is accelerating, a net force must be acting on it.

Item # 1 consist of two conflicting ideas, wherein one is not

correct.

6. Avoid the use of unfamiliar words or vocabulary.

Poor: Esprit the corps among soldier is important in the face of hardship and
opposition in fighting the terrorists.
Better: Military morale is important in the face of hardship and
opposition in fighting the terrorists.

Student may have difficult time to understand the statement,

especially if the words has not been discussed in the class. Using
unfamiliar words would likely lead to guessing.

7. Avoid lifting statement from the textbooks and other learning materials.

5.2.6 General Guidelines in Writing Short-Answer Test Items

What are the general guidelines in writing short-answer test items?

A short-answer test item requires the learners to answer question or finish an

incomplete statement by filling in the blank with the correct word or phrase. While
it is most appropriate when you only intend to assess learner’s lower-level thinking,
you can create items that minimize guessing and relevant clues to the correct
answer.

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General Guidelines in Writing Short-Answer Test Items

1. Omit only significant words from the statement.

Poor: Every atom has a central _______ called a nucleus.

Better: Every atom has a central core called a(n) _______.

In the item # 1, the word core is not the significant word.

2. Do not omit too many words from the statement such that the intended
meaning is lost.

Poor: _____ is to Spain as the _____ is to United States and as _____ is to

Germany.
Better: Madrid is to Spain as the _____ is to France.

Item # 1 is prone to many and varied answer, while item # 2 is more

specific and requires only one correct answer.

3. Avoid obvious clues to the correct answer.

Poor: Ferdinand Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972. Who was the president
that time?
Better: The president during martial law years was _____.

Item # 1 already gives a clue that Ferdinand Marcos was the president
during that time because only the president can declare martial law.

4. Be sure that there is only one correct response.

Poor: The government should start using renewable energy source for
generating electricity, such as ______.
Better: The government should start using renewable sources of energy by
using turbines called ______.

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Item #1 has many possible answer because the statement is general

(wind, solar, biomas, geothermal, and hydroelectric) while item # 2 is more
specific and require only one correct answer.

5. Avoid grammatical clues to correct response.

Poor: A subatomic particle with negative electric charge is called an _____.

Better: A subatomic particle with negative electric charge is called a(n) _____.

The word “an” provides a clue that the correct answer start with a
vowel.

6. If possible, put the blank at the end or towards the end of the incomplete
statement.

Poor: ______ is the basic building block of matter.

Better: The basic building block of matter is ______.

5.2.7 General Guidelines in Writing Essay Tests

What are the general guidelines in writing essay test?
Teachers generally choose essay test over other forms of assessment because it
require learners to create a response rather than to simply select a response from
among alternatives. Essay are preferred form of assessment when teachers want to
measure learner’s higher-order thinking skills, particularly their ability to reason,
analyze, synthesize, and evaluate.

The following are the general guidelines in constructing a good essay questions.

1. Clearly define the intended learning outcome to be assessed by the essay test.

To design an effective essay questions, the specific intended learning

outcomes are identified. If the intended learning outcomes to be assessed lack
clarity and specificity, the questions may assess something other than what
they intend to assess.

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2. Refrain from using essay test for intended learning outcomes that are better
assessed by other kinds of assessment.

Some intended learning outcomes can be efficiently and reliably

assessed by selected-type test rather than by essay test. In the same manner,
there are intended learning outcomes that are better assessed using other
authentic assessment such as performance test, rather than by essay test. It is
important to take into consideration the limitations of essay test when planning
and deciding what assessment method to employ for an intended learning
outcome.

3. Clearly define and situate the task within a problem situation as well as
the type of thinking required to answer the test.

Essay questions should provide clear and well-defined task to the

learner. It is important to carefully choose the directive verb, to write clearly
the object or focus of the directive verb and to delimit the scope of the task.

4. Present task that are fair, reasonable, and realistic to the students.

Essay question should contain task or questions that student will be able
to do or address. These include those that are within the level of
instruction/training, expertise, and experience of the students.

5. Be specific in the prompts about the time allotment or criteria for grading the
response.

Essay prompts and directions should indicate the approximate time

given to the students to answer the essay questions to guide them on how much
time they should allocate for each item, especially when if several questions are
presented. How responses are to be graded should also be clarified to guide
the students on what to include in their responses.

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Assessment:
A. Discuss your answer in the following questions:

1. What factors should be considered when choosing a particular test format?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________.

2. What are the major categories and formats of traditional tests?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________.

3. When are the following traditional tests appropriate to use?

a. Multiple-choice test
b. Matching-type test
c. True or false test
d. Short answer test
e. Essay test

B. Writing Test Items

1. Write a sample test items based on the different learning objectives as shown
on the table below. Identify the item type you have used.

Learning Objectives Item Type Sample Test Item

1. Identify the characters of the
story.
2. Add fractions with similar
denominators.
3. Classify different mammals.
4. Explain the use of
thermometer.

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5. Name five national symbols

of the Philippines.
6. Differentiate tsunami from a
storm surge.
7. Classify hand tools according
to use.
8. Find the perimeter of the
given area.

2. Select a unit of study in any subject area of your choice. You can use a chapter in
a book being used by an elementary grade high school learner. Study this chapter
well and identify the topic areas and the learning outcomes intended to be
developed. Out of these learning outcomes, construct a five (5) test questions for
each of the following format:
a. Multiple-choice
b. Matching-type
c. True-false
d. Completion type
d. One (1) Essay question
Consider the guidelines general guidelines on developing and constructing the test
items.

C. Improving Multiple Choice and Matching-Type Items.

1. Write an improve version of each items based on the guidelines of constructing
multiple-choice tests.
Sample Multiple-Choice Items Improve Version
1. Which of the following organisms
that live on Planet Earth would be the
largest in number?
A. Ants
B. Snails
C. Ducks
D. Cows
2. What advantage do plants with
flowers that open only at night have?
A. Enhanced fruits

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B. Bright coloration
C. Protected from flower
breeders.
D. Pollinators of the plant are active at
night.
3. A neutral atom
A. dangerous
B. equal in size
C. useful in making an atomic bomb
D. has equal number of protons and
electrons
4. What is predicted to be a result of
global warming?
A. Frequent volcanic eruption
B. Economic instability.
C. Rising ocean level
D. Increase weather temperature
5. Possessions of illegal and dangerous
drugs is against
A. an existing law
B. a religious dogma
C. a psychological principle
D. All-of–the -above

2. Given below is an sample of matching-type item. Study it very well and write at
least five (5) problems you see in this sample.

Direction: Match Column A with Column B

Column A Column B
1. water lily A. flower
2. narra B. tree
3. bamboo C. vine
4. mango D. ornamental
5. orchid
6. yellow bell
7. fortune plant

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8. banana plant
9. grass
10. gardenia
Observations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

D. Answer the following items. Write the letter of the best answer on the space provided
before each number.
1. What are these statements that learners are expected to do or demonstrate as a
result of engaging in the learning process?
A. desired learning outcomes C. Learning intent
B. Learning goals D. Learning objectives

2. Which of the following is NOT a Factor to consider when choosing a particular

test format.
A. Desired learning outcomes of the lesson
B. Grade level of the students
C. Learning activities
D. Level of thinking to be assessed

3. Mr. Tan is planning to use a traditional type of classroom assessment for his
trigonometry quarterly quiz. Which of the following test formats he will likely NOT
use?
A. Fill-in-the-blank test C. Multiple-type test
B. Matching-type d. Oral presentation

4. What is the type of test in which the learners are ask to formulate their own
answer?
A. Alternative response type C. Multiple-Choice
B. Constructive response type D. Selected-response type

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5. What is the type of true or false test items in which the statement is presented with a
key word or brief phrase that is underlined, and the students has to supply the
correct word or phrase.
A. A-B variation C. T-F substitution variation
B. T-F correction question D. Yes-No variation

6. What is the type of test item in which learners are required to answer a question by
filling a blank with a correct word or phrase?
A. Essay
B. Fill in the blank or completion test item
C. Modified true or false
D. Short answer test.

7. What is the most appropriate test format to use if teacher want to measure
learners’ higher order thinking skills, particularly their abilities to reason, analyze,
synthesize and evaluate?
A. Essay C. Multiple-Choice
B. Matching-type D. True or false

8. What is the first step when planning to construct a final exam in English?
A. Come up with a table of specification.
B. Decide on the length of the test
C. Define the desired learning outcomes
D. Select the type of test to construct

9. What is the type of learning outcome that Ms. Delmonte is assessing if she want
to construct a multiple-choice test for her Prof. Ed. class?
A. Knowledge C. Problem solving skills
B. Performance D. Product

10. In constructing a fill-in-the-blank or completion test, what are the guidelines that
should be followed?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

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UNIT 6: STABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

6.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Determine whether the test is valid and reliable;

b. Use procedure and statistical analysis to establish validity and reliability;
c. Decide which test items are easy and difficult;
d. Cite evidences of validity and reliability in teacher-made tests.

6.1. Introduction
It is not unusual for the teachers to receive complaints or comments from
students regarding tests and other assignments. For one, there may be an issue
concerning the coverage of the test. Students may have been tested on areas which
are not of the content domain. They may not have been given the opportunity to
study the materials. The emphasis of the test may also be too complex, inconsistent
with the performance verbs in the learning outcomes.
Validity alone does not ensure high quality assessment. Reliability of the test
result should also be considered. Questions on reliability surface if there are
inconsistencies in the results when test are administered over different time periods,
sample of question or groups.
Both validity and reliability are considered when gathering information or
evidences about student achievement. This unit discusses the distinction between
validity and reliability.

6.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

6.2.1 Validity

What is validity?
Validity
▪ It derived from a Latin word validus, meaning strong.
▪ In assessment, it is deemed valid if it measures what is supposed to
measure.
▪ It pertains to the accuracy of the inferences teachers make about
students based on the information gathered from an assessment
(McMillan, 2007; Fives and DiDonato-Barnes, 2013). This implies that

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the conclusions teachers come up with in their evaluation of students

performances is valid if there are strong and sound evidences of the
extent of students’ learning.
▪ An assessment is valid if it measures a student’s actual knowledge and
performance with respect to the intended learning outcomes, and not
something else.
For example, an assessment for measuring arithmetic skills of grade 4 pupils is
invalid if it used grade 1 pupils because of issues on content and level of performance.
A test that measures recall of mathematical formula is invalid if it is supposed to
assess problem-solving.
A measure is valid when it measures what it is supposed to measure. If a quarterly
exam is valid, then the contents should directly measure the objectives of the
curriculum.

What are the different ways to establish validity?

There are different ways to establish validity.

Types of validity Definition Procedure

Content validity When the items represent The items are compared with the
the domain being measured. objectives of the program. The items
needs to measure directly the
objectives (for achievement) or
definition (for scale). A reviewer
conduct for checking.
Face validity When the test is presented The items and layout are reviewed and
well, free of errors, and tried out on a small group of
administered well. respondents.
Predictive validity A measure should predict a A correlation coefficient is obtained
future criterion. Example is where the x-variable is used as the
an entrance exam predicting predictor and the y-variable as the
the grades of the students criterion.
after the first semester.
Construct validity The components or factors The Pearson r can be used to correlate
of the test should contain the items for each factor. However,
items that are strongly there is a technique called factor
correlated. analysis to determine which items are
highly correlated to form a factor.
Concurrent When two or more The scores on the measures should be
validity measures are present for correlated.
each examinee that
measures the same
characteristic.
Convergent When the components or Correlation is done for the factors of
validity factors of a test are the test.

