www.rejinpaul.

com
CE6306 STRENGTH
A-PDF Watermark DEMO:OF MATERIALS
Purchase II/III
from www.A-PDF.com to remove the MECHANICAL
watermark ENGINEERING

CE8301 A Course Material on www.padeepz.net

CE 8301 – STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 1

t
. ne
pz
ee By

Mr. A.RAJASEKAR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ad
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

.p
w
w
w

www.padeepz.net

1 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 UNIT -1 www.padeepz.net

STRESS, STRAIN AND DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS

1.1 Rigid and deformable bodies

Rigid body motion theory is a fundamental and well-established part of physics. It is based

et
on the approximation that for stiff materials, any force applied to a body produces a
negligible deformation. Thus, the only change a force can produce is change in the center of
mass motion and change in the rotational motion. This means that simulation of even

.n
complex bodies is relatively simple, and thus this method has become popular in the
computer simulation field.

Given the forces acting on the body, the motion can be determined using ?? ??for

pz
translational motion, and a similar relation for rotational motion .

The rigid body motion model has traditionally been applied in range analysis in CAD and for
computer animation where deformation is not required. If the deformation is not negligible,
then the approximation does not hold, and we need to start over and come up with some
ee
other model. There exists many different models, but the two models which have emerged to
become the most widely used in practice are: mass-spring models and statics models solved
using the Finite Element Method (FEM).

Mass-spring models represent bodies as discrete mass-elements, and the forces between them
ad

are transmitted using explicit spring connections (“spring” is a historical term, and is not
limited to pure Hooke interactions). Given the forces acting on an element, we can determine
its motion using . The motion of the entire body is then implicitly described by the motion of
its elements.
.p

Mass-spring models have traditionally been applied mostly for cloth simulation. Statics
models are based on equilibrium relations, and thus make the approximation that the effect of
dynamics are negligible. Relations between the strain and stress fields of a body are set up,
w

and through specifying known values of these fields, through for example specifying forces
acting on the body, the unknown parts can be determined. These relations form differential
equations, and the known values are boundary values. The FEM is an effective method for
w

solving boundary value problems, and has thus given its name to these types of problems.
Statics models have traditionally been applied in stress and displacement analysis systems in
CAD.
w

www.padeepz.net
7 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 1.2 General Concepts and Definitions

www.padeepz.net
 Strength The ability to sustain load.

 Stiffness Push per move; the ratio of deformation to associated load level.

 Stability The ability of a structure to maintain position and geometry. Instability

et
involves collapse that is not initiated by material failure. External stability concerns
the ability of a structure's supports to keep the structure in place; internal stability
concerns a structure's ability to maintain its shape.

Ductility The amount of inelastic deformation before failure, often expressed relative

.n

to the amount of elastic deformation.

pz
Strength Material strength is measured by a stress level at which there is a permanent and
significant change in the material's load carrying ability. For example, the yield stress, or the
ultimate stress.

Stiffness Material stiffness is most commonly expressed in terms of the modulus of

ee
elasticity: the ratio of stress to strain in the linear elastic range of material behavior.

Stability As it is most commonly defined, the concept of stability applies to structural

elements and systems, but does not apply to materials, since instability is defined as a loss of
load carrying ability that is not initiated by material failure.
ad

Ductility Material ductility can be measured by the amount of inelastic strain before failure
compared to the amount of elastic strain. It is commonly expressed as a ratio of the
maximum strain at failure divided by the yield strain.
.p

1.3 Mechanical properties of materials

A tensile test is generally conducted on a standard specimen to obtain the relationship

between the stress and the strain which is an important characteristic of the material. In the
w

test, the uniaxial load is applied to the specimen and increased gradually. The corresponding
deformations are recorded throughout the loading. Stress-strain diagrams of materials vary
widely depending upon whether the material is ductile or brittle in nature. If the material
w

undergoes a large deformation before failure, it is referred to as ductile material or else

brittle material.Stress-strain diagram of a structural steel, which is a ductile material, is
given.
w

Initial part of the loading indicates a linear relationship between stress and strain, and the
deformation is completely recoverable in this region for both ductile and brittle materials.
This linear relationship, i.e., stress is directly proportional to strain, is popularly known as
Hooke's law.
www.padeepz.net
8 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 s = Ee www.padeepz.net
The co-efficient E is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus.

Most of the engineering structures are designed to function within their linear elastic region
only.After the stress reaches a critical value, the deformation becomes irrecoverable. The
corresponding stress is called the yield stress or yield strength of the material beyond which

et
the material is said to start yielding.

In some of the ductile materials like low carbon steels, as the material reaches the yield
strength it starts yielding continuously even though there is no increment in external

.n
load/stress. This flat curve in stress strain diagram is referred as perfectly plastic region.

The load required to yield the material beyond its yield strength increases appreciably and
this is referred to strain hardening of the material. In other ductile materials like aluminum

pz
alloys, the strain hardening occurs immediately after the linear elastic region without
perfectly elastic region.

After the stress in the specimen reaches a maximum value, called ultimate strength, upon
further tretching, the diameter of the specimen starts decreasing fast due to local instability
ee
and this p henomenon is called necking.

The load required for further elongation of the material in the necking region decreases with
decrease in diameter and the stress value at which the material fails is called the breaking
ad

strength. In case of brittle materials like cast iron and concrete, the material experiences
smaller deformation before rupture and there is no necking.

