TEMPORARY WORKS

FORM WORK
Requirements for Formwork
The requirements for formwork in construction typically include:
1. Strength and Stability: Formwork must be capable of supporting the weight of fresh concrete,
reinforcement, and construction loads without distortion or failure=2400kg/m 3
2. Durability: Formwork should be durable enough to withstand repeated use and exposure to
weather conditions.
3. Accuracy and Dimensional Control: Formwork must be able to maintain the desired shape,
dimensions, and alignment of the concrete structure.
4. Safety: Formwork should be designed and installed to ensure the safety of workers during
construction activities.
5. Ease of Handling and Assembly: Formwork components should be lightweight and easy to
handle, transport, and assemble on-site.
6. Surface Finish: Formwork should produce the desired surface finish on the concrete, whether
smooth, textured, or patterned.
7. Cost-Effectiveness: Formwork solutions should be cost-effective, considering both initial
investment and potential reuse.
8. Compatibility: Formwork should be compatible with the chosen construction materials and
methods, including concrete mixes and reinforcement types.
9. Environmental Considerations: Formwork materials should be environmentally friendly, and
their disposal or reuse should be considered in the construction process.
10. Regulatory Compliance: Formwork design and installation must comply with relevant building
codes, standards, and regulations in the construction jurisdiction.
Common terminologies in Formwork
1. Brace: A member usually diagonal which acts in tension or compression and stiffens.
2. Carcassing timber: Timber used for any structural purpose in the support of forms but not in
direct contact with concrete.
3. Kicker/ kicker frame: is a small concrete up stand cast above floor level to position wall and
column forms for the next lift and to assist the prevention of grout loss.
4. Panel: prefabricated form of limited size designed for respected re-use, a number of which may
be fixed together to form a large surface.
5. Plucking: This appears as surface material lost upon striking the formwork. Normally occurs
when the concrete surface is not of sufficient strength when striking the formwork. Could be due
to cold weather, retarded surface, high cement replacement or a combination thereof.

Materials for formwork construction.