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hypothesized to have a
positive correlation.
Divergent validity When the components or Correlation is done for the factors of
factors of the test are the test.
hypothesized to have a
negative correlation.

Examples of cases for each type of validity

1. Concurrent validity
A coordinator in science is checking the science test paper for grade 4. She ask
the science teacher to submit containing the objectives of the lesson and the
corresponding items.

2. Face validity
The assistant principal browsed the test paper made by the math teacher. She
checked if the contents of the items are about mathematics. She also examine if the
instructions are clear.

3. Predictive validity
The school admission’s office develop an entrance examination. The officials
wanted to determine if the results of the entrance examination are accurate in
identifying good students.

4. Concurrent validity
A school guidance counsellor administered math achievement test to grade 6
students. She wanted to verify if the math grades of the students are measuring the
same competencies as the math achievement test.

5. Construct validity
A science test was made by a grade 10 teacher composed of four domains:
matter, living things, force and motion, and the earth space. There are 10 items for
each domain. The teacher wanted to determine if the 10-items made under each
domain really belong to that domain.

6. Convergent validity
A math teacher developed a test to be administered at the end of the school
year, which measures number sense, pattern and algebra, measurement, geometry,
and statistics. It is assumed by the teacher that student’s competencies in number
sense improves their capacity to learn patterns and algebra and other components.

7. An English teacher taught metacognitive awareness strategy to comprehend a

paragraph for grade 11 students. She wanted to determine if the performance of her
student in reading comprehension would reflect well in the reading comprehension
test. She administered the same reading comprehension test to another class which

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was not taught the metacognitive awareness strategy. She compared the result using
a t-test for independent samples and found that class that was taught metacognitive
awareness strategy perform significantly better than the other group.

What are the threats to validity?

Threats to Validity
Miller, Linn & Gronlund (2009) identified factors that affect validity of
assessment results. These factors are defects in the construction of assessment tasks
that would render assessment inferences inaccurate.
1. Unclear test direction
2. Complicated vocabulary and sentence structure
3. Ambiguous statements
4. Inadequate time limits
5. Inappropriate level of difficulty of the test items
6. Poorly constructed test items
7. Inappropriate test items for outcomes being measured
8. Short test
9. Improper arrangement of the items
10. Identifiable pattern of the answer

What are the suggestions for enhancing validity

Mcmillan (2007) laid down suggestions for enhancing validity. These are as
follows:
1. Ask others to judge the clarity of what you are assessing
2. Check to see if different ways of assessing the same thing give the same result
3. Sample a sufficient number of examples of what is being assessed.
4. Prepare a detailed table of specification
5. Ask other to judge the match between the assessment items and theobjective
of the assessment

6.2.2 Reliability

What is reliability?

Reliability
▪ A test is seen as being reliable when it can be used by a number of
different researchers under stable conditions, with consistent results and
the results not varying.
▪ Reliability reflects consistency and replicability over time. Furthermore,
reliability is seen as the degree to which a test is free from measurement
errors, since the more measurement errors occur the less reliable the test
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003; McMillan & Schumacher, 2001, 2006; Moss,
1994; Neuman, 2003).

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▪ An assessment is said to be reliable if it produces the same results if

given to an examinee on two occasions.

What are the different factors that affects reliability of a measure?

There are the different factors that affects reliability of a measure. The
reliability of measure can be high or low, depending on the following factors:

1. The number of items in a test

▪ The more items the test has, the likelihood of the reliability is high. The
probability of obtaining consistent scores is high
because of the large pool of items.

2. Individual differences of the participants

▪ Every participants possesses characteristics that affect their performance
in a test, such as fatigue, concentration, innate ability, perseverance, and
motivation. These factors change over time and affect the consistency of
the answer in the test.

3. External environment
▪ The external environment may include room temperature, noise level,
depth of instruction, exposure to materials, and quality of instruction,
which could affect changes in the responses of the examinees in a test.

What are the different ways to establish test reliability?

There are different ways in determining reliability of the test.
The different types or reliability are indicated and how they are done.

1. Test-retest reliability
▪ The test-retest reliability correlates scores obtained from two
administrations of the same test over a period of time.
▪ It is used to determine the stability of the test result over time. It assumes
that there is no considerable change in the construct between the first
and the second testing. A short gap between the testing sessions is also
not recommendable because subjects may still recall their responses.

2. Parallel form of reliability

▪ Parallel form of reliability ascertain the equivalency of forms.
▪ In this method, two different versions of an assessment tool are
administered to the same group of individuals. The test items are
parallel, they prove the same construct, base knowledge or skills.
▪ Equivalent forms are ideal for makeup test or action researches that
would utilize pre-test and post-test.

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3. Split-half method
▪ The split-half method is done by dividing the test into two – separating
the first half and the second half of the test or by odd and even numbers,
and the correlating the result of the two halves.

▪ Split is effective for large test with several items measuring the same
construct. To improve the reliability of the test employing this method,
items with low correlations are either removed or modified.

4. Test of internal consistency using Kuder-Richardson and Cronbach’s Alpha method

▪ This procedure involves determining if the scores for each item are
consistently answered by the examinees. After administering the test to
a group of examinees, it is necessary to determine and record the scores
for each item in order to see and determine if the responses per item are
consistent with each other.

5. Inter-rater reliability
▪ This procedure involves determine the consistency of multiple raters
when using rating scales and rubrics to judge performance.
▪ The reliability here refers to the similar or consistent ratings provided
by more than one rater or judge when they use an assessment tool.
▪ Inter-rater is applicable when the assessment requires the use of
multiple raters.

6.2.3 Item Analysis

What is an Item Analysis?
Item Analysis
▪ Item Analysis is the process of “testing the item” to ascertain
whether the item is functioning properly in measuring what the
entire test is measuring.

Purpose of Item Analysis

➢ designed to help whether an item functions as intended with respect to
discriminating between high and low achievers.
➢ it measures the effect of the instruction in a criterion referenced test items.
➢ it is a means of determining items having desirable qualities of a measuring
instrument.

Uses of Item Analysis

➢ Providing data on which to base discussion of the test results.
➢ Remediation of learning deficiencies.

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➢ Subsequent improvement of classroom instruction.

How to determine if an item is easy or difficult?

▪ An item is difficult if majority of the students are unable to provide the
correct answer.
▪ The item is easy if majority of the students are able to answer correctly.
▪ An item can discriminate if the examinees who scored high in the test can
answer more the items correctly than examines who got low scores.
Example:
Below is a dataset of five items on the addition and subtraction of integers.
Follow the procedure to determine the difficulty and discrimination of
each item.

1. Get the total score of each students and arrange scores from highest to
lowest.
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
Student 1 0 0 1 1 1
Student 2 1 1 1 0 1
Student 3 0 0 0 1 1
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1
Student 5 0 1 1 1 1
Student 6 1 0 1 1 0
Student 7 0 0 1 1 0
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0
Student 9 1 0 1 1 1
Student 10 1 0 1 1 0

2. Select the upper and the lower group (25% or 27%)

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total
Score
Student 2 1 1 1 0 1 4
Student 5 0 1 1 1 1 4
Student 9 1 0 1 1 1 4
Student 1 0 0 1 1 1 3
Student 6 1 0 1 1 0 3
Student 10 1 0 1 1 0 3

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Student 3 0 0 0 1 1 2
Student 7 0 0 1 1 0 2
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0 2
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1 1

3. Obtain the proportion correct of each item. This is computed for the upper 27%
group and the lower 27% group. This is done by summating the correct answer per
item and dividing it by the total number of students.
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total
Score
Upper Group
Student 2 1 1 1 0 1 4
Student 5 0 1 1 1 1 4
Student 9 1 0 1 1 1 4
Total 2 2 3 2 3
Proportion 2/3 2/3 3/3 2/3 3/3
of the H = = = = =
group
0.67 0.67 1.0 0.67 1.0
(HL)
Lower Group
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total
Score
Student 7 0 0 1 1 0 2
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0 2
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1 1
Total 0 1 2 1 1
Proportion 0/3 1/3 2/3 1/3 1/3
of the low = = = = =
group (PL)
0.00 0.33 0.67 0.33 0.33

4. The item difficulty is obtained using the following formula:

𝑷𝑯+𝑷𝑳
Item difficulty = 𝟐

Where: PH is proportion of the H group

PL is proportion of the low group

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The difficulty is interpreted using the table:

Difficulty Index Remark
0.81 – 1.0 Very easy item
0.61 – 0.80 Easy item
0.41 – 0.60 Easy item
0.21 – 0.40 Moderately
difficulty item
0.00 – 0.20 Very difficult item

Example:
Solution:
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
0.67 + 0 0.67 + 0.33 2.00 + 0.67 1.0 + 0.33 1.0 + 0.33
2 2 2 2 2
Index of 0.33 0.50 0.83 0.50 0.67
difficulty
Item Moderately Easy item Very easy Easy item Easy item
difficulty difficulty item item

5. The index of discrimination is obtained using the formula:

Item Discrimination = PH – PL

Where: PH is proportion of the H group

PL is proportion of the low group

The value is interpreted using the table:

Index Discrimination Remarks

0.40 and above Very Good Item
0.30 – 0.39 Good Item
0.20 – 0.29 Reasonably Good Item
0.10 – 0.19 Marginal Item
Below 0.10 Poor Item

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Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5

PH – PL PH – PL PH – PL PH – PL PH – PL
0.67 - 0 0.67 – 0.33 2.0 – 0.67 1.0 – 0.33 1.00 – 0.33
Discrimination 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.67
Index
Discrimination Very Good Good Item Good Item Good Item Very Good
Item Item

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Assessment:

A. Indicate the type of reliability applicable for each case. Write the type of
reliability on the space before the number.
Type of
Reliability
1. Mr. Perez conducted a survey of his students to determine their study
habits. Each item is answered using a five-point scale (always, often,
sometimes, rarely, and never). He wanted to determine if the responses
for each item are consistent. What reliability technique is
recommended?
2. A teacher administered a spelling test to her students. After a day
another spelling test was given with the same length and stress of
words. What reliability can be used for the two spelling tests?
3. A P. E. teacher requested two judges to rate the dance performance of
her students in physical education. What reliability can be used to
determine the reliability of the judgements?
4. An English teacher administered a test to determine student’s use of
verb given a subject with 20 items. The scores were divided into
items 1 to 10, and the other for the items 11 to 20. The teacher
correlated the two sets of scores that form the same test. What
reliability is done here?
5. A computer teacher gave a set of typing test on Wednesday and gave
the same set the following week. The teacher wanted to know if the
student’s typing skills are consistent. What reliability can be used?