Materials Prof. M. S. n Institute of Technology Madras

1.4 True stress and true strain

.p

In drawing the stress-strain diagram as shown in figure 1.13, the stress was calculated by
dividing the load P by the initial cross section of the specimen. But it is clear that as the
specimen elongates its diameter decreases and the decrease in cross section is apparent
w

during necking phase. Hence, the actual stress which is obtained by dividing the load by the
actual cross sectional area in the deformed specimen is different from that of the engineering
stress that is obtained using undeformed cross sectional area as in equation 1.1 Though the
w

difference between the true stress and the engineering stress is negligible for smaller loads,
the former is always higher than the latter for larger loads.
w

Similarly, if the initial length of the specimen is used to calculate the strain, it is called
engineering strain as obtained in equation 1.9

But some engineering applications like metal forming process involve large deformations
and they require actual or true strains that are obtained using the successive recorded lengths
www.padeepz.net
to calculate the strain. True strain is also called as actual strain or natural strain and it plays

9 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 an important role in theories of viscosity. www.padeepz.net

1.5 TYPES OF STRESSES :

Only two basic stresses exists : (1) normal stress and (2) shear shear stress. Other stresses
either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of these e.g. bending stress

et
is a combination tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Torsional stress, as encountered
in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.

Let us define the normal stresses and shear stresses in the following sections.

.n
Normal stresses : We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal
to the areas concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are

pz
generally denoted by a Greek letter ( s )

This is also known as uniaxial state of stress, because the stresses acts only in one
direction however, such a state rarely exists, therefore we have biaxial and triaxial state
of stresses where either the two mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts or three
ee
mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts as shown in the figures below :

Tensile or compressive stresses :

The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive whether the stresses acts out of
ad

the area or into the area

Bearing Stress : When one object presses against another, it is referred to a bearing
stress ( They are in fact the compressive stresses ).
.p

Shear stresses :

Let us consider now the situation, where the cross – sectional area of a block of material
w

is subject to a distribution of forces which are parallel, rather than normal, to the area
concerned. Such forces are associated with a shearing of the material, and are referred to
as shear forces. The resulting force interistes are known as shear stresses.
w

The resulting force intensities are known as shear stresses, the mean shear stress being
equal to
w

Where P is the total force and A the area over which it acts.

Stress is defined as the force per unit area. Thus, the formula for calculating stress is:

www.padeepz.net
s= F/A

10 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
Where s denotes stress, F is load and A is the cross sectional area. The most commonly
used units for stress are the SI units, or Pascals (or N/m2), although other units like psi
(pounds per square inch) are sometimes used.

Forces may be applied in different directions such as:

• Tensile or stretching

et
• Compressive or squashing/crushing

• Shear or tearing/cutting

.n
• Torsional or twisting

This gives rise to numerous corresponding types of stresses and hence measure/quoted

pz
strengths. While data sheets often quote values for strength (e.g compressive strength),
these values are purely uniaxial, and it should be noted that in real life several different
stresses may be acting.

Tensile Strength
ee
The tensile strength is defined as the maximum tensile load a body can withstand before
failure divided by its cross sectional area. This property is also sometimes referred to
Ultimate Tensile Stress or UTS.
ad

Typically, ceramics perform poorly in tension, while metals are quite good. Fibres such
as glass, Kevlar and carbon fibre are often added polymeric materials in the direction of
the tensile force to reinforce or improve their tensile strength.

Compressive Strength
.p

Compressive strength is defined as the maximum compressive load a body can bear prior
to failure, divided by its cross sectional area.

Ceramics typically have good tensile strengths and are used under compression e.g.
w

concrete.

Shear Strength
w

Shear strength is the maximum shear load a body can withstand before failure occurs
divided by its cross sectional area.
w

This property is relevant to adhesives and fasteners as well as in operations like the
guillotining of sheet metals.

Torsional Strength

www.padeepz.net
Torsional strength is the maximum amount of torsional stress a body can withstand

11 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 before it fails, divided by its cross sectional area.

www.padeepz.net
This property is relevant for components such as shafts.

Yield Strength

Yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material changes from elastic

et
deformation to plastic deformation. Once the this point, known as the yield point is
exceeded, the materials will no longer return to its original dimensions after the removal
of the stress.

.n
Stress is defined as the force per unit area. Thus, the formula for calculating stress is:

Where s denotes stress, F is load and A is the cross sectional area. The most commonly
used units for stress are the SI units, or Pascals (or N/m2), although other units like psi

pz
(pounds per square inch) are sometimes used.

Forces may be applied in different directions such as:

• Tensile or stretching
ee
• Compressive or squashing/crushing

• Shear or tearing/cutting

• Torsion or twisting
ad

This gives rise to numerous corresponding types of stresses and hence measure/quoted
strengths. While data sheets often quote values for strength (e.g compressive strength),
these values are purely uni axial, and it should be noted that in real life several different
stresses may be acting
.p

Deformation of simple bars under axial load Deformation of bodies

w

Concept of strain : if a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress the bar will
change in length. If the bar has an original length L and changes by an amount dL, the strain
w

produce is defined as follows:

Strain is thus, a measure of the deformation of the material and is a non dimensional
w

Quantity i.e. it has no units. It is simply a ratio of two quantities with the same unit.

Shear strain: As we know that the shear stresses acts along the surface. The action of the
stresses is to produce or being about the deformation in the body consider the distortion
produced b shear sheer stress on an element or rectangular block This shear strain or slide is
www.padeepz.net
f and can be defined as the change in right angle. or The angle of deformation g is then
termed as the shear strain. Shear strain is measured in radians & hence is non – dimensional
12 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
i.e. it has no unit .So we have two types of strain i.e. normal stress & shear stresses.

Hook's Law :

A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded dimensions when load is
removed.

Hook's law therefore states that Stress ( s ) a strain( Î )

et
Modulus of elasticity : Within the elastic limits of materials i.e. within the limits in which
Hook's law applies, it has been shown that

.n
Stress / strain = constant

This constant is given by the symbol E and is termed as the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus of elasticity Thus ,The value of Young's modulus E is generally assumed to be the

pz
same in tension or compression and for most engineering material has high, numerical value
of the order of 200 GPa

Poisson's ratio: If a bar is subjected to a longitudinal stress there will be a strain in this
ee
direction equal to s / E . There will also be a strain in all directions at right angles to s . The
final shape being shown by the dotted lines.

It has been observed that for an elastic materials, the lateral strain is proportional to the
longitudinal strain. The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain is known as the
ad

poison's ratio .