1. Form Ties and Accessories: Including formwork fasteners, ties, bolts, clamps, wedges, and
braces to hold the formwork together and ensure stability during concrete pouring and curing.
2. Release Agents: Used to prevent concrete from sticking to the formwork, facilitating easy
removal after curing.
3. Formwork Sealer: Applied to plywood formwork to extend its lifespan and improve durability
by protecting against moisture and weathering.
4. Waterproofing Membrane: In some cases, a waterproofing membrane may be required to
prevent water infiltration into the concrete or formwork.
5. Insulation: For formwork used in cold climates, insulation materials may be incorporated to
prevent freezing of concrete or to maintain specified curing temperatures.
6. Mould Oil: Applied to the inside surface of formwork to alleviate blow holes and uneven colour
defects. Other defects include the spoiling of the concrete face (plucking) due to the sticking of
concrete to the form.
7. Plywood: Used for forming the concrete surface. It should be smooth, durable, and of appropriate
thickness to withstand the pressure of concrete.
1. Advantages: Plywood is readily available, easy to work with, and provides a smooth
surface finish. It is also relatively inexpensive compared to some alternatives.
2. Disadvantages: Plywood can swell or warp when exposed to moisture, affecting its
dimensional stability and reusability. It may also require frequent replacement in harsh
environmental conditions.
8. Timber: Typically used for formwork support, bracing, and framing. Common types include
softwood such as pine or fir, which are easy to work with and readily available.
1. Advantages: Timber is versatile, readily available, and cost-effective. It can be easily cut,
shaped, and assembled on-site. Timber formwork is suitable for a wide range of
applications and can be reused multiple times.
2. Disadvantages: Timber formwork may deform over time due to moisture absorption,
leading to dimensional changes and reduced accuracy. It may also be susceptible to insect
damage and deterioration in humid environments.
9. Steel: Used for heavy-duty formwork or where high strength and durability are required. Steel
formwork may be prefabricated or assembled on-site.
1. Advantages: Steel formwork is strong, durable, and capable of withstanding high
pressures. It offers excellent dimensional stability and can be reused extensively, making
it cost-effective for large-scale projects. Steel formwork provides smooth concrete
surfaces and allows for fast assembly and disassembly.
2. Disadvantages: Steel formwork is heavier and more expensive than timber or plywood
alternatives. It may require specialized equipment for handling and installation. Corrosion
can be a concern, requiring proper maintenance and surface treatment.
 10. Aluminum: Lightweight and corrosion-resistant, aluminum formwork is suitable for repetitive
use in large-scale construction projects.
1. Advantages: Aluminum formwork is lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and durable. It
offers excellent dimensional stability and can be reused multiple times with minimal
maintenance. Aluminum formwork allows for fast construction cycles and provides a
smooth surface finish.
2. Disadvantages: Aluminum formwork tends to be more expensive upfront compared to
other materials. It may require specialized training for proper handling and installation.
Customization options may be limited compared to steel formwork.
11. Plastic: Some formwork systems utilize plastic panels or modular components for lightweight,
reusable formwork.
1. Advantages: Plastic formwork is lightweight, reusable, and easy to handle. It does not
require surface treatment and offers good chemical resistance. Plastic formwork systems
may incorporate modular components for efficient assembly and disassembly.
2. Disadvantages: Plastic formwork may have limited load-bearing capacity compared to
other materials. It may also be prone to deformation or damage under high temperatures
or heavy loads. Initial investment costs can be higher than traditional timber formwork.
Each material has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on factors such as
project requirements, budget, construction timeline, and environmental conditions.
Methods of erecting formwork
1. Traditional Timber Formwork:
 Assembly by Hand: Timber formwork is often assembled manually by workers on-site
using timber boards, nails, screws, and other fasteners. Workers cut and fit the timber
components according to the desired formwork design and then secure them in place
using nails or screws.
 Piece-by-Piece Erection: Timber formwork components, such as panels, beams, and
props, are erected one piece at a time, starting from the ground level and working
upwards. Vertical supports (props) are placed at regular intervals to support the
horizontal formwork panels and beams.
2. Steel Formwork:
 Panel Installation: Steel formwork panels are typically assembled on-site using
prefabricated steel panels or frames. These panels are connected together using bolts,
clamps, or other fasteners to create the formwork structure.
 Adjustable Supports: Steel formwork is supported by adjustable steel props or frames,
which can be easily adjusted to the desired height and position. The props are spaced at
regular intervals along the length of the formwork to provide support and stability.
3. Aluminum Formwork:
  Modular Assembly: Aluminum formwork systems consist of lightweight modular
components that are assembled on-site to create the formwork structure. These
components are designed to interlock or connect easily, allowing for quick assembly and
disassembly.
 Manual Handling: Due to their lightweight nature, aluminum formwork components
can often be handled and assembled manually by workers without the need for heavy
lifting equipment.
4. Plastic Formwork:
 Snap-Together Assembly: Plastic formwork systems utilize modular plastic panels or
components that are snapped together or connected using locking mechanisms to create
the formwork structure. This method allows for quick and easy assembly on-site without
the need for specialized tools or equipment.
Types / Classification of Formwork
The formwork should be classified according to;
 Size
 Material
 Location of use
1) According to the size
In practice, formworks are classified into two types according to their size. They are small
sized and large sized formwork.
 Small-sized formwork – Any size which is designed for operation by workers manually is small-
sized.
 Large-sized formwork – These formworks can be designed as large as practicable to reduce the
number of joints. Cranes are used to lift these forms since they are heavy.
2) According to the material
Formwork is made of different types of materials. Each of them has its own advantages as well as
disadvantages. They are,
 Timber Formwork
 Steel Formwork
 Aluminum Formwork
 Plywood Formwork
 Plastic Formwork
4) Types of formwork according to the location of use
a) Foundation formwork
The formwork size and shape depend upon the size and shape of the footing. It is the first stage of
concreting in any construction process.
The formwork consists of side support and side planks.

b) Column formwork
Proper care must be followed while establishing column formwork because while concreting it is
subjected to lateral pressure. The formwork must have sufficient stiffness to withstand the lateral force
and control deflection. It consists of side & end planks, a yoke, nuts & bolts.