B. Indicate the type of validity applicable foe each case. Write the type of validity on the
blank before the number.
Typeof
Reliability
1. A science coordinator developed a science test to determine who
among the students will be placed in advanced science section. The
students who scored high in the science test were selected. After two
quarters, the grades of the students in the advanced science were
correlated with the science grades to check if the science test were
accurate in the selection of the students. What type of validity was

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used?
2. A test composed of listening comprehension, reading comprehension,
and visual comprehension items was administered to students. The
researcher determined if the scores on each area refers to the same skill on
comprehension. The researcher hypothesized a significant and positive
relationship among these factor. What validity was established?
3. The guidance counsellor conducted an interest inventory that
measured the following factors: realistic, investigative, artistic,scientific,
enterprising and conventional. The guidance counsellor wanted to
provide evidence that the item conducted really belong to the factor
proposed. After the analysis, the proposed item had high factor loading
on the domain they belong to. What validity was conducted?
4. The technology and livelihood education teacher developed a
performance task to determine student competency in preparing a
dessert. The students were tasked with selecting a dessert, preparing the
ingredients, and making the dessert in the kitchen. The teacher
developed a set of criteria to assess the dessert. What type of validity
is shown here?
5. The teacher in a robotics class taught students to create a program to
make the arms of a robot move. The assessment was a performance task
of making a program three kinds of robot arm movement. The same
assessment task was given to students with no robotics class. The
programming performance of the two classes was compared.
What validity was established?

C. An English teacher administered a 15 items unit test to 15 students. Each item is

encoded, wherein a correct answer is marked as “1”, and the incorrect answer is
marked as “0”. Conduct an item analysis and determine the following:

1. Determine whether the items are easy or difficult.

2. Determine the Index discrimination and write if it is very good item,
good item, fair item, or poor item.

Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Student 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Student 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

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Student 3 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
Student 4 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
Student 5 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Student 6 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Student 7 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Student 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
Student 9 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Student 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
10
Student 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
11
Student 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
12
Student 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
13
Student 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
14
1Student 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
15

D. Multiple Choice
Read the statement carefully and choose the letter of the best answer on the
space provided before each number.

_____1. Which is a way in establishing test reliability?

A. The test is examined if free from errors and properly administered.
B. Scores in a test with different versions are correlated to test if they are
parallel.
C. The components or factors of the test contain item that are strongly
uncorrelated.
D. Two or more measures are correlated to show the same characteristics of the
examinee.
____2. What is being established if items in the test are consistently answered by the
students?
A. Internal consistency
B. Inter-rater reliability
C. Test-retest
D. Split half

____3. Which type of validity is established if the components or factors of a test are

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hypothesized to have a negative correlation?

A. Construct validity
B. Predictive validity
C. Content validity
D. Divergent validity

____4. How do we determine if an item is easy or difficult?

A. An item is easy if majority of the student are not able to provide the correct
answer. The item is difficult if majority of the students are able to answer
correctly.
B. The item is difficult if majority of the students are not able to provide the
correct answer. The item is easy if majority of the student are able to answer
correctly.
C. An item can be determined difficult if the examinee who are high in the test
can be answer more the items correctly than the examinee who got low
scores. If not, the item is easy.
D. An item can be determined easy if the examinee who are high in the test
can be answer more the items correctly than the examinee who got low
scores. If not, the item is difficult.

____5. Which is used when the scores of two variables measured by a test taken at two
different times by the same participants are correlated?
A. Pearson r correlation B. Linear regression
C. Significance of correlation D. Positive and negative correlation

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UNIT 7: ORGANIZATION OF TEST DATA USING TABLES

AND GRAPHS

7.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Determine and identify types of graph;
b. Differentiate between skewness and normal curve;
c. Organize test data using tables and graph
d. Describe the shape of normal distributions;
e. Interpret frequency distribution of test data.

7.1. Introduction
Test data are better appreciated and communicated if they are arranged,
organized and presented clearly. Good presentation requires designing a table that
can be read easily and quickly. Tables and graphs are common tools that help
readers better understand the test results that are conveyed to concerned group like
teachers, students, parents, administrators, or researcher, which are used as basis in
developing programs to improve learning of students.
This unit will discuss types of graph, how to organize and present data
through tables, and the variations on the shapes of frequency distribution.

7.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

7.2.1 Types of Graph

How do we organize and present ungrouped data through table?

Table 1. Score of 100 College Students in a Final Examination

53 30 21 42 33 41 42 45 32 58
36 51 42 49 64 46 57 35 45 51
75 38 49 54 61 36 53 48 52 49
41 58 42 43 49 51 42 50 62 60
33 43 78 52 58 45 53 40 60 33
75 66 78 52 58 45 53 40 60 33
46 45 79 33 46 43 47 37 33 64
37 36 36 46 41 43 42 47 56 62
50 53 49 39 52 52 50 37 53 40
34 43 43 57 48 43 42 42 65 35

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In the table, the test scores are presented as a simple list of raw scores. Raw
scores are easy to get because these are scores that are obtained from administering a
test or any rating scale to measure knowledge, skills or other attributes of interest.
Most likely, the data do not look interesting nor meaningful.

What is a frequency distribution?

Table 2. Frequency Distribution of Test Scores

Test scores (x) Frequency (f) Percent Cumulative Percent
21 1 1 1
30 1 1 2
32 1 1 3
33 6 6 9
34 1 1 10
35 3 3 13
36 4 4 17
37 4 4 21
38 1 1 22
39 1 1 23
40 2 2 25
41 3 3 28
42 9 9 37
43 7 7 44
45 4 4 48
46 4 4 52
47 2 2 54
48 2 2 56
49 6 6 62
50 4 4 66
51 3 3 69
52 4 4 73
53 5 5 78
54 1 1 79
56 1 1 80
57 4 4 84
58 3 3 87
60 2 2 89
61 1 1 90
62 3 3 93
64 2 2 95
65 1 1 96
66 1 1 97
75 1 1 98
78 1 1 99
79 1 1 100
Total 100 100

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Frequency Distribution
▪ Table 2 is a simple frequency distribution that shows an ordered
arrangement of scores, which is better than the random arrangement of
raw scores in table 1. You can create simple frequency distribution by
simply tallying the scores. There is no grouping of scores but a recording
of frequency in a single test score. With this table, you know the just a
second what is the highest and lowest score, and the corresponding
counts for each score. The frequency and percent columns give more
specific test score. The cumulative percentage in the last column
calculates the percentage of percentage of the cumulative frequency
below a certain score in the database. For example, in the 6th row, the
score is 35 has the corresponding cumulative percentage of 13.

Table 3. Frequency Distribution of Grouped Test Scores

Cumulative Cumulative
Class Midpoint f Frequenct Percentage
Interval (X1) (cf)
75-80 77 3 100 100
70-74 72 0 97 97
65-69 67 2 97 97
60-64 62 8 95 95
55-59 57 8 87 87
50-54 52 17 79 79
45-49 47 18 62 62
40-44 42 21 44 44
35-39 37 13 23 23
30-34 32 9 10 10
25-29 27 0 1 1
20-24 22 1 1 1
TOTAL (N) 100

Table 3 illustrates the grouped frequency distribution of test scores.

The wide range of scores listed in table 2 has been reduced to 12 class intervals
with an interval size of 5. Consider the cumulative percent in the 5 th row of the
class interval of 55-59 which is 87. We say that 87 percent of the students got a
score below 60.
The second column enters the midpoints of the test scores in each class
interval. Midpoint connotes the middlemost score, which is halfway between
the exact limit of the interval. The midpoint of the class interval 60-64 is 62.

How are we going to construct Frequency Distribution (Grouped)

Similar to the simple frequency distribution, except that ranges or interval of
scores are used for categories rather than considering each possible score as a category.

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Example: Construct a frequency distribution given the sets of scores in a test.

36 63 51 43 93 54 48 84 36 45
57 45 48 96 66 54 72 81 30 27
45 51 47 63 88
The following are the steps in constructing frequency distribution:

Step 1: Find the range using the formula

R=H–L
R = 96 – 27
Range = 69

Where: R = refers to the range

H = refers to the highest score
L = refers to the lowest score

Step 2: Decide on the number of intervals or number of steps intervals.

Theoretically, the maximum is 20, minimum is 5 and the ideal number
of intervals is 10 (Mann, 2013). The choice of the number of class interval
is arbitrary, though, be sure to use as many categories or intervals as are
necessary to demonstrate variation in the frequencies of scores.

Let us say we use 10 as the number of class intervals.

Step 3: Determine the interval width (i) or interval size and round off to the
nearest odd numbers

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Interval size (i) = 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠

67
Interval size = 10
Interval size = 6.9
i=7

Step 4: Construct the interval column of the lower limits (LL) making sure that
the lowest score in each interval is a multiple of the interval width by 7.
So, we start at 7 as the lowest score and the next store would be an
increment of 7 points and terminates when the highest score has been
reached (highest score is 96, so stop at 98). It does not matter if the lowest
score in the distribution is 27. Since 21 is multiple of 7, then lowest limit
is 21.
Lower Limit
98
91
84
77

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70
63
56
49
42
35
28
Lowest limit-------21
14
7
Step 5. Construct the upper limit (UL). The lowest score of the upper limits (UL) is
one point less than the next interval of the lowest score in the lower limit.

Lower Limit Upper Limit

91 97
84 90
77 83
70 76
63 69
56 62
49 55
42 48
35 41
Next lowest lower limit-----28 34
Lowest limit-------21 27-------(28-1)Lowest upper limit

Step 6. Determine the lowest interval or category and the highest interval or category.
Since the highest score is 96, the highest interval would be 91-97 and the lowest
21-27 since the lowest score is 27.
Category or class intervals
91 – 97------- highest interval
84 - 90
77 - 83
70 - 76
63 - 69
56 - 62
49 - 55
42 - 48
35 - 41
28 - 34
21 – 27-------- lowest interval

Step 7. Make a tally of a number of scores within each category to obtain the frequency
distribution.

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Sets of scores in a test

36 63 51 43 93 54 48 84 36 45
57 45 48 96 66 54 72 81 30 27
45 51 47 63 88
Category or Tally Frequency
class intervals
91 – 97 ll 2
84 – 90 ll 2
77 – 83 l l
70 – 76 l 1
63 – 69 llll 4
56 – 62 l 1
49 – 55 llll 4
42 – 48 lllllll 7
35 – 41 ll 2
28 – 34 l 1
21 – 27 l 1
Total 25 25

Class intervals Frequency

91 – 97 2
84 – 90 2
77 – 83 l
70 – 76 1
63 – 69 4
56 – 62 1
49 – 55 4
42 – 48 7
35 – 41 2
28 – 34 1
21 – 27 1
Total 25

How do we present test data graphically?

You must be familiar with the saying “A picture is worth a thousand words.”
In similar vein, “a graph can be worth a hundred or thousand numbers.” The use of
table may not be enough to give a clear picture of the properties of a group test scores.
If the numbers presented in tables are transformed into visual mods, then the readers
becomes more interested in reading the materials.
Graphs are very useful for the comparison of test results of different groups
of examinees.