Poison's ratio ( m ) = - lateral strain / longitudinal strain

For most engineering materials the value of m his between 0.25 and 0.33.
.p

Deformation of compound bars under axial load

w

For a prismatic bar loaded in tension by an axial force P, the elongation of the bar can be
determined as Suppose the bar is loaded at one or more intermediate positions, then equation
(1) can be readily adapted to handle this situation, i.e. we can determine the axial force in
w

each part of the bar i.e. parts AB, BC, CD, and calculate the elongation or shortening of each
part separately, finally, these changes in lengths can be added algebraically to obtain the
total charge in length of the entire bar.
w

When either the axial force or the cross – sectional area varies continuosly along the axis of
the bar, then equation (1) is no longer suitable. Instead, the elongation can be found by
considering a deferential element of a bar and then the equation (1) becomes i.e. the axial
force Pxand area of the cross – section Ax must be expressed as functions of x. If the
www.padeepz.net
expressions for Pxand Ax are not too complicated, the integral can be evaluated analytically,

13 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
otherwise Numerical methods or techniques can be used to evaluate these integrals.
•

1.Elastic constants

et
Relation between E, G and u :

Let us establish a relation among the elastic constants E,G and u. Consider a cube of
material of side „a' subjected to the action of the shear and complementary shear stresses as

.n
shown in the figure and producing the strained shape as shown in the figure below.

Assuming that the strains are small and the angle A C B may be taken as 450.

pz
Therefore strain on the diagonal OA

= Change in length / original length

Since angle between OA and OB is very small hence OA @ OB therefore BC, is the change
ee
in the length of the diagonal OA

Now this shear stress system is equivalent or can be replaced by a system of direct stresses
at 450 as shown below. One set will be compressive, the other tensile, and both will be
equal in value to the applied shear strain.
ad

Thus, for the direct state of stress system which applies along the diagonals:

We have introduced a total of four elastic constants, i.e E, G, K and g. It turns out that not
all of these are independent of the others. Infact given any two of then, the other two can be
.p

found.

irrespective of the stresses i.e, the material is incompressible.

w

When g = 0.5 Value of k is infinite, rather than a zero value of E and volumetric strain is
zero, or in other words, the material is incompressible.

Relation between E, K and u :

w

Consider a cube subjected to three equal stresses s as shown in the figure below
w

The total strain in one direction or along one edge due to the application of hydrostatic
stress or volumetric stress s is given as

Relation between E, G and K :

The relationship between E, G and K can be easily determained by eliminating u from the
www.padeepz.net
already derived relations

14 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 E = 2 G ( 1 + u ) and E = 3 K ( 1 - u )
www.padeepz.net
Thus, the following relationship may be obtained

Relation between E, K and g :

From the already derived relations, E can be eliminated

et
Engineering Brief about the elastic constants :

We have introduced a total of four elastic constants i.e E, G, K and u. It may be seen that
not all of these are independent of the others. Infact given any two of them, the other two

.n
can be determined. Further, it may be noted that

hence if u = 0.5, the value of K becomes infinite, rather than a zero value of E and the

pz
volumetric strain is zero or in other words, the material becomes incompressible

Further, it may be noted that under condition of simple tension and simple shear, all real
materials tend to experience displacements in the directions of the applied forces and Under
hydrostatic loading they tend to increase in volume. In other words the value of the elastic
ee
constants E, G and K cannot be negative

Therefore, the relations

E=2G(1+u)
ad

E=3K(1-u)

Yields

In actual practice no real material has value of Poisson's ratio negative . Thus, the value of u
.p

cannot be greater than 0.5, if however u > 0.5 than Îv = -ve, which is physically unlikely
because when the material is stretched its volume would always increase.

Elastic constant - problems

w

1. The Young’s modulus and the Shear modulus of material are 120 GPa and 45 GPa
respectively. What is its Bulk modulus?
w

2. A 20 mm diameter bar was subjected to an axial pull of 40 KN and change in diameter

was found to be 0.003822 mm. Find the Poisson’s ratio, modulus of elasticity and Bulk
modulus if the shear modulus of material of the bar is 76.923 GPa.
w

3. A steel plate 300 mm long, 60 mm wide and 30 mm deep is acted upon by the forces
shown in Fig. Determine the change in volume Take E = 200 KN/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio =
0.3.
www.padeepz.net
4. A bar of 30 mm x 30 mm x 250 mm long was subjected to a pull of 90 KN in the direction

15 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 of its length. Then extension of the bar was found to be 0.125 mm,www.padeepz.net
while the decrease in
each lateral dimension was found to be 0.00375 mm. Find the Young’s modulus, Poisson’s
ratio and rigidity modulus of the bar.

et
Unit II

.n
TRANSFER OF LOADS AND STRESSES IN BEAMS
2.1 Beams- classification

pz
Classification of Beams:

Beams are classified on the basis of their geometry and the manner in which they are
supported.
ee
Classification I: The classification based on the basis of geometry normally includes
features such as the shape of the X-section and whether the beam is straight or curved.

Classification II: Beams are classified into several groups, depending primarily on the kind
ad

of supports used. But it must be clearly understood why do we need supports. The supports
are required to provide constrainment to the movement of the beams or simply the supports
resists the movements either in particular direction or in rotational direction or both. As a
consequence of this, the reaction comes into picture whereas to resist rotational movements
the moment comes into picture. On the basis of the support, the beams may be classified as
.p

follows:

Cantilever Beam: A beam which is supported on the fixed support is termed as a cantilever
beam: Now let us understand the meaning of a fixed support. Such a support is obtained by
w

building a beam into a brick wall, casting it into concrete or welding the end of the beam.
Such a support provides both the translational and rotational constrainment to the beam,
therefore the reaction as well as the moments appears, as shown in the figure below
w

Simply Supported Beam: The beams are said to be simply supported if their supports
creates only the translational constraints.
w

Some times the translational movement may be allowed in one direction with the help of
rollers and can be represented like this

Statically Determinate or Statically Indeterminate Beams:

www.padeepz.net
The beams can also be categorized as statically determinate or else it can be referred as

16 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 statically indeterminate. If all the external forces and moments www.padeepz.net
acting on it can be
determined from the equilibrium conditions alone then. It would be referred as a statically
determinate beam, whereas in the statically indeterminate beams one has to consider
deformation i.e. deflections to solve the problem.