c) Wall formwork
The shuttering shall be fixed at the required distance equal to the required wall thickness.
After establishing one side of the formwork, reinforcement is provided and then the other side of the
formwork is established.
d) Beam formwork & Slab formwork
Beam formwork rests on the head tree and the slab formwork rests on battens and joists.
If the props exceed the height of 8 feet, provide horizontal bracing.
Methods of striking formwork
1. Hand Stripping: In this method, workers manually remove the formwork components by
loosening and unscrewing the fasteners, such as bolts, wedges, or nails, used to secure the
formwork to the structure. Hand stripping is suitable for small-scale projects or areas where
access is limited and requires manual labor.
2. Crank System: A crank system utilizes mechanical devices or tools to release and retract the
formwork components automatically. This method is efficient for large-scale projects where
repetitive formwork stripping is required and helps reduce manual labor and time.
3. Hydraulic Stripping: Hydraulic systems are used to apply pressure to the formwork
components, releasing them from the concrete surface and allowing for easy removal. Hydraulic
stripping systems are particularly useful for formwork systems with large panels or where high
stripping forces are required.
4. Pneumatic Stripping: Pneumatic tools, such as air hammers or chisels, are used to break the
bond between the concrete and formwork, facilitating the removal of the formwork components.
Pneumatic stripping is suitable for formwork systems with tight clearances or where mechanical
or hydraulic methods are impractical.
5. Formwork Jacks: Formwork jacks are used to raise the formwork slightly, creating a gap
between the formwork and concrete surface, which facilitates the removal process. Formwork
jacks are particularly useful for removing large panels or heavy formwork components.
6. Gravity Stripping: Gravity stripping relies on the weight of the formwork components to release
them from the concrete surface once the concrete has cured sufficiently. This method is suitable
for formwork systems with simple designs and where the weight of the formwork itself is
sufficient to overcome the bond with the concrete.
7. Chemical Release Agents: Chemical release agents are applied to the formwork surface before
concrete placement to prevent the concrete from bonding to the formwork. This helps facilitate
the stripping process by reducing the adhesion between the concrete and formwork components.
Load distribution
Load distribution in formwork for construction is essential to ensure the structural integrity and stability
of the formwork system. Here's how load distribution is typically managed:
1. Proper Design: Load distribution begins with the initial design of the formwork system.
Engineers calculate the anticipated loads from fresh concrete, construction materials, equipment,
and workers, and design the formwork components to distribute these loads efficiently.
2. Supporting Structure: Formwork is supported by a framework of props, braces, and other
support elements that transfer the loads to the ground or to structural members such as columns or
walls. The supporting structure must be adequately designed and spaced to distribute loads evenly
and prevent overloading of individual components.
3. Even Distribution: Formwork panels, frames, and supporting elements are arranged to distribute
loads evenly across the entire system. This helps prevent localized stress concentrations that
could lead to deformation or failure of the formwork.
 4. Adjustable Props: Adjustable props are used to provide vertical support for the formwork,
allowing for precise adjustment of height and load-bearing capacity. Props are spaced at regular
intervals along the length of the formwork to evenly distribute loads and minimize deflection.
5. Bracing and Reinforcement: Bracing elements such as diagonal struts, cross braces, and
horizontal supports help reinforce the formwork system and distribute lateral loads, such as wind
or concrete pressure, to adjacent components. Properly placed reinforcement helps maintain the
stability and alignment of the formwork during construction.
6. Form Ties: Form ties connect formwork panels together and help distribute the lateral pressure
exerted by fresh concrete. Ties are spaced at regular intervals along the perimeter of the
formwork to ensure uniform pressure distribution and prevent bulging or deformation of the
panels.
7. Load Testing: Before pouring concrete, the formwork system is inspected and load-tested to
ensure that it can safely support the anticipated loads. Any deficiencies or weaknesses are
identified and addressed before concrete placement begins.
8. Monitoring: During concrete pouring and curing, the formwork system is monitored to ensure
that loads are distributed evenly and that there are no signs of excessive deflection or stress.
Adjustments may be made as needed to maintain stability and structural integrity.
By carefully designing and implementing load distribution strategies, construction teams can ensure the
