-]MAPS

 Maps are pictures or representations of the Earth's surface.

 They show how places are related to each other by distance, direction, and
size.
 Maps are a way of showing a part of the Earth's surface on a flat piece of
paper.
 Maps are flat but they are made to represent an area that is on a sphere,
Earth.
 This can cause what is called distortion (changes in the shape of an
object).
 The areas of a map closest to the equator have little distortion.
 The closer a map moves towards the poles the more distorted the map
becomes.
 For example, Greenland appears to be much larger on a map than it really
is.

 A person who makes maps is called a cartographer.

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  Geological maps illustrate the nature, extent and relative age of rock types
to be found in a district.
 Solid geology maps show the 'solid' (bedrock) geology only. They show the
landscape as it would be if the superficial deposits such as peat, glacial
deposits and made ground were to be removed.
 A drift map is a geologic or geomorphological map which shows the
distribution of more recent glacial, fluvial, fluvioglacial, alluvial, and marine
sediments (i.e. all superficial deposits).
 Depending on the distribution and extent of drift, the map may show a
combination of solid and drift exposures.
 Geological maps illustrate the nature, extent and relative age of rock types to
be found in a district. Solid and Drift maps show the 'solid' (bedrock)
geology and the 'drift' deposits (such as peat and glacial deposits) with equal
emphasis – these map editions give the best impression of the underfoot
geology.

Features of a map

a) Maps have keys.

 The objects on a map are represented using symbols.

 A symbol is a picture on the map that represents something in the real
world.
 To understand the symbols on a map you need a key.
 Maps use a key, or legend to explain the meaning of each of the symbols
used in the map.
 The key usually shows a small picture of each of the symbols used on the
map, along with a written description of the meaning of each symbol.
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 b) Maps have scales.

 Maps are scaled down so that they fit on paper.

 When scaling down a map, every part of the map is scaled by the same
amount.
 This is done to make sure that every object on the map is the same
proportion as everything else on the map.
 Because the Earth is round, and maps are flat, it is impossible to create a
map with a perfect scale.
 Some parts of the map will be too large, while others will be too small.

c). Maps have A compass

 A map includes a compass rose that shows direction.

 Cardinal Directions are the four base parts on a compass.
 The top point is called north and the point at the bottom is south.
 The side points are called east and west.
 The points in between the cardinal directions are called intermediate
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directions.
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 These include northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast.

 d). Maps have latitude and longitude.

 We can identify locations on the Earth's surface by using a grid system of

latitude and longitude.

 Latitude gives a north and south direction and longitude gives an east and
west direction.
 This system helps us in measuring distances and finding directions
between places on the Earth's surface.
 The starting point is the prime meridian, with represents 0º longitude.
 The exact opposite position at 180º is called the International Date Line,
which is where the date actually changes.
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 Different Types of Maps and Their Uses
 Maps are pictures of the Earth's surface used mainly as reference material.
 The information they show can be general or specific which makes them
valuable tools.
 With a diverse range of information needed by students, cartographers, and
researchers, one type of map is not enough.
 In reality, several types of maps exist with each one designed to fill a
different role and provide specific information.

a)General-purpose maps
 General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map.
 Most atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category.
 The following are some features that might be shown on general-purpose
maps: bodies of water, roads, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and
cities, political boundaries, latitude and longitude, national and provincial
parks.
 These maps give a broad understanding of location and features of an area.
 You can gain an understanding of the type of landscape, the location of
urban places, and the location of major transportation routes all at once.

b)Road Map
 One of the most commonly used types of maps is the road map, mainly used
for navigation. This kind of map shows road networks of a specific area
including major and minor highways and smaller roads.
 Major highways are usually shown as wide red lines. Smaller ones are less
prominent with lighter colors.
 Places of interests such as airports, parks, monuments, and city locations are
depicted here as well.
 Street maps illustrate smaller areas such as towns and cities.
 People use street maps to find directions to a place they want to go.
 A road map shows the highways or interstates.
 These maps are also used to find directions.
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 A map of the Trans-African Highway network

 A road map or route map is a map that primarily displays roads and
transport links rather than natural geographical information.
 It is a type of navigational map that commonly includes political boundaries
and labels, making it also a type of political map.
 In addition to roads and boundaries, road maps often include points of
interest, such as prominent businesses or buildings, tourism sites, parks and
recreational facilities, hotels and restaurants, as well as airports and train
stations.
 A road map may also document non-automotive transit routes, although
often these are found only on transit maps.