Supports and Loads

2.2 Types of beams: Supports and Loads

et
In many engineering structures members are required to resist forces that are applied
laterally or transversely to their axes. These type of members are termed as beam. There are

.n
various ways to define the beams such as

Definition I: A beam is a laterally loaded member, whose cross-sectional dimensions are

small as compared to its length.

pz
Definition II: A beam is nothing simply a bar which is subjected to forces or couples that
lie in a plane containing the longitudnal axis of the bar. The forces are understood to act
perpendicular to the longitudnal axis of the bar.
ee
Definition III: A bar working under bending is generally termed as a beam.

2.3 Materials for Beam:

The beams may be made from several usable engineering materials such commonly among
ad

them are as follows:

Metal

Wood
.p

Concrete

Plastic
w

Issues Regarding Beam:

Designer would be interested to know the answers to following issues while dealing with
w

beams in practical engineering application

• At what load will it fail

w

• How much deflection occurs under the application of loads.

Cantilever Beam: A beam which is supported on the fixed support is termed as a cantilever
beam: Now let us understand the meaning of a fixed support. Such a support is obtained by
building a beam into a brick wall, casting it into concrete or welding the end of the beam.
www.padeepz.net
Such a support provides both the translational and rotational constrainment to the beam,

17 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
therefore the reaction as well as the moments appears, as shown in the figure below

Simply Supported Beam: The beams are said to be simply supported if their supports
creates only the translational constraints.

Some times the translational movement may be allowed in one direction with the help of
rollers and can be represented like this

et
Statically Determinate or Statically Indeterminate Beams:

.n
The beams can also be categorized as statically determinate or else it can be referred as
statically indeterminate. If all the external forces and moments acting on it can be
determined from the equilibrium conditions alone then. It would be referred as a statically
determinate beam, whereas in the statically indeterminate beams one has to consider

pz
deformation i.e. deflections to solve the problem.

Types of loads acting on beams:

ee
A beam is normally horizontal where as the external loads acting on the beams is generally
in the vertical directions. In order to study the behaviors of beams under flexural loads. It
becomes pertinent that one must be familiar with the various types of loads acting on the
beams as well as their physical manifestations.
ad

A. Concentrated Load: It is a kind of load which is considered to act at a point. By this we

mean that the length of beam over which the force acts is so small in comparison to its total
length that one can model the force as though applied at a point in two dimensional view of
beam. Here in this case, force or load may be made to act on a beam by a hanger or though
other means
.p

B. Distributed Load: The distributed load is a kind of load which is made to spread over a
entire span of beam or over a particular portion of the beam in some specific manner
w

In the above figure, the rate of loading „q' is a function of x i.e. span of the beam, hence this
is a non uniformly distributed load.
w

The rate of loading „q' over the length of the beam may be uniform over the entire span of
beam, then we cell this as a uniformly distributed load (U.D.L). The U.D.L may be
w

represented in either of the way on the beams

some times the load acting on the beams may be the uniformly varying as in the case of
dams or on inclind wall of a vessel containing liquid, then this may be represented on the
beam as below:
www.padeepz.net
The U.D.L can be easily realized by making idealization of the ware house load, where the

18 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 bags of grains are placed over a beam.

www.padeepz.net
2.3 Shear force and Bending Moment in beams
Concept of Shear Force and Bending moment in beams:

When the beam is loaded in some arbitrarily manner, the internal forces and moments are
developed and the terms shear force and bending moments come into pictures which are

et
helpful to analyze the beams further. Let us define these terms

Now let us consider the beam as shown in fig 1(a) which is supporting the loads P1, P2,
P3 and is simply supported at two points creating the reactions R1 and R2respectively. Now

.n
let us assume that the beam is to divided into or imagined to be cut into two portions at a
section AA. Now let us assume that the resultant of loads and reactions to the left of AA is
„F' vertically upwards, and since the entire beam is to remain in equilibrium, thus the

pz
resultant of forces to the right of AA must also be F, acting downwards. This forces „F' is as
a shear force. The shearing force at any x-section of a beam represents the tendency for the
portion of the beam to one side of the section to slide or shear laterally relative to the other
portion.
ee
Therefore, now we are in a position to define the shear force „F' to as follows:

At any x-section of a beam, the shear force „F' is the algebraic sum of all the lateral
components of the forces acting on either side of the x-section.
ad

Sign Convention for Shear Force:

The usual sign conventions to be followed for the shear forces have been illustrated in
figures 2 and 3.
.p

Bending Moment:

Let us again consider the beam which is simply supported at the two prints, carrying loads
w

P1, P2 and P3 and having the reactions R1 and R2 at the supports Fig 4. Now, let us imagine
that the beam is cut into two potions at the x-section AA. In a similar manner, as done for
the case of shear force, if we say that the resultant moment about the section AA of all the
w

loads and reactions to the left of the x-section at AA is M in C.W direction, then moment of
forces to the right of x-section AA must be „M' in C.C.W. Then „M' is called as the Bending
moment and is abbreviated as B.M. Now one can define the bending moment to be simply as
w

the algebraic sum of the moments about an x-section of all the forces acting on either side of
the section

Sign Conventions for the Bending Moment:

www.padeepz.net
For the bending moment, following sign conventions may be adopted as indicated in Fig 5

19 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 and Fig 6. www.padeepz.net

Some times, the terms „Sagging' and Hogging are generally used for the positive and
negative bending moments respectively.

Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams:

et
The diagrams which illustrate the variations in B.M and S.F values along the length of the
beam for any fixed loading conditions would be helpful to analyze the beam further.

.n
Thus, a shear force diagram is a graphical plot, which depicts how the internal shear force
„F' varies along the length of beam. If x dentotes the length of the beam, then F is function x
i.e. F(x).

pz
Similarly a bending moment diagram is a graphical plot which depicts how the internal
bending moment „M' varies along the length of the beam. Again M is a function x i.e. M(x).