safe and efficient execution of formwork operations, minimizing the risk of accidents and structural
failures.
SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding in construction refers to a temporary structure erected at a building site to provide support for
workers and materials during the construction, maintenance, or repair of buildings and other structures.
Scaffolding typically consists of a framework of metal tubes, poles, or boards that are interconnected to
form a stable platform for workers to access elevated areas safely.
The primary functions of scaffolding include:
1. Access: Scaffolding provides safe access for workers to reach elevated areas of a building or
structure, such as walls, ceilings, or roofs, where ladders or other means of access are impractical
or unsafe.
2. Work Platform: Scaffolding serves as a stable platform for workers to perform construction,
maintenance, painting, plastering, or other tasks at height. It provides a level surface for working
with tools, equipment, and materials.
3. Support: Scaffolding supports construction materials n , tools, and equipment needed for the job,
allowing workers to efficiently perform their tasks without the need to repeatedly climb up and
down.
4. Safety: Scaffolding helps prevent falls and other accidents by providing guardrails, toe boards,
and other safety features to protect workers from hazards at height. It also allows for the
installation of safety nets, harnesses, and other fall protection systems.
5. Structural Support: Scaffolding can be used to support temporary structures such as temporary
roofs, bridges, or platforms, allowing for safe and efficient construction activities.
Technical terms for parts of a scaffold
1. Standards (Uprights): Vertical tubes or poles that form the main vertical supports of the
scaffold structure. Standards are typically positioned at regular intervals along the length of the
scaffold.
2. Ledgers (Ledging): Horizontal tubes or beams that connect the standards horizontally, providing
lateral stability to the scaffold structure. Ledgers are positioned perpendicular to the standards.
3. Transoms: Horizontal tubes or beams that are placed parallel to the ledgers, providing additional
support for scaffold boards or platforms. Transoms are often used in conjunction with ledgers to
create a grid-like framework for the scaffold deck.
4. Diagonal Braces: Angled tubes or rods that are used to reinforce the scaffold structure and
prevent lateral movement or sway. Diagonal braces are typically installed diagonally between
standards and ledgers or transoms.
5. Base Plates: Flat metal plates that are placed at the bottom of scaffold standards to distribute the
load and provide stability on the ground surface. Base plates are often secured with screws or
bolts to prevent movement.
6. Scaffold Boards (Planks): Wooden or metal boards that are placed horizontally across the
scaffold structure to create a working platform for workers and materials. Scaffold boards are
supported by ledgers or transoms and must be secured to prevent movement.
7. Guardrails: Horizontal or vertical rails that are installed along the edges of scaffold platforms to
prevent falls and provide fall protection for workers. Guardrails are typically made of metal tubes
or bars and are secured to the scaffold structure.
8. Toeboards: Horizontal boards or panels that are installed along the edges of scaffold platforms to
prevent tools, equipment, or materials from falling off the scaffold. Toeboards are typically
secured to the scaffold structure and are positioned below the guardrails.
9. Couplers (Clamps): Metal fittings or connectors that are used to join scaffold tubes or poles
together to form the scaffold structure. Couplers come in various types, including swivel
couplers, double couplers, and sleeve couplers, and are used to securely connect scaffold
components.
10. Access Ladders: Vertical ladders or staircases that are attached to the scaffold structure to
provide safe access for workers to reach elevated levels. Access ladders are typically equipped
with handrails and safety gates for added protection.
Different types of scaffolds
 Independent Scaffolds: An independent scaffold, also known as a freestanding scaffold, is a
type of scaffolding system that is not reliant on the support of the building or structure against
which it is erected. Instead, an independent scaffold is self-supporting and stands on its own,
usually with the aid of stabilizers or outriggers at the base to provide stability. This type of
scaffold is commonly used in construction, maintenance, repair, and renovation projects where
access is required to areas away from the building or where the structure cannot support the
scaffold's weight.
  Putlog Scaffolding: The 'putlog' is a component that links the wall and the ledger together. This
method of scaffolding derives from old masonry techniques where they used a hole in a wall of a
structure to 'put the log'. A putlog scaffold is tied directly into the brickwork of a structure using
putlogs or tubes with putlog adapters.