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There many types of graphs, but the more common methods of graphing a
frequency distribution are the following:
Types of Graphs

1. Histogram
▪ A histogram is a type of graph appropriate for quantitative data such as
test scores. This graph consist of columns – each has a base that
represents one class interval, and its height represents the number of
observations or simply the frequency in the class interval

Figure 1. Histogram of test scores

2. Frequency polygon
▪ This also used for quantitative data, it is one of the most commonly used
method in presenting test scores.
▪ It is the line graph of a frequency polygon. It is very similar to a
histogram, but instead of bars it uses lines to compare sets of test data in
the same axes.
▪ A frequency polygon is almost identical to a histogram, which is used to
compare sets of data or to display a cumulative frequency distribution.
It uses a line graph to represent quantitative data.

Figure 2. Frequency polygon

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3. Cumulative frequency polygon

▪ This graph is different from the frequency polygon because the
cumulative frequencies are plotted.
▪ Graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a
frequency distribution.

Figure 3. Cumulative frequency polygon

4. Bar Graph
▪ This graph is often used to present frequencies in categories of a
quantitative variables. It looks very similar to a histogram, constructed
in the same manner, but spaces are placed in between the consecutive
bars.
▪ The pictorial representation of a grouped data, in the form of vertical
or horizontal rectangular bars, where the lengths of the bars are
equivalent to the measure of data, are known as bar graphs or bar
charts.
▪ The bars drawn are of uniform width, and the variable quantity is
represented on one of the axes. Also, the measure of the variable is
depicted on the other axes. The heights or the lengths of the bars
denote the value of the variable, and these graphs are also used to
compare certain quantities. The frequency distribution tables can be
easily represented using bar charts which simplify the calculations and
understanding of data.

Figure 4. Bar Graph

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5. Pie graph
▪ One commonly used method to represent categorical data is the use of
circle graph.
▪ A Pie Chart (or Pie Graph) is a special chart that uses “pie slices” to
show relative sizes of data.
▪ The chart is divided into sectors, where each sector shows the relative
size of each value.

Figure 5. Pie graph

Which graph is best?

No one can give the definite to this question. We cannot say what is the best.
The histogram is the easiest in many cases in the quantitative data, but it may not be
appealing if you want to make a comparison of the performance of two or more
groups. Bar graph works well in the qualitative data and if you want to compare the
performance of the sub groups of examinees. Frequency and percentage polygons are
useful for treating quantitative data. The cumulative frequency and percentage
polygon are valuable for determining the percentage of the distribution that falls
below or above the given point.

What are the variations on the shapes of the frequency distribution?

As discussed earlier, a frequency distribution is an arrangement of the set of

observation. These observations in the field of education or other sciences are
empirical data that illustrates situations in the real world. Researchers and scientists,
and educators have found that empirical data, when recorded, fit the following shapes
of frequency distribution.

What is normal distribution?

▪ The normal distribution is the most important and most widely used
distribution in statistics.
▪ It is sometimes called the “bell curve,” or “bell-shaped distribution”
although the tonal qualities of such a bell would be less than pleasing.

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▪ It is also called the “Gaussian curve” after the mathematician Karl

Friedrich Gauss. As you will see in the section on the history of the
normal distribution, although Gauss played an important role in its
history, de Moivre first discovered the normal distribution.
▪ It is a symmetrical distribution, which is also referred as “bell-shaped
distribution”. The higher frequencies are concentrated at the middle of
the distribution. A number of experiments have shown that IQ scores,
height, and weight of human follows a normal distribution.

Figure 6. Normal Distribution

Seven features of normal distributions are listed below. These features

are illustrated in more detail in the remaining sections of this chapter.

1. Normal distributions are symmetric around their mean.

2. The mean, median, and mode of a normal distribution are equal.
3. The area under the normal curve is equal to 1.0.
4. Normal distributions are denser in the center and less dense in the tails.
5. Normal distributions are defined by two parameters, the mean (μ) and the
standard deviation (σ).
6. 68% of the area of a normal distribution is within one standard deviation of
the mean.
7. Approximately 95% of the area of a normal distribution is within two
standard deviations of the mean.

What is skewness?

Skewness
▪ Skewness is a measure of symmetry, or more precisely, the lack of
symmetry. A distribution, or data set, is symmetric if it looks the same
to the left and right of the center point.
▪ Skewness are asymmetrical in shape.

Types of Skewness:

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Teacher expects most of the students get good marks. If it happens, then the
cure looks like the normal curve bellow: But for some reasons (e. g., lazy
students, not understanding the lectures, not attentive etc.) it is not happening.
So we get another two curves.
1. Positive Skewness
▪ If the bulk of the data is at the left and the right tail is longer, we say that
the distribution is skewed right or positively skewed.
▪ Lower scores is clustered to the left side. This means that there are more
who get lower scores and the tail indicates the lower frequencies are on
the right or to the higher scores.

2. Negative Skewness
▪ If the peak is toward the right and the left tail is longer, we say that the
distribution is skewed left or negatively skewed.
▪ There are more who get higher scores and the tail, indicating lower
frequencies of distribution points to the left or to the lower scores.

FIGURE 7. Negatively Skewed and Positively Skewed Distribution

FIGURE 8. Negatively Skewed FIGURE 9. Positively Skewed

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What is kurtosis?
Kurtosis
▪ It is the flatness of the distribution.
▪ Kurtosis is a statistical number that tells us if a distribution is taller or
shorter than a normal distribution. If a distribution is similar to the
normal distribution, the Kurtosis value is 0. If Kurtosis is greater than 0,
then it has a higher peak compared to the normal distribution. If
Kurtosis is less than 0, then it is flatter than a normal distribution.

There are three types of distributions:

1. Leptokurtic: Sharply peaked with fat tails, and less variable.

2. Mesokurtic: Medium peaked
3. Platykurtic: Flattest peak and highly dispersed.

FIGURE 10. Kurtosis

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Assessment:

A. Consider the table showing the results of a reading examination of the set of
students. Answer the questions below.

Frequency Distribution of Sores in Mid-term Examination in Reading

Class Midpoint Frequency Cumulative Cumulative
Interval Frequency Percentage
140-144 142 2 ? ?
135-139 137 7 ? ?
130-134 132 9 ? ?
125-129 127 14 ? ?
120-124 122 10 ? ?
115-119 117 6 ? ?
110-114 112 2 2 ?
Total ?
1. What is being described in the table?
2. How many students are there in the class?
3. What is the class with?
4. The entry in the lowest interval of the 4th column (Cumulative Frequency) is
done for you. Fill up the remaining blank upward. How did you do it?
5. Look at the entire column on the cumulative frequency. What is the
cumulative frequency of the highest class interval? How do you compare this
cumulative frequency with the number of students who took the test?
6. The last column is labelled cumulative percentage. What should be the first
entry at the bottom of the column? How did you determine it? Can you fill
up the entire column with the right percentage?
7. Look at the values in the frequency column. What type of distribution
(positively skewed, negatively skewed, or symmetrical) is depicted by the
given values? Why do you say so?
8. What type of graph is most appropriate for this frequency table?

B. For the following group of 30 scores, construct a frequency distribution. Use 8 as

the number of number of class interval.
60, 60, 63, 68, 70, 72, 75, 75, 75, 76, 76, 77, 78, 80, 83,
83, 84, 88, 93, 93, 91, 94, 94, 94, 94, 95, 97, 98, 100, 100.

C. Multiple Choice:
1. In a normal data distribution with a symmetric bell curve, what is the
skewness?
A. Positive
B. 1
C. Zero
D. Negative

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2. In the graph indicating a negative distribution and skewed bell curve, what
do A, B and C represent, respectively?

A. Mode, Median, Mean

B. Mean, Median, Mode
C. Median, Mode, Mean
D. Mean, Mode, Median

3. What graph was used to represent the test performance of the Grade 5
pupils?

A. Bar graph
B. Horizontal bar graph
C. Histogram
D. Line graph
4. Which section performed twice better than the other section?
A. Section A
B. Section B
C. Section B and C
D. Section A and C

Refer to this picture to answer question # 5and 6.

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5. What period shows the highest increase of student passing the subject?
A. 1st Quarter
B. 2nd Quarter
C. 3rd Quarter
D. 4th Quarter
6. What is the rate of increase of passing from the 2nd to 3rd quarter?
A. 75%
B. 50%
C. 33%
D. 25%
7. In a normal distribution, which of the following is true?
A. median < mode < mean
B. median ≠ mode = mean
C. median ≠ mode ≠ mean
D. mean = median = mode
8. In a negatively skewed distribution, which of the following statements is
true?
A. Mode is lower than the mean.
B. Mean is lower than the mode.
C. Median is higher than the mode.
D. Mode is lower than the median.

9. The result of the test given by teacher A showed a negatively skewed

distribution. What kind of test did Teacher A give?
A. The test is difficult
B. It is not too easy nor too difficult
C. It is moderately difficult
D. It is easy

10. When the distribution is skewed to the right, what kind of test was
administered?
A. Difficult
B. Easy
C. Average/moderately difficult
D. Partly easy- partly difficult

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UNIT 8: ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND USE OF TEST DATA

8.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Find the mean, median and mode of test score distribution.
b. Analyze and interpret test data applying
1.) measure of central tendency,
2.) measures of position.
3.) standard scores

8.1. Introduction
One of the difficult task in assessment is the interpretation of assessment
date. Teachers must insure that their interpretations are both meaningful and
accurate. If test result are interpreted incorrectly, assessment won’t be much
of any use. Learning difficulties may not be recognized and address properly
and learners may not attain optimal learning.
In this unit, we will discuss how to organize and interpret sets of score
or data in order to determine the real picture of the student’s performance in
the class. The measures of central tendency will be discussed. It will also
tackle other positional measures and the different standard scores.

8.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

8.2.1 Measure of Central Tendency

What are Measures of Central Tendency?

Measure of Central Tendency
• Means the central location or point of convergence of a set of value.
• Test scores have a tendency to converge at a central value. This value is

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the average of the sets of scores. In other words, a measure of central

gives a single value that represents a given set of scores.
• The three common measure of central tendency or measures of central
location are the mean, the median, and the mode.
What is a mean?
Mean
• This is the most preferred measure of central tendency for the use with
test scores.
• The mean is the average of the group of scores.
• Also referred to as the arithmetic mean.

Mean = Average
The formula used in determining the mean is as follow:

Σ𝑋
𝑋̅ =
𝑁
X1 + X2 + X3 + ...+ Xn
=
𝑁
̅
Where: 𝐗 refers to the test scores
𝚺𝑿 the sum of all scores
N total number of data or scores

Example:
Determine the mean of the following set of scores: 90, 105, 95, 100 and 110.

Solution:
90 + 95 + 100 + 105 + 110
𝑋̅ =
5
500
=
5
= 100
100 is the average scores

What is a median?
• It is the scores that divides a score distribution or set of scores into two
groups of scores, meaning 50% of the scores lie above the median and
50% lie below the median.
• If the number of scores is odd, then there is only one middle value that

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gives the median. However, if the number of scores in the set is even
number, then there are two middle values. In this case, the median is the
average of these two middle values.