Basic Relationship Between The Rate of Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment:
ee
The construction of the shear force diagram and bending moment diagrams is greatly
simplified if the relationship among load, shear force and bending moment is established.

Let us consider a simply supported beam AB carrying a uniformly distributed load w/length.
ad

Let us imagine to cut a short slice of length dx cut out from this loaded beam at distance „x'
from the origin „0'.

Let us detach this portion of the beam and draw its free body diagram.
.p

The forces acting on the free body diagram of the detached portion of this loaded beam are
the following

• The shearing force F and F+ dF at the section x and x + dx respectively.

w

• The bending moment at the sections x and x + dx be M and M + dM respectively.

w

• Force due to external loading, if „w' is the mean rate of loading per unit length then the
total loading on this slice of length dx is w. dx, which is approximately acting through the
centre „c'. If the loading is assumed to be uniformly distributed then it would pass exactly
w

through the centre „c'.

This small element must be in equilibrium under the action of these forces and couples.

Now let us take the moments at the point „c'. Such that
www.padeepz.net
20 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
Conclusions: From the above relations,the following important conclusions may be drawn

• From Equation (1), the area of the shear force diagram between any two points, from the
basic calculus is the bending moment diagram

• The slope of bending moment diagram is the shear force,thus

et
Thus, if F=0; the slope of the bending moment diagram is zero and the bending moment is
therefore constant.'

• The maximum or minimum Bending moment occurs where

.n
The slope of the shear force diagram is equal to the magnitude of the intensity of the
distributed loading at any position along the beam. The –ve sign is as a consequence of our

pz
particular choice of sign conventions

Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram:

Preamble:
ee
The advantage of plotting a variation of shear force F and bending moment M in a beam as a
function of „x' measured from one end of the beam is that it becomes easier to determine the
maximum absolute value of shear force and bending moment.
ad

Further, the determination of value of M as a function of „x' becomes of paramount

importance so as to determine the value of deflection of beam subjected to a given loading.

Construction of shear force and bending moment diagrams:

.p

A shear force diagram can be constructed from the loading diagram of the beam. In order to
draw this, first the reactions must be determined always. Then the vertical components of
forces and reactions are successively summed from the left end of the beam to preserve the
w

mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a section is simply equal to the sum of
all the vertical forces to the left of the section.
w

When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with
the previously calculated shear (reaction at right end of the beam. No shear force acts
through the beam just beyond the last vertical force or reaction. If the shear force diagram
w

closes in this fashion, then it gives an important check on mathematical calculations.

The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of
beam from the left hand end and summing up the areas of shear force diagrams giving due

www.padeepz.net
regard to sign. The process of obtaining the moment diagram from the shear force diagram
by summation is exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from load

21 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 diagram. www.padeepz.net

It may also be observed that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending
moment, resulting in straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a
certain portion of a beam, then it indicates that there is no change in moment takes place. It
may also further observe that dm/dx= F therefore, from the fundamental theorem of calculus
the maximum or minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero. In order to check the

et
validity of the bending moment diagram, the terminal conditions for the moment must be
satisfied. If the end is free or pinned, the computed sum must be equal to zero. If the end is
built in, the moment computed by the summation must be equal to the one calculated

.n
initially for the reaction. These conditions must always be satisfied.
Cantilever beams - problems
Cantilever with a point load at the free end:

pz
Mx = - w.x

W.K.T M = EI. d2
dx2
ee
EI. d2y = - w.x
dx2
on integrating we get
EI.dy = -wx2 + c1
ad

dx 2
Integrating again
EI.y = - wx3 + c1x + c2
6
Boundary conditions
.p

i) when x = L , slope dy/dx = 0

ii) when x = L, deflection y = 0
Applying the first B.C to eqn (1)
w

0 = - wl2 + c1 c1 = wl2

Applying the second B.C to eqn (2)

w

0 = - wl3 + c1l + c2
6
C2 = -wl3
w

3
Sub c1,c2 values in slope eqn we get
EI.dy = -wx2 + wl2
dx 2 2
Max. slope eqn can be obtained by x = 0
www.padeepz.net
EI.dy = 0 + wl2 ?B = wl2
dx 2 2EI
22 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 Sub c1,c2 values in deflection eqn we get www.padeepz.net

EI.y = -wx3+ wl2.x – wl3
2 2 6
Max. deflection can be obtained by x = 0
EI.yB = 0 – 0 – wl3 yB = wl3
3 3EI

et
Cantilever with a point load at a distance of ‘a’ from free end:

.n
?B = ?c = w(l-a)2
2EI

yB = w(l-a)3 + w(l-a)2.a yc = w(l-a)3

pz
3EI 2EI 3EI

When the load acts at mid span:

ee
yB = 5wl3
48EI

Cantilever with UDL:

ad

?B = wl3 yB = wl4
2EI 8EI

Cantilever with UDL from fixed end:

.p

?B = ?c = w(l-a)3
6EI
w

yB = w(l-a)4 + w(l-a)3.a yc = w(l-a)4

8EI 6EI 8EI
w

When a = l/2 ie. UDL acting half of the length

yB = 7wl3
w

384EI

Cantilever with UDL from free end:

www.padeepz.net
?B = wl3 _ w(l-a)3
6EI 6EI
23 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
yB = wl4 _ w(l-a)4 + w(l-a)3 . a
8EI 8EI 6EI

Cantilever with UVL:

et
?B = wl3 yB = wl4
24EI 30EI
A cantilever of length carries a concentrated load ‘W' at its free end.

.n
Draw shear force and bending moment.