 Gantry Scaffolding:
This is a type of temporary structure used in construction that looks like a big metal frame with horizontal
and vertical bars forming grid like patterns above the work area. It’s like a big overhead framework that
workers can stand on to reach high places, like working on bridges, tall buildings, or other structures.
They are self-supporting and don’t rely on the building for support. They’re often used when workers
need to access elevated areas across a wide space.

 Suspended Scaffolding: Hangs from the top of a building or structure using ropes or cables. It is
used for tasks such as window washing, painting, or maintenance work on tall buildings.
 Mobile Scaffolding: Mounted on wheels or casters for easy mobility. It is often used for short-
term tasks or in areas where frequent repositioning is required.
 Truss out/ Cantilevered Scaffolding: This typically refers to a type of scaffolding system that
uses trusses, which are rigid structures made of straight pieces joined together to support
platforms or walkways. Truss out scaffolding is commonly used in situations where longer spans
or greater load bearing capacity are required, such as in large construction projects or industrial
settings. They provide stability and support for workers and materials at elevated heights.
Overall, scaffolding plays a crucial role in providing safe and efficient access for workers to perform
construction activities at height, ensuring the successful completion of building projects.
Safety precautions to be observed during scaffolding
Safety precautions are crucial when working with scaffolding to prevent accidents and injuries. Here are
some essential safety precautions to observe during scaffolding:
1. Training: Ensure that workers who will be using the scaffold are properly trained on its
assembly, use, and dismantling. They should understand the safety procedures and potential
hazards associated with scaffolding.
2. Inspection: Conduct a thorough inspection of the scaffold before each use to ensure that it is in
good condition and free from defects. Check for missing or damaged components, loose
connections, and stability.
3. Weight Capacity: Do not exceed the maximum weight capacity of the scaffold. Ensure that the
scaffold is designed to support the weight of workers, equipment, and materials being used.
 4. Stability: Ensure that the scaffold is stable and properly supported on a firm, level surface. Use
base plates, screw jacks, or other stabilizing devices to distribute the load evenly and prevent
tipping or collapse.
5. Guardrails and Toeboards: Install guardrails and toeboards along all open sides of the scaffold
platform to prevent falls and provide fall protection for workers. Ensure that guardrails are at
least 42 inches high and have midrails for additional safety.
6. Access: Provide safe access to the scaffold platform using ladders, staircases, or access gates.
Secure access points to prevent unauthorized entry and ensure that workers use proper climbing
techniques.
7. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Require workers to wear appropriate PPE, including
hard hats, safety harnesses, non-slip footwear, and high-visibility clothing. Fall arrest systems
should be used when working at heights.
8. Weather Conditions: Do not use scaffolding during adverse weather conditions such as high
winds, rain, or snow, as these can affect stability and safety. Secure the scaffold and cover the
platform to protect against weather elements.
9. Electrical Hazards: Keep scaffolding at least 10 feet away from power lines to prevent
electrocution hazards. Use insulated tools and equipment when working near electrical sources.
10. Proper Use of Tools and Equipment: Ensure that tools and equipment are securely stored on
the scaffold platform to prevent them from falling. Use tool lanyards or tool belts to secure tools
and prevent them from becoming tripping hazards.
11. Regular Inspections: Perform regular inspections of the scaffold during use to check for signs of
wear, damage, or instability. Address any issues promptly and stop work if safety concerns arise.
12. Dismantling: Follow proper procedures for dismantling the scaffold, including lowering
materials and components safely to the ground. Do not disassemble scaffolding while workers are
still on the platform.
By observing these safety precautions, construction workers can minimize the risk of accidents and
injuries when working with scaffolding. Safety should always be the top priority when working at
heights.
SHORING
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure. These
support walls laterally. Shoring can be used when walls bulge out, when walls crack due to unequal
settlement of foundation and repairs are to be carried out to the cracked wall, when an adjacent structure
needs pulling down, when openings are to be newly made or enlarged in a wall.
Types of shoring
1. Raking shoring
2. Flying shoring
3. Dead shoring
1. Raking Shoring
In this method, inclined members known as rakers are used to give lateral supports to walls (figure 1 to
3). A raking shore consists of the following components:
1. Rakers or inclined member
2. Wall plate
3. Needles
4. Cleats
5. Bracing
6. Sole plate
The following points are to be kept in view for the use of the raking shores:
1. Rakers are to be inclined in the ground at 450. However the angle may be between 450 and 750.
2. For tall buildings, the length of the raker can be reduced by introducing rider raker.
3. Rakers should be properly braced at intervals.
4. The size of the rakers is to be decided on the basis of anticipated thrust from the wall.
5. The centre line of a raker and the wall should meet at floor level.
6. Shoring may be spaced at 3m to 4.5m spacing to cover longer length of the bar.
7. The sole plate should be properly embedded into the ground on an inclination and should be of
proper section and size.
8. Wedges should not be used on sole plates since they are likely to give way under vibrations that
are likely to occur.
Fig.1: Raking Shores Wall Support

Fig.2: Detail of Head of the Raker Shores

Fig.3: Raking shore for Multistoried Building where inclination of the rakers has to be limited due
to short land width available
2. Flying Shoring
Flying shores is a system of providing temporary supports to the party walls of the two buildings where
the intermediate building is to be pulled down and rebuilt (figure 4 and 5). All types of arrangements of
supporting the unsafe structure in which the shores do not reach the ground come under this category. The
flying shore consists of wall plates, needles, cleats, horizontal struts (commonly known as horizontal
shores) and inclined struts arranged in different forms which varies with the situation. In this system also
the wall plates are placed against the wall and secured to it. A horizontal strut is placed between the wall
plates and is supported by a system of needle and cleats. The inclined struts are supported by the needle at
their top and by straining pieces at their feet. The straining piece is also known as straining sill and is
spiked to the horizontal shore. The width of straining piece is the same as that of the strut. When the
distance between the walls (to be strutted apart) is considerable, a horizontal shore cannot be safe and a
trussed framework of members is necessary to perform the function of flying shore.

Fig.4: Flying Shore

Fig.5: Flying shore when the distance between two walls is considerable
3. Dead Shoring
Dead shore is the system of shoring which is used to render vertical support to walls and roofs, floors, etc
when the lower part of a wall has been removed for the purpose of providing an opening in the wall or to
rebuild a defective load bearing wall in a structure (figure 6 and 7). The dead shore consists of an
arrangement of beams and posts which are required to support the weight of the structure above and
transfer same to the ground on firm foundation below.