Itineraria

 An alternative to, and in many ways the precursor of the road map, was the
itinerarium, a listing of towns and other stops, with intervening distances.
 The Tabula Peutingeriana, mentioned above, is in effect an itinerarium in
visual form, offering routes and distances with little geographical accuracy.
[6]
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 Types of road maps

 Road maps come in many shapes, sizes and scales.

 Small, single-page maps may be used to give an overview of a region's
major routes and features.
 Folded maps can offer greater detail covering a large region.
 Electronic maps typically present a dynamically generated display of a
region, with its scale, features, and level of detail specified by the user.
 Road maps can also vary in complexity, from a simple schematic map used
to show how to get to a single specific destination (such as a business), to a
complex electronic map, which may layer together many different types of
maps and information – such as a road map plotted over a topographical
3D satellite image (a viewing mode frequently used within Google Earth).

a) Highway maps generally give an overview of major routes within a medium

to large region ranging from a few dozen to a few thousand miles or
kilometers.
b) Street maps usually cover an area of a few miles or kilometers (at most)
within a single city or extended metropolitan area.

 City maps are generally a specialized form of street map.

c) A road atlas is a collection of road maps covering a region as small as a city

or as large as a continent, typically bound together in a book. Spiral binding
is a popular format for road atlases, to permit lay-flat usage and to reduce
wear and tear.

 Atlases may cover a number of discrete regions, such as all of the states or
provinces of a given nation, or a single continuous region in high detail split
across several pages.

 Many motoring organizations, especially those in the European Union,

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North America, Australia and New Zealand produce road maps.

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 An 1853 map of Louisiana with an inset street map of New Orleans

 Road maps often distinguish between major and minor thoroughfares (such
as motorways vs. surface streets) by using thicker lines or bolder colors for
the major roads.[7]
 Printed road maps commonly include an index of cities and other
destinations found on the map; smaller-scale maps often include indexes of
streets and other routes.
 These indexes give the location of the feature on the map via a grid
reference.
 Inset maps may be used to provide greater detail for a specific area, such as
a city map inset into a map of a state or province.

c) Physical Map
 Simply put, a physical map shows the landscapes and features of a particular
area.
 Bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, and the sea are always shown in blue.
 Land features are colored depending on their elevation. In general, low-lying
terrain such as plains and coastal areas are green.
 Higher elevations such as hills, plateaus, and mountains range from orange
to brown depending on how high they are.
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 Illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers and
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lakes.
  The water is usually shown in blue.
 Colors are used to show relief—differences in land elevations.
 Green is usually used at lower elevations, and orange or brown show higher
elevations.

d)Topographic Map
 A topographic map portrays terrain features in a measurable way, as well
as the horizontal positions of the features represented.
 The vertical positions, or relief, are normally represented by contour lines
on military topographic maps.
 On maps showing relief, the elevations and contours are measured from a
specific vertical datum plane, usually mean sea level.
 A topographic map shows the physical features of landscape in a given
area. It is very similar to a physical map.
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 The main difference is how it presents data. Instead of colors, this type of
map uses lines to show changes in elevation.
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  Called contour lines, these are spaced at regular intervals. Each line
represents a specific value based on the map's scale.
 In higher elevation, contour lines are spaced closer.
 Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area.
 Lines that are close together show steep terrain, and lines that are far
apart show flat terrain.
 Many hikers use topographic maps, especially in areas where there are no
roads with signs.
 Geologists depend on topographic maps to record the types of rocks.
 Engineers use topographic maps when they are planning roads, buildings,
or other human–made structures.

e)Economic or Resource Maps

 Also known as, an economic map, a resource map shows the type of
economic activities or natural resources present in an area.
 It uses symbols or colors to depict this information. For example, colors may
be used to show products available in an area.
 Symbols may show industries and natural resources identified by letters.
 Check the map legend to be sure.