Solution:

pz
At a section a distance x from free end consider the forces to the left, then F = -W (for all
values of x) -ve sign means the shear force to the left of the x-section are in downward
direction and therefore negative
ee
Taking moments about the section gives (obviously to the left of the section)

M = -Wx (-ve sign means that the moment on the left hand side of the portion is in the
anticlockwise direction and is therefore taken as –ve according to the sign convention)
ad

so that the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed end i.e. M = -W l
.p

Simplysupported beam -problems

Simply supported beam subjected to a central load (i.e. load acting at the mid-way)
w

By symmetry the reactions at the two supports would be W/2 and W/2. now consider any
section X-X from the left end then, the beam is under the action of following forces.
w

.So the shear force at any X-section would be = W/2 [Which is constant upto x < l/2]
w

If we consider another section Y-Y which is beyond l/2 then

for all values greater = l/2

SSB with central point load:

www.padeepz.net
3
?B = -wl yB = wl4

24 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 16EI 30EI www.padeepz.net

SSB with eccentric point load:

?B = -wab (b+2a) ymax = -wa (b2 + 2ab)3/2

6EIL 9v3 EIL

et
If a >b then
ymax = -wb (a2 + 2ab)3/2
9v3 EIL

.n
SSB with UDL:

?B = wl3 yB = 5wl4

pz
24EI 384EI
Overhanging beams - problems
In the problem given below, the intensity of loading varies from q1 kN/m at one end
ee
to the q2 kN/m at the other end.This problem can be treated by considering a U.d.i of
intensity q1 kN/m over the entire span and a uniformly varying load of 0 to ( q2- q1)kN/m
over the entire span and then super impose teh two loadings.

Point of Contraflexure:
ad

Consider the loaded beam a shown below along with the shear force and Bending moment
diagrams for It may be observed that this case, the bending moment diagram is completely
positive so that the curvature of the beam varies along its length, but it is always concave
upwards or sagging.However if we consider a again a loaded beam as shown below along
.p

with the S.F and B.M diagrams, then

It may be noticed that for the beam loaded as in this case,

w

The bending moment diagram is partly positive and partly negative.If we plot the deflected
shape of the beam just below the bending moment
w

This diagram shows that L.H.S of the beam „sags' while the R.H.S of the beam „hogs'

The point C on the beam where the curvature changes from sagging to hogging is a point of
w

contraflexure.

OR

It corresponds to a point where the bending moment changes the sign, hence in order to find
www.padeepz.net
the point of contraflexures obviously the B.M would change its sign when it cuts the X-axis

25 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
therefore to get the points of contraflexure equate the bending moment equation equal to
zero.The fibre stress is zero at such sections

Note: there can be more than one point of contraflexure

2.4Stresses in beams
Preamble:

et
When a beam having an arbitrary cross section is subjected to a transverse loads the
beam will bend. In addition to bending the other effects such as twisting and buckling may
occur, and to investigate a problem that includes all the combined effects of bending,

.n
twisting and buckling could become a complicated one. Thus we are interested to investigate
the bending effects alone, in order to do so, we have to put certain constraints on the
geometry of the beam and the manner of loading.

pz
Assumptions:

The constraints put on the geometry would form the assumptions:

ee
1. Beam is initially straight , and has a constant cross-section.

2. Beam is made of homogeneous material and the beam has a longitudinal plane of
symmetry.
ad

3. Resultant of the applied loads lies in the plane of symmetry.

4. The geometry of the overall member is such that bending not buckling is the primary
cause of failure.
.p

5. Elastic limit is nowhere exceeded and ‘E' is same in tension and compression.

6. Plane cross - sections remains plane before and after bending.

w

Let us consider a beam initially unstressed as shown in fig 1(a). Now the beam is subjected
to a constant bending moment (i.e. „Zero Shearing Force') along its length as would be
w

obtained by applying equal couples at each end. The beam will bend to the radius R as
shown in Fig 1(b)
w

As a result of this bending, the top fibers of the beam will be subjected to tension and the
bottom to compression it is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that some here between the
two there are points at which the stress is zero. The locus of all such points is known as
neutral axis . The radius of curvature R is then measured to this axis. For symmetrical
sections the N. A. is the axis of symmetry but what ever the section N. A. will always pass
www.padeepz.net
through the centre of the area or centroid.

26 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
As we are aware of the fact internal reactions developed on any cross-section of a beam
may consists of a resultant normal force, a resultant shear force and a resultant couple. In
order to ensure that the bending effects alone are investigated, we shall put a constraint on
the loading such that the resultant normal and the resultant shear forces are zero on any
cross-section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member, That means F = 0 since

et
or M = constant.

Thus, the zero shear force means that the bending moment is constant or the bending is same
at every cross-section of the beam. Such a situation may be visualized or envisaged when the

.n
beam

or some portion of the beam, as been loaded only by pure couples at its ends. It must be

pz
recalled that the couples are assumed to be loaded in the plane of symmetry.

When a member is loaded in such a fashion it is said to be in pure bending. The examples
of pure bending have been indicated in EX 1and EX 2 as shown below :
ee
When a beam is subjected to pure bending are loaded by the couples at the ends, certain
cross-section gets deformed and we shall have to make out the conclusion that,

1. Plane sections originally perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the beam remain plane and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis even after bending , i.e. the cross-section A'E', B'F' (
ad

refer Fig 1(a) ) do not get warped or curved.

2. In the deformed section, the planes of this cross-section have a common intersection i.e.
any time originally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam becomes an arc of circle.
.p

We know that when a beam is under bending the fibres at the top will be lengthened while at
the bottom will be shortened provided the bending moment M acts at the ends. In between
these there are some fibres which remain unchanged in length that is they are not strained,
w

that is they do not carry any stress. The plane containing such fibres is called neutral surface.

The line of intersection between the neutral surface and the transverse exploratory section is
w

called the neutral axisNeutral axis (N A) .

Bending Stresses in Beams or Derivation of Elastic Flexural formula :

w

In order to compute the value of bending stresses developed in a loaded beam, let us
consider the two cross-sections of a beam HE and GF , originally parallel as shown in fig
1(a).when the beam

www.padeepz.net
is to bend it is assumed that these sections remain parallel i.e. H'E' and G'F' , the final

27 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 position of the sections, are still straight lines, they then subtend somewww.padeepz.net
angle q.