Fig.6: Dead Shore

When openings in the wall are to be made, holes are cut in the wall at such a height as to allow sufficient
space for insertion of the beam or girder that will be provided permanently to carry the weight of the
structure above. Distance at which the holes are cut depends upon the type of masonry and it varies from
1.2m to 1.8m centre. Beams called needles are placed in the holes and are supported by vertical props
called dead shores at their ends on either side of the wall. The needles may be of timber or steel and are of
sufficient section to carry the load above.
Fig.7: Section of the elevation showing arrangement of dead shores for making an opening in an
existing wall
The dead shores stand away from wall on either side so as to allow for working space when the needle
and the props are in position. The props are tightened up by folding wedges provided at their bases while
the junction between the prop and the needle is secured with the help of iron dogs. Before the dismantling
work is started, all the doors, windows or other openings are well strutted. In order to relieve the wall of
load of floors and roof above, they are independently supported. Vibrations and shocks are bound to
occur when wall cutting is done as such a measure of safety raking shores are sometimes erected before
commencement of wall cutting operation.
UNDERPINNING
Underpinning is a construction technique used to strengthen, stabilize, or support the foundation of an
existing structure. The functional requirements for underpinning may vary depending on the specific
circumstances and condition of the building, but generally include:
1. Structural Stability: Underpinning should improve the structural stability of the building by
strengthening the foundation and preventing further settlement or movement.
 2. Load-Bearing Capacity: Underpinning should increase the load-bearing capacity of the
foundation to support the weight of the building and any additional loads imposed on it.
3. Settlement Prevention: Underpinning should prevent or minimize further settlement of the
building, particularly in areas where the foundation has become unstable or weakened.
4. Leveling and Alignment: Underpinning may be used to level or align the foundation of the
building, correcting any unevenness or slope that may have developed over time.
5. Waterproofing and Drainage: Underpinning may include measures to improve waterproofing
and drainage around the foundation, reducing the risk of water infiltration and damage to the
structure.
6. Seismic Resistance: In areas prone to seismic activity, underpinning may improve the building's
resistance to earthquakes by strengthening the foundation and reducing the risk of structural
failure.
7. Accessibility and Safety: Underpinning should be carried out in a manner that ensures the safety
of workers and occupants of the building. Access to the underpinning works should be provided
in compliance with safety regulations and standards.
8. Compatibility with Existing Structure: Underpinning should be compatible with the existing
structure and its surroundings, taking into account factors such as building materials, construction
methods, and architectural features.
9. Durability and Longevity: Underpinning should be designed and executed to provide long-term
stability and durability, minimizing the need for future maintenance or repairs.
10. Cost-Effectiveness: Underpinning should be cost-effective in terms of both initial investment
and long-term benefits, taking into account factors such as construction costs, timeframes, and
potential savings in future maintenance or repair expenses.
Materials used in Underpinning
1. Concrete: Concrete is one of the most commonly used materials in underpinning. It can be
poured into excavated trenches or boreholes to create new foundation elements, such as
underpinning pads, beams, or piles. Reinforced concrete is often used for its strength and
durability.
2. Steel Reinforcement: Steel reinforcement, such as rebar or steel beams, may be used in
conjunction with concrete to provide additional strength and stability to underpinning elements.
Reinforcing steel is often used in areas with high loads or soil conditions that require extra
reinforcement.
3. Grout: Grout, a mixture of cement, water, and sometimes additives, can be injected into the
ground to stabilize soil or fill voids beneath the existing foundation. Grout injection techniques
include permeation grouting, compaction grouting, and jet grouting.
4. Helical Piles or Micro Piles: Helical piles or micro piles are steel piles with helical plates that
are screwed into the ground to support the foundation. They are often used in areas with limited
access or restricted headroom, as they can be installed using small equipment.
 5. Resin Injection: Resin injection involves injecting epoxy or polyurethane resins into the ground
to fill voids, stabilize soil, or improve the load-bearing capacity of the foundation. It is commonly
used in underpinning projects where traditional methods are not feasible or cost-effective.
6. Timber Shoring: Timber shoring may be used temporarily to support the existing foundation
during underpinning works. Timber beams or cribbing are installed to provide lateral support and
prevent collapse while excavation or construction activities are taking place.
7. Composite Materials: Composite materials, such as fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) or carbon
fiber, may be used to strengthen existing foundation elements or provide additional reinforcement
in underpinning projects. These materials are lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and have high
tensile strength.
8. Sheet Piling: Sheet piling may be used in underpinning projects where there is a need to retain
soil or groundwater during excavation. Sheet piles are driven into the ground to create a
temporary or permanent barrier and provide lateral support to the existing foundation.
Types of underpinning
1. Mass Concrete Underpinning:
 Method: Mass concrete underpinning involves excavating sections beneath the existing
foundation one at a time and pouring concrete to create new foundation elements, such as
pads or beams, to support the structure.
 Process: Excavation is typically carried out manually or using mechanical equipment,
depending on the access and site conditions. After excavation, concrete is poured into the
void to create the new foundation element. This process is repeated for each section of
the foundation that requires underpinning.
 Suitability: Mass concrete underpinning is suitable for shallow foundations and
structures with relatively light loads. It is often used in residential buildings, small
commercial structures, and historic buildings.