 Feature the major types of natural resources or economic activity in an

area.
 Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural resources or
economic activities.
 For example, wheat on a map of Maryland tells you that wheat is grown
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there.
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 f) Political Map
 No landscape features are shown on a political map.
 Instead, it tells the reader where political boundaries are.
 Lines are clearly marked and different areas are usually shaded different
colors for easier distinction.
 Other details such as names and locations of important cities are depicted as
well.
 It is one of the most common types of maps used for reference by students
and the academe.
 Political Maps - do not show physical features.
 Instead, they show state and national boundaries and capital and major
cities.
 A capital city is usually marked with a star within a circle.
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 g) Climate/ weather Map
 Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and
snow) of a region.
 Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or
precipitation zones.
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  When checking for climate information of a given area, it is best to consult a
climate map.
 This type of map can show information such as average number of cloudy
days, temperature ranges, and average rain or snowfall.
 It is a quick way to tell the differences in weather phenomena of adjacent
areas.
 It is commonly the kind of map used in weather reports on the evening
news.

A surface weather analysis for the United States on October 21, 2006.

 A weather map displays various meteorological features across a particular

area at a particular point in time and has various symbols which all have
specific meanings.[1]
 Such maps have been in use since the mid-19th century and are used for
research and weather forecasting purposes.
 Maps using isotherms show temperature gradients,[2] which can help
locate weather fronts. Isotach maps, analyzing lines of equal wind speed,[3]
on a constant pressure surface of 300 mb or 250 mb show where the jet
stream is located.
 Use of constant pressure charts at the 700 and 500 hPa level can indicate
tropical cyclone motion.
 Two-dimensional streamlines based on wind speeds at various levels show
areas of convergence and divergence in the wind field, which are helpful in
determining the location of features within the wind pattern.
 A popular type of surface weather map is the surface weather analysis,
which plots isobars to depict areas of high pressure and low pressure.
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 Special weather maps in aviation show areas of icing and turbulence for the
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other.
 h)Thematic Map
 A thematic map is used to show a specific theme or topic related to an area.
 It could portray virtually any kind of information from average rainfall
distribution, infant mortality rates, population density, and membership to
political organizations.
 Features such as terrain variations, political boundaries, and highways are
normally omitted.
 When they are included, they are used strictly for reference.
 Maps are objects seen by many people almost every day.
 It seems simple but few really know their importance.
 Different types of maps are used for a wide range of purposes for reference.
 They are important tools for everyone from the average Joe to university
professors and scientific researchers.
 Maps make sense of otherwise confusing data and help provide a better
understanding of the world.

Edmond Halley's New and Correct Chart Shewing the Variations of the Compass
(1701), the first chart to show lines of equal magnetic variation.

 A thematic map is a type of map or chart especially designed to show a

particular theme connected with a specific geographic area.
 These maps "can portray physical, social, political, cultural, economic,
sociological, agricultural, or any other aspects of a city, state, region,
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nation, or continent".
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  A thematic map is a map that focuses on a specific theme or subject area,
whereas in a general map the variety of phenomena—geological,
geographical, political—regularly appear together.[2]
 The contrast between them lies in the fact that thematic maps use the
base data, such as coastlines, boundaries and places, only as points of
reference for the phenomenon being mapped.
 General maps portray the base data, such as landforms, lines of
transportation, settlements, and political boundaries, for their own sake. [2]
 Thematic maps emphasize spatial variation of one or a small number of
geographic distributions.
 These distributions may be physical phenomena such as climate or human
characteristics such as population density and health issues.
 Barbara Peacenik [3] described the difference as "in place, about space."
 While general reference maps show where something is in space, thematic
maps tell a story about that place [4] (e.g., city map).

 Thematic map are sometimes referred to as graphic essays that portray

spatial variations and interrelationships of geographical distributions.
 Location, of course, is important to provide a reference base of where
selected phenomena are occurring.
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 John Snow's cholera map about the cholera deaths in London in the 1840s,
published 1854.

 One of the earliest thematic maps was a map entitled Designatio orbis
christiani (1607) by Jodocus Hondius showing the dispersion of major
religions, using map symbols in the French edition of his Atlas Minor (1607).
[5]

 This was soon followed by a thematic globe (in the form of a six-gore map)
showing the same subject, using Hondius' symbols, by Franciscus Haraeus,
entitled: Novus typus orbis ipsus globus, ex Analemmate Ptolomaei diductus
(1614)[6]

Uses of thematic maps

 Thematic maps serve three primary purposes.

a) First, they provide specific information about particular locations.

b) Second, they provide general information about spatial patterns.
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c) Third, they can be used to compare patterns on two or more maps.

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  Common examples are maps of demographic data such as population
density.
 When designing a thematic map, cartographers must balance a number of
factors in order to effectively represent the data.