Consider now fiber AB in the material, at adistance y from the N.A, when the beam bends
this will stretch to A'B'

Since CD and C'D' are on the neutral axis and it is assumed that the Stress on the neutral axis
zero. Therefore, there won't be any strain on the neutral axis

et
Consider any arbitrary a cross-section of beam, as shown above now the strain on a fibre at a
distance „y' from the N.A, is given by the expression

.n
Now the termis the property of the material and is called as a second moment of area of the
cross-section and is denoted by a symbol I.

pz
Therefore M/I = sigma/y = E/R

This equation is known as the Bending Theory Equation.The above proof has involved
the assumption of pure bending without any shear force being present. Therefore this termed
ee
as the pure bending equation. This equation gives distribution of stresses which are normal
to cross-section i.e. in x-direction.
Stress variation along the length and in the beam section
Bending Stress and Deflection Equation
ad

In this section, we consider the case of pure bending; i.e., where only bending stresses exist
as a result of applied bending moments. To develop the theory, we will take the
phenomenological approach to develop what is called the “Euler-Bernoulli theory of beam
bending.” Geometry: Consider a long slender straight beam of length L and cross-sectional
.p

area A. We assume the beam is prismatic or nearly so. The length dimension is large
compared to the dimensions of the cross-section. While the cross-section may be any shape,
we will assume that it is symmetric about the y axis
w

Loading: For our purposes, we will consider shear forces or distributed loads that are applied
in the y direction only (on the surface of the beam) and moments about the z-axis. We have
consider examples of such loading in ENGR 211 previously and some examples are shown
w

below:

Kinematic Observations: In order to obtain a “feel” for the kinematics (deformation) of a

w

beam subjected to pure bending loads, it is informative to conduct an experiment. Consider a

rectangular lines have been scribed on the beam’s surface, which are parallel to the top and
bottom surfaces (and thus parallel to a centroidally placed x-axis along the length of the
beam). Lines are also scribed around the circumference of the beam so that they are
perpendicular to the longitudinals (these circumferential lines form flat planes as shown).
www.padeepz.net
The longitudinal and circumferential lines form a square grid on the surface. The beam is
now bent by moments at each end as shown in the lower photograph. After loading, we note
28 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
that the top line has stretched and the bottom line has shortened (implies that there is strain
exx). If measured carefully, we see that the longitudinal line at the center has not changed
length (implies that exx = 0 at y = 0). The longitudinal lines now appear to form concentric
circular lines.

We also note that the vertical lines originally perpendicular to the longitudinal lines
remain straight

et
and perpendicular to the longitudinal lines. If measured carefully, we will see that the
vertical lines remain approximately the same length (implies eyy = 0). Each of the vertical

.n
lines (as well as the planes they form) has rotated and, if extended downward, they will pass
through a common point that forms the center of the concentric longitudinal lines (with some
radius ?). The flat planes originally normal to the longitudinal axis remain essentially flat
planes and remain normal to the deformed longitudinal lines. The squares on the surface are

pz
now quadrilaterals and each appears to have tension (or compression) stress in the
longitudinal direction (since the horizontal lines of a square have changed length). However,
in pure bending we make the assumption that. If the x-axis is along the length of beam and
the y-axis is normal to the beam, this suggests that we have an axial normal stress sxx that is
ee
tension above the x-axis and compression below the y-axis. The remaining normal
stresses syy and szz will generally be negligible for pure bending about the z-axis. For pure
bending, all shear stresses are assumed to be zero. Consequently, for pure bending, the stress
matrix reduces to zero
2.5 Effect of shape of beam section on stress induced
ad

CIRCULAR SECTION :

For a circular x-section, the polar moment of inertia may be computed in the following
manner
.p

Consider any circular strip of thickness dr located at a radius 'r'.

Than the area of the circular strip would be dA = 2pr. dr

w

Thus
w

Parallel Axis Theorem:

The moment of inertia about any axis is equal to the moment of inertia about a parallel axis
w

through the centroid plus the area times the square of the distance between the axes.

If „ZZ' is any axis in the plane of cross-section and „XX' is a parallel axis through the
centroid G, of the cross-section, then

www.padeepz.net
Rectangular Section:

29 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 For a rectangular x-section of the beam, the second moment of areawww.padeepz.net
may be computed as
below :

Consider the rectangular beam cross-section as shown above and an element of area dA ,
thickness dy , breadth B located at a distance y from the neutral axis, which by symmetry
passes through the centre of section. The second moment of area I as defined earlier would
be

et
Thus, for the rectangular section the second moment of area about the neutral axis i.e., an
axis through the centre is given by

.n
Similarly, the second moment of area of the rectangular section about an axis through the
lower edge of the section would be found using the same procedure but with integral limits
of 0 to D .

pz
Therefore

These standards formulas prove very convenient in the determination of INA for build up
ee
sections which can be conveniently divided into rectangles. For instance if we just want to
find out the Moment of Inertia of an I - section, then we can use the above relation.

Let us consider few examples to determaine the sheer stress distribution in a given X-
sections
ad

Rectangular x-section:

Consider a rectangular x-section of dimension b and d

.p

A is the area of the x-section cut off by a line parallel to the neutral axis. is the distance of
the centroid of A from the neutral axis

This shows that there is a parabolic distribution of shear stress with y.

w

The maximum value of shear stress would obviously beat the location y = 0.
w

Therefore the shear stress distribution is shown as below.

It may be noted that the shear stress is distributed parabolically over a rectangular cross-
w

section, it is maximum at y = 0 and is zero at the extreme ends.

I - section :

Consider an I - section of the dimension shown below.

www.padeepz.net
30 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 The shear stress distribution for any arbitrary shape is given as www.padeepz.net
Let us evaluate the quantity, thequantity for this case comprise the contribution due to flange
area and web area

Flange area

et
Web Area

To get the maximum and minimum values of t substitute in the above relation.

.n
y = 0 at N. A. And y = d/2 at the tip.