2. Pile Underpinning:
 Method: Pile underpinning involves driving or installing piles, typically steel or
concrete, into the ground beneath the existing foundation to support the structure. Piles
 may be driven vertically or at an angle depending on the soil conditions and structural
requirements.
 Process: Pile underpinning can be carried out using various techniques, including driven
piles, bored piles, or screw piles. Piles are installed to a predetermined depth and load-
bearing capacity, and then connected to the existing foundation using pile caps or beams.
The weight of the structure is transferred to the piles, providing support and stability.
 Suitability: Pile underpinning is suitable for structures with deep foundations, heavy
loads, or poor soil conditions. It is commonly used in commercial buildings, industrial
facilities, and infrastructure projects where greater structural support is required.

Both mass concrete underpinning and pile underpinning are effective methods for strengthening and
stabilizing existing foundations, but they are chosen based on factors such as soil conditions, structural
requirements, accessibility, and budget constraints. It's essential to consult with qualified engineers and
geotechnical experts to determine the most suitable underpinning technique for each specific project.
DEMOLOTIONS
This is a skilled and sometimes dangerous operation and unless of a very small nature should be entrusted
to a specialist contractor. Demolition of a building or structure can be considered under two headings;
1. Take down- partial demolition of a structure.
Before taking down or demolition is commenced it is usual to remove carefully all saleable items such as
copper, lead, steel fittings, domestic fittings, windows, doors and frames.
Taking down requires a good comprehensive knowledge of building construction and design so that load
bearing members and walls can be correctly identified and adequately supported by struts, props and
suitable shoring. Most partial demolition works will need to be carried out manually using hand tools
such as picks and hammers.
2. Demolition- complete removal of a structure.
Surveying a structure or building to be demolished
Before any works of demolition are started a detailed survey and examination of the building or structure
and its curtilage should be made. Photographs of any existing defects on adjacent properties should be
taken, witnessed and stored in a safe space. The relationship as well as the condition of adjoining
properties which may be affected by the demolition should also be considered and noted, taking into
account the existence of easements, wayleaves, party rights and boundary walls.
Roofs and frames structures; check weather proposed order of demolition will cause unbalanced thrusts
to occur.
Walls; check whether these load bearing, party or cross walls. Examine condition and thickness of walls
to be demolished and those to be retained.
Basements; careful examination required to determine if these extend under public footpaths or beyond
boundary of site.
Cantilevers; check nature of support to balconies, heavy cornices and stairs.
Services; these may be sealed off, protected or removed and could include any or all of the following;
1. Drainage runs.
2. Electricity cables.
3. Gas mains and service pipes.
4. Water mains and service pipes.
5. Telephone cables above and below ground level.
6. Radio and television relay cables.
7. District heat mains.
A careful survey of the whole site is advisable to ensure that any flammable or explosive materials such
as oil drums and gas cylinders are removed before the demolition work commences. If the method of
construction of the existing structure is at all uncertain all available drawings should be carefully studied
and analyzed or alternatively a detailed survey of the building should be conducted under the guidance of
an experienced surveyor.
Adequate insurance should be taken out by the contractor to cover all claims from workmen, any third
party and claims for loss or damage to property including roads, pavings and services.
Methods of demolition
There are several methods of demolition and the choice is usually determined by:
 Type of structure- for example, 2 storey framed structure, reinforced concrete chimney.
 Type of construction- such as masonry wall, prestressed concrete, structural steelwork.
 Location of site- a detached building on an isolated site which is defined as a building on a site
where the minimum distance to the boundary is greater than twice the height of the building to be
demolished. A confined site is where not all the boundaries are at a distance exceeding twice the
height of the building to be demolished.
Hand demolition
Involves the progressive demolition of a structure by operatives using hand held tools; lifting appliances
may be used to hoist and lower members or materials once they have been released. Buildings are usually
demolished, by this method in the reverse order to that of their construction storey by storey. Debris
should only be allowed to fall freely where the horizontal distance from the point of fall to the public
highway or an adjoining property is greater than 6m or half the height from which the debris is dropped
whichever is greater. In all other cases a chute or skip should be used.
Pusher arm demolition
This is a method of progressive demolition using a machine fitted with a steel pusher arm exerting a
horizontal thrust on to the building fabric. This method should only be used when the machine can be
operated from a firm level base with clear operating base of at least 6m. The height of the building should
be reduced by hand demolition if necessary to ensure that the height above the pusher arm does not
exceed 600mm. The pusher arm should not be overloaded and generally should be operated from outside
the building. An experienced operator is required and he should work from within a robust cab capable of
withstanding the impact of flying debris and be fitted with shatter proof glass cab windows. Where this
method of demolition is adopted in connection with attached buildings, the structure to be demolished
should first be detached from the adjoining structure by hand demolition techniques.