Geologic map

Mapped global geologic provinces

 A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to show

geological features.
 Rock units or geologic strata are shown by color or symbols to indicate
where they are exposed at the surface.
 Bedding planes and structural features such as faults, folds, foliations, and
lineations are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge symbols which
give these features' three-dimensional orientations.
 Stratigraphic contour lines may be used to illustrate the surface of a
selected stratum illustrating the subsurface topographic trends of the
strata. Isopach maps detail the variations in thickness of stratigraphic units.
 It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are
extremely fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are
otherwise disturbed.
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 William Smith's geologic map
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 Other types of maps
a) Planimetric Map.
 A planimetric map presents only the horizontal positions for the features
represented.
 It is distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief,
normally represented by contour lines. Sometimes, it is called a line map.

b) Photomap.
 A photomap is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid
lines, marginal data, place names, route numbers, important elevations,
boundaries, and approximate scale and direction have been added.

c) Joint Operations Graphics.

 Joint operations graphics are based on the format of standard 1:250,000
medium-scale military topographic maps, but they contain additional
information needed in joint air-ground operations.
 Along the north and east edges of the graphic, detail is extended beyond
the standard map sheet to provide overlap with adjacent sheets.
 These maps are produced both in ground and air formats.
 Each version is identified in the lower margin as either joint operations
graphic (air) or joint operations graphic (ground).
 The topographic information is identical on both, but the ground version
shows elevations and contour in meters and the air version shows them in
feet.
 Layer (elevation) tinting and relief shading are added as an aid to
interpolating relief. Both versions emphasize airlanding facilities (shown in
purple), but the air version has additional symbols to identify aids and
obstructions to air navigation.

d) Photomosaic.
 A photo mosaic is an assembly of aerial photographs that is commonly
called a mosaic in topographic usage.
 Mosaics are useful when time does not permit the compilation of a more
accurate map.
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  The accuracy of a mosaic depends on the method employed in its
preparation and may vary from simply a good pictorial effect of the ground
to that of a planimetric map.

e) Terrain Model.
 A terrain model is a scale model of the terrain showing features, and in
large-scale models showing industrial and cultural shapes.
 It provides a means for visualizing the terrain for planning or indoctrination
purposes and for briefing on assault landings.

f) Military City Map.

 A military city map is a topographic map (usually at 1:12,550 scale,
sometimes up to 1:5,000), showing the details of a city.
 It delineates streets and shows street names, important buildings, and
other elements of the urban landscape important to navigation and military
operations in urban terrain.
 The scale of a military city map depends on the importance and size of the
city, density of detail, and available intelligence information.

g) Special Maps.
 Special maps are for special purposes such as trafficability,
communications, and assault maps.
 They are usually in the form of an overprint in the scales smaller than
1:100,000 but larger than 1:1,000,000.
 A special purpose map is one that has been designed or modified to give
information not covered on a standard map.
 The wide range of subjects that could be covered under the heading of
special purpose maps prohibits, within the scope of this manual, more than
a brief mention of a few important ones.
 Some of the subjects covered are:

 Terrain features.
 Drainage characteristics.
 Vegetation.
 Climate.
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 Coasts and landing beaches.

 Roads and bridges.
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 Railroads.
  Airfields.
 Urban areas.
 Electric power.
 Fuels.
 Surface water resources.
 Ground water resources.
 Natural construction materials.
 Cross-country movements.
 Suitability for airfield construction.
 Airborne operations.

 If military maps are not available, use substitute maps.

 The substitute maps can range from foreign military or commercial maps to
field sketches.
 The NGA can provide black and white reproductions of many foreign maps
and can produce its own maps based upon intelligence.

h) Foreign Maps.
 Foreign maps have been compiled by nations other than our own.
 When they must be used, the marginal information and grids are changed
to conform to our standards, if time permits.
 The scales may differ from our maps, but they do express the ratio of map
distance to ground distance and can be used in the same way.
 The legend must be used since the map symbols almost always differ from
ours.
 Because the accuracy of foreign maps varies considerably, they are usually
evaluated in regard to established accuracy standards before they are
issued to our troops.

i) Atlases.
 Atlases are collections of maps of regions, countries, continents, or the
world.
 Such maps are accurate only to a degree and can be used for general
information only.
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 j) Geographic Maps.
 Geographic maps provide an overall idea of the mapped area in relation to
climate, population, relief, vegetation, and hydrography.
 They also show the general location of major urban areas.

k) Tourist Road Maps.