The maximum shear stress is at the neutral axis. i.e. for the condition y = 0 at N. A.

pz
Hence, ..........(2)

The minimum stress occur at the top of the web, the term bd 2 goes off and shear stress is
given by the following expression
ee
............(3)

The distribution of shear stress may be drawn as below, which clearly indicates a parabolic
distribution
ad

Note: from the above distribution we can see that the shear stress at the flanges is not zero,
but it has some value, this can be analyzed from equation (1). At the flange tip or flange or
web interface y = d/2.Obviously than this will have some constant value and than onwards
.p

this will have parabolic distribution.

In practice it is usually found that most of shearing stress usually about 95% is carried by the
web, and hence the shear stress in the flange is neglible however if we have the concrete
w

analysis i.e. if we analyze the shearing stress in the flange i.e. writing down the expression
for shear stress for flange and web separately, we will have this type of variation.
w

This distribution is known as the "top – hat" distribution. Clearly the web bears the most of
the shear stress and bending theory we can say that the flange will bear most of the bending
stress.
w

Shear stress distribution in beams of circular cross-section:

Let us find the shear stress distribution in beams of circular cross-section. In a beam of
circular cross-section, the value of Z width depends on y.
www.padeepz.net
Using the expression for the determination of shear stresses for any arbitrary shape or a
31 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 arbitrary section. www.padeepz.net

Where òy dA is the area moment of the shaded portion or the first moment of area.

Here in this case „dA' is to be found out using the Pythagoras theorem

The distribution of shear stresses is shown below, which indicates a parabolic distribution

et
Principal Stresses in Beams

.n
It becomes clear that the bending stress in beam sx is not a principal stress, since at any
distance y from the neutral axis; there is a shear stress t ( or txy we are assuming a plane
stress situation)

pz
In general the state of stress at a distance y from the neutral axis will be as follows.

At some point „P' in the beam, the value of bending stresses is given as

After substituting the appropriate values in the above expression we may get the inclination
ee
of the principal planes.

Illustrative examples: Let us study some illustrative examples, pertaining to determination

of principal stresses in a beam
ad

1. Find the principal stress at a point A in a uniform rectangular beam 200 mm deep and 100
mm wide, simply supported at each end over a span of 3 m and carrying a uniformly
distributed load of 15,000 N/m.

Solution: The reaction can be determined by symmetry

.p

R1 = R2 = 22,500 N
w

consider any cross-section X-X located at a distance x from the left end.

Hence,
w

S. F at XX =22,500 – 15,000 x
w

B.M at XX = 22,500 x – 15,000 x (x/2) = 22,500 x – 15,000 . x2 / 2

Therefore,

S. F at X = 1 m = 7,500 N
www.padeepz.net
32 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 B. M at X = 1 m = 15,000 N www.padeepz.net

Now substituting these values in the principal stress equation,

We get s1 = 11.27 MN/m2

s2 = - 0.025 MN/m2

et
Bending Of Composite or Flitched Beams

.n
A composite beam is defined as the one which is constructed from a combination of
materials. If such a beam is formed by rigidly bolting together two timber joists and a
reinforcing steel plate, then it is termed as a flitched beam.

pz
The bending theory is valid when a constant value of Young's modulus applies across a
section it cannot be used directly to solve the composite-beam problems where two different
materials, and therefore different values of E, exists. The method of solution in such a case is
to replace one of the materials by an equivalent section of the other.
ee
Consider, a beam as shown in figure in which a steel plate is held centrally in an appropriate
recess/pocket between two blocks of wood .Here it is convenient to replace the steel by an
equivalent area of wood, retaining the same bending strength. i.e. the moment at any section
must be the same in the equivalent section as in the original section so that the force at any
ad

given dy in the equivalent beam must be equal to that at the strip it replaces.

Hence to replace a steel strip by an equivalent wooden strip the thickness must be multiplied
by the modular ratio E/E'.
.p

The equivalent section is then one of the same materials throughout and the simple bending
theory applies. The stress in the wooden part of the original beam is found directly and that
in the steel found from the value at the same point in the equivalent material as follows by
w

utilizing the given relations.

Stress in steel = modular ratio x stress in equivalent wood

w

The above procedure of course is not limited to the two materials treated above but applies
well for any material combination. The wood and steel flitched beam was nearly chosen as a
just for the sake of convenience.
w

Assumption

In order to analyze the behavior of composite beams, we first make the assumption that the

www.padeepz.net
materials are bonded rigidly together so that there can be no relative axial movement
between them. This means that all the assumptions, which were valid for homogenous

33 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016

Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com
 www.rejinpaul.com

CE6306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II/III MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE8301 www.padeepz.net
beams are valid except the one assumption that is no longer valid is that the Young's
Modulus is the same throughout the beam.

The composite beams need not be made up of horizontal layers of materials as in the earlier
example. For instance, a beam might have stiffening plates as shown in the figure below.

Again, the equivalent beam of the main beam material can be formed by scaling the breadth

et
of the plate material in proportion to modular ratio. Bearing in mind that the strain at any
level is same in both materials, the bending stresses in them are in proportion to the Young's
modulus.

.n
Shear stresses in beams
When a beam is subjected to non uniform bending, both bending moments, M, and shear
forces, V, act on the cross section. The normal stresses, sx, associated with the bending

pz
moments are obtained from the flexure formula. We will now consider the distribution of
shear stresses, t, associated with the shear force, V. Let us begin by examining a beam of
rectangular cross section. We can reasonably assume that the shear stresses t act parallel to
the shear force V. Let us also assume that the distribution of shear stresses is uniform across
ee
the width of the beam.

Shear flow
One thing we might ask ourselves now is: Where does maximum shear stress occur? Well, it
can be
ad

shown that this always occurs in the center of gravity of the cross-section. So if you want to
calculate the maximum shear stress, make a cut through the center of gravity of the cross-
section.
.p
w
w
w

www.padeepz.net
34 A.RAJASEKAR AP/MECHANICAL 2015-2016
Get useful study Materials from Rejinpaul.com