Example:
Determine the median of the following test scores: 90, 105, 95, 100 and 110.
Solution:
90, 95, 100, 105, 110
Therefore, the median is 100 in an arrange distribution.

Example:
Determine the median of the following test scores: 35, 30, 40, 26, 41 and 45.

Solution:
26, 30, 35, 40, 41, 45
Median = 37.5 -------The median is the average of the two middle scores
or value.
What is a mode?
• Mote is the easiest measure of central tendency.
• It is the score which occurs most frequently and sometimes called
nominal average or modal score. It is usually determined by inspection
(scores are arrange from highest to lowest) rather than computational.

Example:
What is the mode of the following sets of data or scores?
A B C
45 40 42
42 40 38
40 39 38
38 36 35
38 35 33
38 35 33
35 34 30
32 31 29
30 30 29
25 28 25

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Solution:
In set A, 38 appears thrice so the mode is 38 (unimodal)
In set B, the scores 40 and 35 appear twice so the mode are 40 and 35
(bimodal).
In set C, 38, 33, and 29 appear twice so the mode are 38, 33, and 29
(multimodal).

How are we going to determine the measure of central tendencies of the

grouped data?

What is the mean for the grouped data?

Mean for the grouped data

Σf𝑋𝑚
𝑋̅ =
𝑁
Where: 𝑋̅ refers to mean
Σ summation
f frequency of each category
Xm midpoint of each category
ΣfXm sum of the products of frequency and mid-point of each category
N total number of data scores

Example:
Determine the mean of the following frequency distribution.
Interval f
91-97 2
84-90 2
77-83 1
70-76 1
63-69 3
56-62 1
49-55 4
42-48 7
35-41 2
28-34 1
Total 24
The first thing to do is to locate the midpoint (Xm) of each of the category of

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the interval which is column three shown below. Then multiply the frequency (f)
and the mid-point (Xm), column four.

Interval f Xm fXm
91-97 2 94 188
84-90 2 87 174
77-83 1 80 80
70-76 1 73 73
63-69 3 66 198
56-62 1 59 59
49-55 4 52 208
42-48 7 45 315
35-41 2 38 76
28-34 1 31 31
Total 24 ΣfXm 1402
Then, substitute the values in the equation to get the answer.
Σf𝑋𝑚
𝑋̅ = 𝑁
𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟐
𝑋̅ = 24

𝑋̅ = 58.42 ----------58.42 is the mean of the grouped data.

What is the median for the grouped data?

The median of the grouped data can be determined using the formula;

𝑵
−𝒄𝒇𝒃
𝟐
Median (Md) = LL + [ ] ci
𝒇𝒎

Where:
Md median
N number of scores
cfb cumulative frequency of the interval that is lower than the
median class
LL lower boundary of the median class (cm) where N/2 lie
cf cumulative frequency starting from the lowest category
or interval

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fm frequency of the median class

ci class interval
Example:
Determine the median of the following frequency distribution.
Interval f
91-97 2
84-90 2
77-83 1
70-76 1
63-69 3
56-62 1
49-55 4
42-48 7
35-41 2
28-34 1
N = 24
Determine the cumulative frequency (cf) of each class interval by adding
another column starting lowest frequency of the interval which in this case 28- 34.
Interval f cf
91-97 2 24
84-90 2 22
77-83 1 20
70-76 1 19
63-69 3 18
56-62 1 15 continue adding up to the last
49-55 4 14 10 plus 4
42-48 7 10 3 plus 7
35-41 2 3 add 1 and 2
28-34 1 1 copy 1
Total 24

Determine the median class (mc). The median class is the interval whose
cumulative frequency is greater than or equal to N/2. In this example the value of
N/2 is 12 (24/2 = 12). The cumulative frequency is greater than or equal to 12 is 14,
so the median class is 49-55 which has the frequency of 4.
Interval f cf

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91-97 2 24
84-90 2 22
77-83 1 20
70-76 1 19
63-69 3 18
56-62 1 15
49-55 4 14 median class
42-48 7 10
35-41 2 3
28-34 1 1
Total 24
By locating the median class, we can determine “fm”. In this case, “cfb”
is 10 since it is the cumulative frequency of the interval (42-48) that is lower
than the median class (49-55).The class interval (ci) is 7. The value of LL (lower
limit) is 48.5 which is the lower limit of the median class (49-55).

Substitute the values to the formula:

Md 49-55
N 24
cfb 10
LL 48.5
fm 4
ci 7
𝑵
−𝒄𝒇𝒃
𝟐
Median (Md) = LL + [ ] ci
𝒇𝒎
24
−10
2
= 48.5 + [ ]7
4
12−10
= 48.5 + [ ]7
4
2
= 48.5 + [ ] 7
4
= 48.5 + (0.3) 7
= 48.5 + 3.5
Md = 52
Therefore, the median is 52.

What is the mode for the grouped data?

The mode for the grouped data can be determined using the formula

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below:

db
Mo = Ll + ( ) ci
db−da

Where:
Mo mode
Ll Lower boundary of the modal class (modal class is the
category or interval with the highest frequency).
db difference in the frequency between the modal class and
the category just below it when the interval is arrange from
highest to lowest.
da difference in the frequency between the modal class and
the category just above it when the interval is arrange from
highest to lowest.
ci class interval

Example: Determine the mean of the following frequency distribution.

Interval f
91-97 2
84-90 2
77-83 1
70-76 1
63-69 3
56-62 1
49-55 4 da
42-48 7 modal class
35-41 2 db
28-34 1
Total 24
The modal class is 42-48 because it has the highest frequency.
In this case, the “Ll” the lower boundary limit of the modal class is 41.5. The
difference in the frequency between the modal class and the category just
below it when the interval is arrange from highest to lowest is “db” which
equal to 5 (7-2=5). The value of “da” which is difference in the frequency
between the modal class and the category just above it when the interval is
arrange from highest to lowest is 3 (7-4 = 3). The “ci”is 7.

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Substitute the values to the formula:

Ll 41.5
db 5
da 3
ci 7

𝑑𝑏
Mo = Ll + ( ) ci
𝑑𝑏−𝑑𝑎
5
Mo = 41.5 + ( )7
5−3
5
= 41.5 + ( ) 7
2
= 41.5 + (2.5) 7
= 41.5 + 17.5
Mo = 59
Therefore, the mode of the distribution is 59.

1.2.2 Measures of Position

What are measures of position?

• Measure of relative position indicate where a score falls in a distribution
relative to all other scores in the distribution. It serves as a marker or
boundary.
• Measure of relative position will tell us how well a student has
performed as compared to other students in a group who have been
measured on the same variable.
The three most common measures of relative position are quartile, decile, and
percentile.

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Quartile
• Quartiles are three values that divide a set of scores into four equal parts,
with one-fourth of the data value in each part. These are First quartile
(Q1), Second quartile (Q2), and Third quartile (Q3).
First quartile (Q1)
• means that 25% of the data falls at or below the first quartile.
Second quartile (Q2)
• means that 50% of the data falls at or below the second quartile.
Third quartile (Q3)
• means that 75% falls at or below the third quartile.
Inter-quartile Range
• is the difference between Q3 and Q1.

How can we determine the scores equivalents of quartiles for ungrouped data?
Mann (2013) suggested the following procedure:
Step 1. Order the data from smallest to largest.
Step 2. Find the median. This is the second quartile (Q2).
Step 3. The first quartile, Q1, is the median of the lower half of the data; it is the
median of the data falling below the Q2 position (not including Q2.
Step 4. The third quartile, Q3, is the median of the upper half of the data; that
is, it is the median of the data falling above the Q2 position (not including
Q2).

Example:
Determine the Q1, Q2, Q3, and the inter-quartile range of the test scores below.
20, 12, 10, 11, 16, 13, 25, 15, 18, 20, 15, 27

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Solution:
Step 1. Order the data from smallest to largest.
10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 15, 16, 18, 20, 20, 25, 27

Step 2. Find the median. This is the second quartile (Q2).

10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 15, 16, 18, 20, 20, 25, 27
15+16
Q2 = 2
Q2 = 15.5 ------------is the second quartile, meaning 50% of the
scores are below 15.5.

Step 3. The first quartile, Q1, is the median of the lower half of the data;
it is the median of the data falling below the Q2 position (not
including Q2.
10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 15
12+13
Q1 =
2
Q1 = 12.5-------------is the first quartile, meaning 25% of the
scores are below 12.5.
Step 4. The third quartile, Q3, is the median of the upper half of the data; that
is, it is the median of the data falling above the Q2 position (not including
Q2).
16, 18, 20, 20, 25, 27

20+20
Q3 =
2
Q3 = 20 -------------is the third quartile, meaning 75% of the
scores are below 20.

The inter-quartile range can be determine by subtracting the Q1 from Q3.

IQR = Q3 – Q1
= 20 – 15.5
= 4.5 -----------is the inter-quartile range

10 11 12 13 15 15 16 18 20 20 25 27
Q1 Q2 Q3

Try this
Determine the Q1, Q2, Q3, and the inter-quartile range of the test scores
below.
90, 85, 85, 100, 86, 105, 109, 110, 88, 105, 100, 112

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What is deciles for ungrouped data?

Deciles
• are the values of arranged data which divide whole data into ten equal
parts. They are 9 in numbers namely D1, D2, D3, D4 ⋯ , D9. Here D1 is
first decile , D2 is second decile, D3 is third decile and so on.

Deciles can be computed using the formula:

𝒊 (𝒏+𝟏) th
Di = data
𝟏𝟎

where n = Number of data in the population or sample

i is the ith decile can be represented as,
1st decile, D1 = 1 * (n + 1) / 10 th data
2nd decile, D2 = 2 * (n + 1) / 10 th data

The following are the steps in determining the deciles:

Step 1: Determine the number of data or variables in the population or

sample, which is denoted by n.
Step 2: Sort all the data or variables in the population in ascending order.
Step 3: Determine the value by adding one to the number of data in the population,
then divide the sum by ten and then finally multiply the result by the rank of
the decile.

ith decile, Di formula = i * (n + 1) / 10 th data

Step 4: Figure out the corresponding variable from among the data in the
population.

Example:
Suppose that John has been given a set of unsorted data points. He has
been asked to sort the number and cut them into 10 equal sections.
The raw numbers are:
24, 32, 27, 32, 23, 62, 45, 77, 60, 63, 36, 54, 57, 36, 72, 55, 51, 32, 56, 33, 42, 55, 30.

Solution:

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Step 1: Determine the number of data or variables in the population or

sample, which is denoted by n.
n = 23
Step 2: Arrange the population in an ascending order.

23, 24, 27, 30, 32, 32, 32, 33, 36, 36, 42, 45, 51, 54, 55, 55, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63, 72, 77

Step 3: Determine the value by adding one to the number of data in the population,
then divide the sum by ten and then finally multiply the result by the rank of
the decile as shown below.