Deliberate collapse demolition

This involves the removal of key structural members causing complete collapse of the whole or part of
the building. Expert engineering advice should be obtained before this method is used. It should only be
used on detached isolated buildings on reasonably level sites so that the safety to personnel can be
carefully controlled.
Demolition ball techniques
This is a method of progressive demolition carried out by swinging a weight or demolition ball,
suspended from lifting appliance such as a crane, against the fabric of the structure. Three techniques can
be used;
 Vertical drop
 Swinging in line with the jib
 Slewing jib
Whichever method is used a skilled operator is essential. The use of a demolition ball from a normal
duty mobile crane should be confined to the vertical drop technique only. A heavy duty machine such
as a convertible dragline excavator should be used for the other techniques but in all cases anti-spin
device should be attached to the hoist rope. It is advisable to reduce the length of the crane jib as the
demolition work proceeds but at no time should the jib head be less than 3m above the part of the
building being demolished.
Pitched roofs should be removed by hand demolition down to wall plate level and at least 50% to
70% of the internal flooring removed to allow for the free fall of debris within the building enclosure.
Demolition should then proceed progressively storey by storey.
Demolition ball techniques should not be used on buildings over 30000m high since the fall of debris
is uncontrollable. Attached building should be separated from the adjoining structure by hand
demolition to leave a space of at least 6m or half the height of the building, whichever is greater; a
similar clear space is required around the perimeter of the building to give the machine operating
space.
Wire rope pulling demolition
Only steel wire ropes should be used and the size should be adequate for the purpose but in no case
less than 38mm circumference. The rope should be firmly attached at both ends and the pulling
tension gradually applied. No person should be forward of the winch or on either side of the rope
within a distance of three quarters of the length between the winch and the building being
demolished.
If several pulls the method does not therefore be approached but demolished by an alternative means
such as demolition ball or pusher arm. A well anchored winch or heavy vehicle should be used to
apply the pulling force, great care being taken to ensure that the winch or the vehicle does not lift off
its mounting, wheels or tracks.
Demolition by explosives
This is a specialist method where charges of explosives are placed within the fabric of the structure
and detonated to cause partial or complete collapse. It should never be attempted by a building
contractor without the advice and supervision of an expert.
Other related methods; where site conditions are not suitable for use of explosives the following
specialist’s methods can be considered.
 Gas expansion burster- a steel cylinder containing a liquefied gas (which expands with
greater force when subjected to electric charge) is inserted into a prepared cavity in the fabric
to be demolished. On being fired the expansion of the cylinder causes the fabric mass to be
broken into fragments.
 Hydraulic burster- consists of a steel cylinder with a number of pistons which are forced out
radically under hydraulic pressure.
 Thermal reaction- a structural steel member which is to be cut out and removed is surrounded
by a mixture of a metal oxide and a reducing agent. This covering is ignited, usually by an
electric current, which results in a liberation of large quantity of heat causing the steel to
become plastic. A small force such as wire rope attached to a winch will be sufficient to
cause collapse of the member.
 Thermal lance- steel tube, sometimes packed with steel rods, through which oxygen is
passed. The tip of the lance is preheated by conventional means to melting point
(approximately 1000℃) when the supply of oxygen is introduced. This sets up a thermos-
chemical reaction giving a temperature of around 3500℃ at the reaction end which will melt
all the materials normally encountered causing very little damage to surrounding materials.
The dangers and risks encountered with any demolition works cannot be over emphasized and all
builders should seek the advice of and employ specialist contactors to carry out all but the simple
demolition tasks.