 Tourist road maps are maps of a region in which the main means of
transportation and areas of interest are shown.
 Some of these maps show secondary networks of roads, historic sites,
museums, and beaches in detail.
 They may contain road and time distance between points.
 The scale should be carefully considered when using these maps.

l) City/Utility Maps.
 City/utility maps are maps of urban areas showing streets, water ducts,
electricity and telephone lines, and sewers.

m) Field Sketches.
 Field sketches are preliminary drawings of an area or piece of terrain.

n) Aerial Photographs.
 Aerial photographs can be used as map supplements or substitutes to help
you analyze the terrain, plan your route, or guide your movement.
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 Types of strata
a)Outcrop
 An outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits
on the surface of the Earth.[1]

View of a bedrock outcrop near San Carlos Water, Falklands Islands.

 As exemplified in the picture an outcrop has to be immersed in soil and

sediments.
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Granite outcrops at Silesian Stones Mountain in southwestern Poland.

 Roadside outcrop of Ordovician limestones and shales in southeastern Indiana.

Roadside outcrop of a pegmatite lens (light-colored mass) in an amphibolite

gneiss in Norway.

Features
 Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in
most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of
soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely.
 However in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion
or tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out.
 Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid
and exceeds the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain
ridges and tops, river banks, and tectonically active areas.
 Bedrock and superficial deposits may also be exposed at the Earth's
surface due to human excavations such as quarrying and building of
transport routes.
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 Study
 Outcrops allow direct observation and sampling of the bedrock in situ for
geologic analysis and creating geologic maps.
 In situ measurements are critical for proper analysis of geological history
and outcrops are therefore extremely important for understanding the
geologic time scale of earth history.
 Some of the types of information that can only be obtained from bedrock
outcrops, or through precise drilling and coring operations, are; structural
geology features orientations (e.g. bedding planes, fold axes, foliation),
depositional features orientations (e.g. paleo-current directions, grading,
facies changes), paleomagnetic orientations.
 Outcrops are also critically important for understanding fossil assemblages,
paleo-environment, and evolution as they provide a record of relative
changes within geologic strata.
 Accurate description, mapping, and sampling for laboratory analysis of
outcrops made possible all of the geologic sciences and the development of
fundamental geologic laws such as: law of superposition, principle of
original horizontality, principle of lateral continuity, and principle of faunal
succession.
 Outcrops can therefore be considered the fundamental element of
geologic science.

Examples
 On Ordnance Survey maps in Great Britain, cliffs are distinguished from
outcrops: cliffs have a continuous line along the top edge with lines
protruding down; outcrops have a continuous line around each area of bare
rock.
 An outcrop example in California is the Vasquez Rocks, familiar from
location shooting use in many films, composed of uplifted sandstone.[2][3]
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 What is bedrock?
 The earth's crust is composed of rock. But the type of rock is different in
most places.
 Rock which occurs at any given place on the earth is called that location's
bedrock.
 In some cases the bedrock is actually exposed, and is said to outcrop at the
surface.
 Outcropping bedrock is great stuff, because it allows geologist to determine
the local geology, and helps them put together the geologic history of the
earth.
 Unfortunately, in many places the bedrock is covered by water, dirt, plants,
pavement, buildings, or other coverings which obscure the area's bedrock.
 If there is no outcrop, it is hard to determine the local geology. Often all
that a geologist has to look at is loose pieces laying about on the surface.
 We call these disconnected pieces float.
 It is always a challenge to make a geologic map when all you have is float
to work with, because it is often difficult to know how far the pieces have
been moved since they were broken off by weathering processes.
 As always, there are shades of gray between these two extremes.
 There are places where it is impossible to determine for sure that the
exposed rock is connected to the earth (and therefore bedrock), but it sure
does look like it is (and therefore probably not float).
 We call this "I don't think it's float, but I'm not convinced that it's attached"
material subcrop.
 The term subcrop is also applied to material which has probably broken
off, but has not been moved from its original location.
 In most cases, subcrop is better than working with float, but not nearly as
desirable as bedrock which outcrops.
 It's important that a geologist spend some time determining which of
these 3 situations he or she is facing: outcrop, subcrop, or float.
 How much confidence we can place on any geologic work is directly related
to this issue, as well as to the geologist's overall abilities.
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