To solve for the first decile or D1 To solve for the third decile or D3
𝟏 (𝒏+𝟏) 𝟑 (𝒏+𝟏)
D1 = th data D3 = th data
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 (𝟐𝟑+𝟏) 𝟑 (𝟐𝟑+𝟏)
D1 = th data D3 = th data
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 (𝟐𝟒) 𝟑 (𝟐𝟒)
D1 = th data D3 = th data
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟒 𝟕𝟐
D1 = 𝟏𝟎 th data D3 = 𝟏𝟎 th data
D1 = 𝟐. 𝟒 th data D3 = 𝟕. 𝟐 th data
The D1 is 2.4th data, between 22 and 27. The D3 is 7.2th data, between 32 and 33.

23, 24, 27, 30, 32, 32, 32, 33, 36, 36, 42, 45, 51, 54, 55, 55, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63, 72, 77
In this example the D1 is between
24 and 27.
Step 4: Figure out the corresponding variable from among the data in the
population.
First decile or D1 Third decile or D3
D1 = 24 + 0.4 (27 – 24) D3 = 32 + .2(33 − 32)
D1 = 24 + 0.4 (3) D3 = 32 + .2(1)
D1 = 24 + 1.2 D3 = 32 + .2
D1 = 25.2------25.2 is the first decile (D1) D3 = 32.2-----32.2 is the D3

Try this
Determine the D5, D5, and D8 of the data below.
24, 32, 27, 32, 23, 62, 45, 77, 60, 63, 36, 54, 57, 36, 72, 55, 51, 32, 56, 33, 42, 55, 30.

What is Percentiles for ungrouped data?

Percentiles

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• Percentiles are the values of arranged data which divide whole data
into hundred equal parts. They are 99 in numbers namely P1, P2, P3, P4,
P5, ⋯,P99. Here P1 is first percentile, P2 is second percentile, P3 is third
percentile, P4 fourth percentile, P5 is fifth percentile and so on.

The formula for ith percentile is

(𝒏+𝟏)
Pi= Value of i th observatons
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Where:
n = is the total number of observations
i = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ , 99
.

Example:
Find the value of P10, P20 and P80 of the test score of a sample of 20 students
in a class are as follows:

20, 30, 21, 29, 10, 17, 18, 15, 27, 25, 16, 15, 19, 22, 13, 17, 14, 18, 12 and 9.
.
Solution:
The tenth percentile P10 can be computed as follows:
Step 1:
n = 20
Step 2: Arrange the data in an ascending order.

9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 15, 16, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 29, 30

Step 3: Determine P10 and P80

To solve for the tenth percentile or P10 To solve for the P80
10 (𝑛+1) 80 (𝑛+1)
P10 = th obsevation P80= th obsevation
100 100
10 (20+1) 80 (20+1)
P10= th obsevation P80= th obsevation
100 100
10 (21) 80(21)
P10= th obsevation P80= th obsevation
100 100
210 1680
P10= 100 th obsevation P80= th obsevation
100
P10= 2.1 th obsevation P80= 16.8 th obsevation
The P10 is 2.1th data, between 10 and 12. The D3 is 16.8th data, between 22 and 25.

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9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 15, 16, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 29, 30

Step 4: Figure out the corresponding variable from among the data in the
population.
Tenth percentile or P10 Eightieth percentile or P80
P10= 10 + 0.1 (12 – 10) P80= 22 + .8 (25 − 22)
P10= 10 + 0.1 (2) P80= 22 + .8(3)
P10= 10 + .2 P80= 22 + 2.4
P10= 10.2------10.2 is the P10 P80= 24.4-----24.

Try this
Determine the P40 and P60 of the following data
20, 30, 21, 29, 10, 17, 18, 15, 27, 25, 16, 15, 19, 22, 13, 17, 14, 18, 12 and 9.

1.2.3 Standard Score

What are standard scores?
A raw score no meaning in itself and cannot be interpreted as a low
performance or an average of a student. To have a meaning and interpretable,
the raw score must be changed into a “derived score” or “converted score” or
“standard score.”
Standard Score
• The standard score is a method of indicating an examinee’s relative
position in a group by showing how far his or her score is above or
below the average.
• Standard scores express test performance in terms of standard deviation
units from the mean.

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The following are the common standard scores

1. Z-Scores
• These scores are scaled on a number line ranging from -4 to 4. On this
scale, zero is average. Positive scores are above average, and negative
scores are below average.
• A z-score is called a standard score because it is a deviation score
expressed in standard deviation unit.

Z-score can be determined using the formula:

𝑋−𝑋̅
Z= Where: X = any raw score
𝑠
̅ = mean of the raw score
X
S = standard deviation
Example:
A class of 50 students who have written the science test last week. The
class teacher told her student that John scored 83 in the test while the average
score of the class was 68. Determine the z-score for John’s test mark if the
standard deviation is 13.
Solution:

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𝑋−𝑋̅
Z= 𝑠

X = 83, ̅ = 68,
X S = 13

̅̅̅̅
83−68
Z= ----------------Substitute the values to the formula
13
30
Z = 13 --------------simplify

Z = 1.15
Therefore, John’s Z score is 1.15 standard deviation above the average score of the
class.

Try this:
Randy scored 86 in Math and 90 in Physics. Which subject he performed
best if it has found out that the mean score in Math is 80 and a standard deviation
of 3, while the mean score in Physics is 96 and a standard deviation of 2?

2. T-Scores
• These scores range in intervals of 10 from 10 to 90 points. Fifty is
average on this scale, and the average range is usually between 40 and
60.
• It is similar to z-score but more convenient and more applicable
because of the absence of negative and decimal values.
• To determine t-score, raw scores are first converted to z-scores, then
the z-scores are multiplied by 10, and 50 is added to the product.

T-score can be determined using the formula:

T = 10z + 50

Where z = z-score

Comparison between z-score and t-score

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Example:
What is the T-score of Ryan in an English test if he scored 90 with a mean of 80
and a standard deviation of 10?

Solution:
Determine first the z-score. Determine the t-score.
̅̅̅̅
90−80
Z= T = 10z + 50
10
10
Z = 10 T = 10(1) + 50
Z=1 T = 60
Therefore, Ryan’s raw score is 1 standard deviation above the mean and the t-score
is 60.
Try this:
Determine the t-score of Randy in his Math and Physics test result
below.
Randy scored 86 in Math and 90 in Physics. Which subject he performed
best if it has found out that the mean score in Math is 80 and a standard deviation
of 3, while the mean score in Physics is 96 and a standard deviation of 2?

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3. Stanine Score
• The stanine scale is also called the standard nine scale. These scores
range from 1 to 9, with 5 being average. Scores below 5 are below
average. Scores above 5 are above average.
• In Stanine, the mean is 5 and the standard deviation is 2.
• Stanine scores can be calculated from the z-score by multiplying the z-
score by 2 and adding 5.
• Stanine can be calculated using the formula:

Stanine = 2Z + 5

Example:
What is the Stanine of Ryan’s test result in English if he scored 90 with
a mean of 80 and a standard deviation of 10?
Solution:
Convert first the raw score to z-score.
90−80
Z = 10
10
Z = 10
Z=1

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Convert the z-score to Stanine.

Stanine = 2Z + 5
Stanine = 2(1) + 5------substitute the value of Z
Stanine = 7

Try this
Determine the Stanine of the following information below.
1. Mario scored 15 point in a 40 items English test. What is his
Assessment:
Stanine score if the mean of the test is 27 and the standard deviation is 6?
A. Answer the following questions.
1. What are the measures of central tendency?
2. What are the measures of position?
3. What are the common standard scores?
B. Given the following test scores 5 , 20, 13, 15, 12, 19, 20, 10, 17, 11, 16,
determine the following:
1. mean
2. median
3. mode
4. Q3
5. D5
6. P25
C. Solve the problem below.
Mark obtain a score of 40 in his P.E. test and 34 in his Reading test. The class mean
for PE. Is 45 with a standard deviation of 4 while in reading, the mean score is 50
with a standard deviation of 7. On which test did Mark do better compared to the
rest of the class.
Determine also the following:
1. Z-score
2. T-score
3. Stanine score
D. The following is a frequency distribution of the year-end examination scores in a
certain secondary school.

Class Interval Frequency

60-64 2

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55-59 5
50-54 6
45-49 8
40-44 11
35-39 10
30-34 11
25-29 20
20-24 17
15-19 6
10-14 4
Total
Compute the following:
1. Mean
2. Median
3. Q2
4. D5
5. P50

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UNIT 9: GRADING AND REPORTING TEST RESULTS

9.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Identify the different methods in scoring test or performance tasks.
b. Differentiate the types of test scores.
c. Apply the general guidelines in grading a tests and essay tests.
d. Determine the new grading system of the Philippine K-12 program.

9.1. Introduction
Grading and reporting student’s performance is a one of the difficult task of a
teacher. To perform this task successfully, the teacher should be able to understand
the purpose of assigning grades, identify the different methods of scoring and
grading test performance and interpret test result based on the norms of present
standards.
In this unit, we will tackle the different methods in scoring test or
performance tasks, types of test scores, general guidelines in grading a tests and
essay tests, and the new grading system of the Philippine K-12 program.

9.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

9.2.1 Grading and reporting

What are the purposes of grading and reporting learner’s test performance?

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There are several reasons why we assign grades and report learner’s test
performance. Grades are alphabetical or numerical symbols/mark that indicate the
degree to which a learners are able to achieve the intended learning outcomes.
• Grades are part of the instructional process and serves as a feedback
loop between the teacher and the learners.
• They are one of the ways to communicate the level of learning of the
learners in a specific course content.
• Grades give feedback on what specific topic/s learners have mastered
and what they need to focus when students review for summative test
of final exam.
• Grades also serves as a motivator for the learners to study and do
better for the next tests to improve their final grade.
• Grades give the parents information about their children’s
achievements.
• It also provide teachers some bases for improving their teaching and
learning practices and for identifying learners who need further
educational intervention.
• Grades are also useful to school administrators who want to evaluate
the effectiveness of instructional programs in developing the needed
skills and competencies of the learners.

What are the different methods in scoring tests or performance tasks?

There are various ways to score and grade results in multiple-choice
tests. The most commonly-used scoring methods are number right scoring
and negative marking.

1. Number Right Scoring (NR)

• It assign positive value only to the correct answer while giving a score
of zero to incorrect answer. The test score of a particular student is the
sum of the correct responses. One major disadvantage of this scoring
method is that students may get the correct answer by guessing and it
affect the test reliability and validity.

Example:
What is the value of x in the equation 3(x+8) – (x-12) = - 28?
A. x = 32
B. x = 8
C. x = -8
D. x = -32
The correct answer is D (x = -32) and this will give a score to those who
answer letter D. Any answers other than D will be given a zero (0)
point.
2. Negative Marking (NM)

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• It is assigning a positive value to the correct answers while punishing

the learners for the incorrect response (i.e., right-minus-wrong
correcting method).
• Other models for this scoring method include:

1. giving a positive score to the correct answer while assigning no mark for
omitted items.
2. rewarding learners for not guessing for awarding points rather than
penalizing learners for incorrect answer. The recommended penalty for an
incorrect answer is 1/(n-1), where n stands for the number of choices.

Example:
What is the value of x in the equation 3(x+8) – (x-12) = - 28?
A. x = 32
B. x = 8
C. x = -8
D. x = -32
E. x = 0
The learners who chose letter D will be given a point.
The learner who left the item unanswered will be given zero (0) point.
The learners who chose A, B, C, or E will get a negative score.

For example, in a 5-item quiz, if a learner got 3 items correct, 1 item

unanswered, and 1 item incorrect, then the score is 2.75.

Item # Score
1 1
2 0
3 -0.25
4 1
5 1
Total Score 3 – 0.25 = 2.5

Both NR and NM methods of scoring multiple-choice test are prone to

guessing, which affect test validity and reliability. As result, nonconventional
scoring methods were introduced.

The following are the nonconventional methods of scoring.

1. Partial Credit scoring Method

• It is used to determine a learner’s degree of level of knowledge
with respect to each response option given. This method of
scoring takes into account partial knowledge mastery of learners.
It acknowledges that, while learners cannot recognize the correct

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response, they can discern that some response option are clearly
incorrect.
Example:
Angelo obtain a score of 55% in her reading test. What does her score
mean? Justify your answer.
A. Angelo got 55% of the test item correct.
B. Angelo was able to answer correctly more than half of the
items.
C. Angelo obtained a raw score than those obtained 55% of his
classmates.
D. If the test has 60 items, Angelo would probably 33 correct
answer.

For this item, each response option has an assigned score with each
corresponding rationale shown below.
Options Points Rationale
A 3 Since the score was presented in percent, this is the
correct interpretation.
B 1 While the interpretation maybe correct, it does not give
a more specific meaning to the score. The same
interpretation can also be applicable to score higher than
51%.
C 0 This interpretation is wrong. This is applicable to a score
of 55th percentile rank.
D 2 This interpretation gives an example how the score was
computed.

2. Multiple Answer Scoring Method

• It allows learners to have multiple answers for each item. In this
method, learners are instructed that each has at least one correct
answer or how many answer are correct.

Example:
Angelo obtain a score of 55% in her reading test. What does her score
mean? Justify your answer.
A. Angelo got 55% of the test item correct.
B. Angelo was able to answer correctly more than half of the
items.
C. Angelo obtained a raw score than those obtained 55% of his
classmates.
D. If the test has 60 items, Angelo would probably 33 correct
answer.

The learners who chose A, B, and D will get 1 point each. If he

chooses A and D he will obtain 2 points for that item. The learner who

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chooses the wrong option will be penalized using the negative marking
method.

3. Retrospective Correction for Guessing.

• No-answer as incorrect, forcing learners to give an answer for
every item even if they do not know the correct answer.

4. Standard-Setting
• It entails using standards (norm-referenced or criterion-
referenced assessment) when scoring multiple-choice items.
Norm-referenced assessment are derived from the test performance of
a certain group of learners.
Criterion-referenced assessment are based on preset standard specified
from the very start by the teacher or school.

Example:
For final examination in English, the English Department can set a
passing score (e. g., 75 percentile rank) based from the norms derived from the
scores of the learner for the past three years. (Norm-referenced assessment).
On the other hand, passing scores/grades are usually set by the department or
school based on their standards A (90-100 %), B (80-89%), C (70-79%) or E(0-
69%).

What are the types of scoring in an authentic or performance-type assessment?

The four types of scoring authentic or performance-type assessment are
Holistic, Analytic, Primary Trait, and Multiple Trait Scoring.

1. Holistic Scoring
• Holistic scoring involves giving a single overall assessment score
for an essay, writing composition, or other performance-type of
assessment as a whole.
• Holistic scoring is considered efficient in terms of time and cost.
It does not penalize poor performance based on only one aspect
(content, delivery, organization, vocabulary, or coherence for oral
presentation).
• Holistic scoring does not provide sufficient diagnostic
information about the students’ ability as it does not identify the
areas for improvement and is difficult to interpret as it does detail
the basis for evaluation.

2. Analytic Scoring
• Analytic scoring involve assessing each aspect of a performance
task and assigning a score for each criterion.

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• One advantage of analytic scoring is its reliability. It also provides

information that can be used as diagnostic as it presents learners
strength and weaknesses as a basis for remedial instructions.
• Analytic scoring is more time consuming, difficult to create,
expensive, and it is also prone to halo effect, wherein scores in
one scale may influence the ratings of others.

3. Primary Trait Scoring

• It focuses on only one aspect or criterion of a task, and a learner’s
performance is evaluated on only one trait. This scoring system
defines a primary trait in the task that will then be scored.

4. Multiple-Trait Scoring
• Multiple-trait scoring requires that an essay test or performance
task is scored in more than one aspect.
• It is similar to analytic scoring because of its focus on several
categories or criteria.

What are the different types of test scores?

Grading methods communicate the teachers’ evaluative appraisal of

learners’ level of achievement or performance in a test or task. In grading,
teachers convert different types of descriptive information and various
measures of learners’ performance into grades that will provide feedback to
learners, parents, and other stakeholders about learners’ achievement.

1. Raw score
• Raw score is simply the number of items answered correctly on a test. A
raw score provides an indication of the variability in the performance of
the student in a class.
• A raw score does not mean much because it cannot be compared with a
standard or with the performance of another learner or of the class as a
whole.
Example, a raw score of 95 would look impressive, but only if there are 100
items in the test. However if there are 300 items, then the raw score of 95 is not
good at all.

2. Percentage score
• Percentage score refers to the percent of items answered correctly in a
test. The number of items answered correctly is converted to percent
based on the total possible score.
• Is appropriate to use in teacher-made test that is administered
commonly to a class or to student taking the same course with the same
content.

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Example, if a P.E. subject sets a passing score of 60% in a test, then teachers and
learners would know if a learner has met the desired level of competencies
through his/her percentage score.

3. Criterion-Referenced Grading
• This is a grading system wherein learners’ test scores or achievement
level are based on their own performance in specified learning goals and
outcomes and performance standard.
• Criterion-referenced grades provide a measure of how well the learners
have achieved the preset standards, regardless of how anyone else does.

The following are some of the types of criterion-referenced scores or grades:

3.1 Pass or failed grade
• This type of score is most appropriate if the test or assessment is
primarily to make a pass or failed decision.
• This type of scoring , a standard or cut-off score is preset, and a
learner is given a score of Pass if he/she surpassed the expected
level of performance and given Failed if he/she does not
surpassed the level of performance.

3.2 Letter Grade

• This one of the commonly used grading system. Letter grades are
usually composed of five-level grading scale labelled from A to E
or F, with A represents the highest level of achievement and E or
F the lowest grade – represents a Failing grade.

3.3 Plus (+) and Minus (-) Letter Grades

• This grading provides a more detailed descriptions of the level of
learners’ achievement or task/test performance by dividing each
grade category into three levels.

A+, A, and A-
B+, B, and B –
C +, C and C – and so on.
Plus (+) and Minus (-) grades provides a finer discrimination between
achievement or performance level.

Description of Plus and Minus Letter Grades

Plus and Minus Letter Interpretation
Grades
A+ Excellent
A Superior
A- Very Good
B+ Good

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B Very Satisfactory
B- High Average
C+ Average
C Fair
C- Pass
D+ Conditional
D- Failed

3.4 Categorical Grades

• This system of grading is generally more descriptive than letter
grades, especially if coupled with verbal labels. Verbal labels
eliminate the need for a key or legend to explain what each grade
category means.

Examples of categorical grades are:

Exceeding Meeting Approaching Emerging Not Exceeding
Standards Standards Standards Standards Standards
Advanced Intermediate Basic Novice Below Basics
Exemplary Accomplished Developing Beginning Inadequate
Expert Proficient Competent Apprentice Novice
Master Distinguished Proficient Intermediate Novice

4. Norm-Reference Grading
• Norm-Reference Grading involves rank ordering learners and expressing a
learner’s score in relation to the achievement of the rest of the group (class,
grade level, school etc.).
• Norm-referenced grading allows teachers to:
Compare learners’ test performance with the other learners;
Compare learners’ test performance in one test (subject) with another
test;
Compare learners’ test performance in one from the test with another
form of the test administered at an earlier date.

What are the common Norm-Reference Grading?

There are types of Norm-referenced grading.

4.1 Percentile Rank

• This indicate the percentage of the scores that fall at or below a given
score.
• Percentile rank ranges from 1 to 99.

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Example, if a learner obtained a score of 75th percentile rank in a standardized

achievement test, it means that the learner was able to get a higher score than
75% of the learners in the norm group.

4.2 Stanine Score

• This system expresses test result in a nine equal steps, which range from
one (lowest) to nine (highest).
• Stanine score of 5 is interpreted as “average” Stanine.

Description Stanine Percentile Rank

Very High 9 96 and above
Above Average 8 90-95
7 77- 89
Average 6 60-76
5 40- 59
4 23-39
Below Average 3 11-22
2 4-10
Very Low 1 3 and below

4.3 Standard Scores

• They are scores that are converted into a common scale of measurement
that provides a meaningful description of individual scores within the
distribution.
• A standard score describe the difference of the raw score from a sample
mean, expressed in standard deviation.

The two most commonly used standard scores are Z-score and T-score.
4.3.1. Z-score
• Is one type of standard score that the mean is zero and a standard
deviation of 1.
• A z-score can either be positive (+) or negative (-). The positive
(+) and negative (-)sign do not indicate the magnitude of the z-
score; rather, they indicate the direction of the raw score from the
mean. A positive (+) raw score indicate that the raw score is
higher than the mean, while a negative (-) z-score indicates that
the raw score is lower than the mean.
Example:
What are the z-score of Luis and Michael below?

Name of Student Raw Score Mean Score Standard Deviation

Luis 90 85 1
Michael 95 90 5
Compute the z-score using the formula:

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𝑅𝑎𝑤 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒

Z-score =
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

90−85 95−90
ZLuis = ZMichael =
1 5
5 5
ZLuis = ZMichael =
1 5
ZLuis = 5 ZMichael = 1

Luis Z-score is 5 while Michael’s Z-score is 1

4.3.2 T-score
• Is another type of standard score, wherein the mean is equal to 50, and
the standard deviation is equal to 10.
• A t-score of 50 is considered “average”, with T-score ranging from 40 to
60 as with normal range. T-score of 30 and below and T-score of 70 and
above are interpreted as low and high performance respectively.

What are the general guidelines in grading tests or performance tasks?

Utmost care should be observed to ensure the grading practices are equitable,
fair, and meaningful to learners and other stakeholders. It is therefore important that
when constructing a test or performance task, the method and criteria for grading
learners’ responses or answers should be set and specified.

The following are the general guidelines in grading tests or performance tasks.

1. Stick to the purpose of assessment

• Before coming up with an assessment, it is important to determine the
purpose of the test. Will the assessment be used for diagnostic purposes?
Will it be formative assessment, or it is summative assessment?
Diagnostic and formative assessment are generally not graded.
Diagnostic are used to gather feedback about learners prior knowledge
before the start of the activity, while result of the formative assessment
are used to determine what the learners need to improve on what topic
or content needs to be emphasized by the teacher.

2. Be guided by the desired learning outcomes

• The students should be informed early on what are expected of them
insofar as learning outcomes are concerned, as well as how they will be
assessed and be graded in the test. Such information can be
disseminated through the course syllabus or during the course
introduction.

3. Develop grading criteria

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• Grading criteria to be used in traditional test, and performance test

should be clear to the students. Students should be informed of the
weight of each criterion.
• A holistic and analytic rubrics can be used to map out the grading
criteria.

4. Inform learners what scoring methods are to be used

• Students should be aware before the start of the testing, whether their
responses are to be scored based on the number of right, negative
marking, or through nonconventional scoring methods. Through this,
the learner will be guided on how to mark their responses during the
test.

5. Decide on what type of test scores to use.

• There are different ways by which students learning can be measured
and presented. Performance in particular test can be measured and
reported through raw scores, percentage scores, criterion-referenced
scores, or norm-referenced scores.
• Learners should also be informed at the start of what grading system is
to be used for particular test or task.

What are the general guidelines in grading essay test?

Essays require more time to grade than the other type of traditional tests.
Grading essay test can also be influenced by extraneous factors, such as learners hand
writing and raters’ biases. Scoring essay responses can be made more rigorously by
developing a scoring scheme.

The following are the general guidelines in scoring essay tests;

1. Identify the criteria for grading the essay

• The criteria or standards for evaluating the essay should be
predetermined. Some criteria that can be used are: content,
organization/format, grammar, proficiency, development and support,
focus and details, etc.

2. Determine the type of rubrics to use.

• Holistic rubric require evaluating the essay and taking all the
consideration all the criteria. Analytic rubric requires that the essay is
evaluated based on each criteria.

3. Prepare the rubric

• In developing rubric, the skills and competencies related to essay
writing should be first identified. These skills and competencies
represents the criteria.

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4. Evaluate essay anonymously.

• It is important that the rater does not identify whose paper he/she rating
to avoid bias.

5. Score one essay questions at a time.

• This to ensure that the same thinking and standards are applied for all
learners’ in the class.

6. Be conscious of own biases when evaluating a paper.

• The rater should stick to the criteria included in the rubric when
evaluating the essay. He/she should not be affected by handwritings,
writing style, length of responses, and other factors.

7. Review the initial scores and comments before giving a final rating.
• This is important especially for essay that were initially given a barely
passing or failing grades.

8. Get two or more raters.

• The final grade will be the average of all the ratings given.

9. Write comments.
• Provide a feedback on how well one has performed in the essay test.

What are the new grading system of the Philippine K-12 Program?
Under D.O. No. 8, s.2015 effective school year 2015-2016, the Department of
Education or DepEd will follow a new competency based grading system for K-12
Basic Education Program. The latest will use fewer grading system components and
a new transmutation table.
All public schools from kindergarten to senior high school must comply.
Although not required, DepEd urges private schools to follow same guidelines.
Non-DepEd schools, on the other hand, can adjust their policies in line to their
mission and vision but with the approval of the DepEd Regional Office.
Under this order, all the Written Works, Performance Tasks, and Quarterly
Assessment or WW-PT-QA scores of students from Grades 1 to 12 will be the base of
their summative assessment results. These three have specific percentage weights
that vary based on the nature of the learning area.
The K-12 grading system is described as a standard and competency-based
grading system, where 60 is the minimum r=grade needed to pass the specific learning
area, which is transmuted to 75 in the report card.

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How to Compute Your Final Grade and General Average?

Follow the steps below to compute your final grades.
1. Add up all the total score for each component.

Example:
WW1 + WW2 + WW3 + … = WWT (e.g., 145 out of 160)
PT1 + PT2 +PT3 + … =PTT (e.g., 100 out of 120)
QA =40 out of 50
2. Convert the sum for each component to percentage score. Divide the total
raw score by the highest possible score, then multiply the quotient by 100%.

Example:
WW = 145/160 = 90.63
PT = 100/120 = 83.33
QA = 40/50 = 80.00
3. Convert the percentage scores to weighted scores. Multiply the PS by the
weight of the component listed in Table 1.

Example:
WS for WW English = 90.63 x 0.3 = 27.19
WS for PT English = 83.33 x 0.50 = 41.67
WS for English QA = 80.00 x 0,20 = 16

4. Sum up the weighted scores of each component to get the initial grade.

Example:
Initial grades for English = 27.19 + 41.67 + 16.00 = 84.86

5. Transmute the initial grade to get the quarterly grade using the new
transmutation table.
Example:
For 84.86, transmuted grade is 90, which is the QG (Quarterly Grade)

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For MAPEH, individual grade are given to each area (Music, Art,
PE. And Health). The quarterly grade for MAPEH is the average across
the four areas.
Example:
𝑄𝐺 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑐+𝑄𝐺 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑡𝑠+𝑄𝐺 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝐸+𝑄𝐺 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑡ℎ
QG =
4

The final grades for each subject is computed by getting the

average of the four quarterly grades.

1𝑄𝐺+2𝑄𝐺+3𝑄𝐺+4𝑄𝐺
Final Grade for each Learning Area =
4

The General Grade is computed by getting the average of the

Final Grades for all the subject areas. Each subject area has equal weight.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠

General Average =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑘𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

All grades reflected in the report card are reported as whole number.
Subject Area Quarter Final Grade
1 2 3 4
Filipino 86 88 85 90 87
English 83 82 83 85 83
Mathematics 87 92 93 95 92
Science 82 84 88 86 85
Araling Panlipunan 90 92 93 93 92

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Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao 80 83 85 88 84
Edukasyong Pantahanan at 86 82 85 83 84
Pagkabuhayan
MAPEH 90 92 93 94 92
General Average 87
The students’ grades are then communicated to parents and guardians every
quarter during the parents-teachers conference by showing and discussing with them
the report card.

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New Transmutation Table for K to 12 Grading System

How should test scores be communicated to different stakeholders?

Since grades serves as an important feedback about the learners’ level of
performance or achievement, teachers should communicate the test result to
the learners, their parents, and other stakeholders. Feedback on how well the
learners performed on a test or any performance task has been proven to help
them improve their learning.
Teacher must come up with guidelines and processes on how grades are
to be communicated and presented to make them clear, understandable, and
relevant to the recipients.

First, the purpose of testing and nature of the test administered to the
learners should be clearly explained. It is important to inform the students and
their parents that tests are only one of the several tools to assess their
performance or achievement and that they are not evaluated on the basis of one
test alone.
Second, the meaning of the test scores should be explained. For norm-
referenced testing, terms such as a percentile rank, Stanine, standard scores and
the like should be explained clearly. Similarly, standards and criteria used for

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criterion-referenced testing should be thoroughly described and clarified to the

recipients.
Lastly, learners and parents should be made to understand the meaning
or interpretation of their test scores. Teachers are in best position to explain,
especially to the parents, how far the test scores of their students from their
classmates or other learners, on what topics, subject areas, or competencies they
are good or should improve on, and whether or not if they are working up to
their potential.

Assessment:

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A. Answer the following questions in your own words.

1. What are the purposes of grading and communicating learners’ test performance?

2. What are the different methods in marking or scoring test performance or tasks?

3. What are the different types of test scores?

4. What are the general guidelines in grading test or performance tasks?

5. What are the general guidelines in scoring essay tests?

B. Answer the following items below and write the best answer on the space provided
before each number.

1. Identify the scoring method used in the following cases.

_____1.Assigning positive values only to the correct answers while giving a score of zero
for incorrect answer.
A. Negative marking B. Number right
C. Partial credit scoring D. Standard setting

_____2 Using a criteria or a standards when scoring multiple-choice items, particularly

standards set through norm-referenced or criterion-referenced assessment.
A. Negative marking B. Number right
C. Partial credit scoring D. Standard setting

_____3 Giving a single, overall assessment for a performance task.

A. analytic scoring B. holistic scoring

C. multiple trait scoring D. primary trait scoring

_____4 Focusing on only one aspect or criterion of a task.

A. analytic scoring B. holistic scoring

C. multiple trait scoring D. primary trait scoring
_____5 Assessing each aspect of a performance task and assigning a score for each criterion.

A. analytic scoring B. holistic scoring

C. multiple trait scoring D. primary trait scoring
Identify the type of scores identified below.

_____1 Simply gives the number of items answered correctly on a test.

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A. percentile rank B. raw score

C. percentage score D. standard score

_____2 Tells you the percentage of scores that falls at or below your score.
A. percentile rank B. raw score
C. percentage score D. standard score

_____3 Compares the performance of a learner with those of his or her peers.
A. criterion-referenced B. letter grade
C. norm-referenced D. pass or failed
_____4 A grading system that provides a measure of how a learner have achieved the preset
standard.
A. percentile rank B. raw score
C. percentage score D. standard score
_____5 It is a test score in which the primary objective is to make a decision to pass or fail.
A. criterion-referenced B. letter grade
C. norm-referenced D. pass or failed

References:

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Ubina-Balagtas, Marilyn., Assessment in Learning 1. Rex Bookstore Inc. Manila.

De Guzman, E. and Amados, J., (2015). Assessment of Learning 1. Adriana Publishing
Company, QC.
Buendicho, F. C. (2010). Assessment of Learning 1. Rex Bookstore, Inc. Manila.
Santos, R. (2007). Assessment of Learning 1. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Quezon City
David, D. A., Golla, D. E., Magno, D. C., & Valladilid, D. V. (2020). Assessment in Learning 1.
Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

(Estefania S. de Guzman & Joel L. Adamos, 2015)

Estefania S. de Guzman, & M. M. Joel L. Adamos, Assessment of Learning 1. Quezon City:
Adriana Publishing Co., Inc.

https://www.ciit.edu.ph/k-to-12-grading-system/
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%27s+taxonomy+of+educational+objectives&oq=What+is+Bloom%27s+taxonomy+of+E&gs_lcp=C
gZwc3ktYWIQARgAMgIIADICCAAyBggAEBYQHjIGCAAQFhAeOggIABDqAhCPAToICAAQsQ
MQgwE6BQgAELEDULNsWM-

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OA2CtqANoB3AAeAGAAe0GiAGYRJIBDzAuMTguMTIuMS4xLjIuMZgBAKABAaoBB2d3cy13aX
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8UfMubU3pPMjhV0-lkLln8PA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwia7vCAvLrqAhXIxosBHcm-
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3oDMTByYmJwODBkBGNvbG8Dc2czBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw--
?p=bloom's+taxonomy&fr=yfp-t#id=375&iurl=https%3A%2F%2Fround-lake.dustinice.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttp%2F4.bp.blogspot.com%2F-
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h&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=ZHXzD6kDmJan7M%252CkcHvJSbOMg1rJM%252C_&ve
t=1&usg=AI4_-kRIj-8UfMubU3pPMjhV0-
lkLln8PA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwia7vCAvLrqAhXIxosBHcm-
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f+E&gs_

Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

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Disclaimer:
This module is not for commercial use and solely for educational purposes
only. Some technical terminologies and uses were not changed but the author of this
unit ensures that all in-text citations are in the reference section. Photos, figures,
images, and tables included in here belongs to their respective owners and their
copyrights.

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SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY

ARTECHE BOULEVARD, CATBALOGAN
CITY 6500 SAMAR
www.ssu.edu.ph

email: [email protected]
telefax: (055) 543-8394

C. M. D. Hamo-ay