Subject Title: MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

Subject Code: RTS303T

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1.0 Properties of Materials

2.0 Basics of strength of Material
3.0 Ferrous Metals
4.0 Standard Steel Section and Sheets – Referring Standards
5.0 Non – Ferrous Metals and Alloys
6.0 Plastics
7.0 Insulators
8.0 Conductors
PROPERTIES
01 OF MATERIALS

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 Mechanical properties
MAJOR CONTENTS
 Electrical properties
 Thermal properties Mechanical Properties
1.1 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of materials are of great industrial Electrical Properties
importance in the design of tools, machines and
Thermal Properties
structures.
The knowledge of mechanical properties of various materials
is important because:
 It provides a basis for predicting the behavior of a material under various load
conditions.
 It is helpful in making a right selection of a material for every component of a
machine.
 It helps to decide whether a particular manufacturing process is suitable for
shaping the material or not.
 It is helpful in safe designing of the shape and size of various metal parts for a
given set of service condition.
The main mechanical properties of the metal are:
Strength Stiffness Hardness
Elasticity Plasticity Castability
Ductility Malleability Formability
Brittleness Weldability Toughness

NOTES:

2
 Strength
In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its
ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic
deformation.

Elasticity
The ability of an object or material to resume
its normal shape after being stretched or
compressed.
E.g.: steel, copper, Aluminium
Ductility
Ability of a material to deform under tensile load (%
elongation).
Ductility is when a solid material stretches under tensile
stress. If ductile, a material may be stretched into a wire.
E.g.: Gold, Silver, Iron, Copper, and Aluminium.

What is tensile stress?

Any force that pulls the two ends of a
material away from each other.
The game of tug-of-war provides a good
example of tensile strength being applied
to a rope.
Ductility is the plastic deformation that
occurs as a result of such types of strain.
Copper, aluminum, and steel are examples
of ductile metals.
The most ductile metal is platinum.

Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb
energy and plastically deform
without fracturing.
In other words, toughness is how
well the material can resist
fracturing when force is applied.
Toughness requires strength as well
as ductility, which allows a material
to deform before fracturing.

Hardness
The ability of a material to resist deformation, indentation, or penetration. In other words,
Hardness is the resistance to scratching, abrasion, cutting, impact, drilling etc.
E.g.: High speed steel, Tool steel, Carbides, Diamonds.

NOTES:

3
 It is the property of a metal, which gives it the
ability to resist being permanently, deformed
(bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when
a load is applied.
The greater the hardness of the metal,
the greater resistance it has to
deformation.
The hardness of material is normally
measured by Rockwell hardness test
Brinell hardness test, Vickers hardness
test.

Castability
Castability is the ease of forming a quality
casting.
A very castable part design is easily
developed, incurs minimal tooling costs,
requires minimal energy, and has few
rejections. Castability can refer to a part
design or a material property.
E.g.: Cast iron, Aluminium, Brass.

Stiffness
Stiffness is the rigidity of an object — the extent
to which it resists deformation in response to an
applied force.
The more flexible an object is the less stiff it is.

Plasticity
Plasticity is the property of material to be deformed
repeatedly without rupture by the action of a force, and
remain deformed after the force is removed.
The property of a solid material to undergo permanent
deformation under load is plasticity. E.g.: Clay, eLead
Malleability
Malleability is a substance's ability to deform under
pressure (compressive stress).
 If malleable, a material may be flattened
into thin sheets by hammering or rolling.
 Malleable materials can be flattened into
metal leaf.
 Many metals with high malleability also
have high ductility.
E.g.: Tin, copper, aluminium, Gold
NOTES:

4
 What is compressive stress?
 Compressive stress is a force that causes a material to deform to occupy a smaller volume.
When a material is experiencing a compressive stress, it is said to be under compression.

Brittleness
It a property of a metal which permits to permanent distortion before
breaking.
Example: Cast Iron – This will break rather than bend under shock or
impact.
Property by virtue of which it breaks into pieces without cracking.

Formability
Formability may be defined as the ease with which
material may be forced into a permanent change
of shape.

The plastic deformation capacity of metallic

materials, however, is limited to a certain extent, at
which point, the material could experience tearing
or fracture (breakage).

The ability of a given metal work piece to undergo plastic deformation without being
damaged.
Weldability
The weldability, also known as joinability, of a
material refers to its ability to be welded.
Welding operation usually applied to metals but also
used for plastics.
E.g.: Mild steel

1.2 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

 To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the
knowledge of Electrical properties of materials.
 The Electrical properties of a material are those which determine ability of material to
be suitable for a particular Electrical Engineering Application.
 Some of the typical Electrical properties of engineering materials are listed below-

 Resistivity
 Conductivity
 Temperature coefficient of Resistance
 Permittivity
 Thermoelectricity
 Capacitance
 Dielectric constant
 Dielectric strength
 Electrical resistivity and conductivity

NOTES:

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  Permittivity
 Piezoelectric constants
 Seebeck coefficient

Resistivity
 It is the property of material which resists the flow of electric current through
material.
 It is the reciprocal of conductivity.
 It is dented by ‘ρ’.
 Resistivity of a material of a conductor can be determined
as

 Where, ‘R’ is the resistance of conductor in Ω

 ‘A’ is the cross-sectional area of conductor in m2
 ‘l’ is the length of the conductor in meter SI unit of resistivity of is Ω-meter.

Conductivity
 It is the property of material which allow the flow of electric current through
material.
 It is a parameter which indicates that how easily electric current can flow
through the material.
 It is denoted by ‘σ’.

 Conductivity of material is the reciprocal of resistivity.

 Conductivity of material can be determined by; Its SI unit is 1/(Ω-meter)

Dielectric Strength
 It is the property of material which indicates the ability of material to withstand
at high voltages.
 Generally, it is specified for insulating material to represent their operating
voltage.
 A material having high dielectric strength can withstand at high voltages.
Generally, it is represented in the unit of KV/cm.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
 The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material indicates the change in
resistance of material with change in temperature.
 Resistance of conductor changes with change of temperature.
Thermoelectricity
 If the junction, formed by joining of two metals, is heated, a small voltage in
the range of millivolt is produced. This effect is called thermoelectricity or
thermoelectric effect.
 This effect forms the basis of operation of thermocouples and some
temperature- based transducers.
 This effect can be used to generate electricity, to measure the temperature and
to measure the change is temperature of objects.

NOTES:

6
 Capacitance
 Capacitance is the ability of a
component or circuit to collect and store
energy in the form of an electrical
charge.
 Capacitors are energy-storing devices
available in many sizes and shapes.
 They consist of two plates of conducting
material (usually a thin metal)
sandwiched between an insulator made
of ceramic, film, glass or other
materials, even air.
 The insulator is also known as a dielectric, and it boosts a capacitor’s charging
capacity.
 Capacitors are sometimes called condensers in the automotive, marine and
aviation industries.
 The internal plates are wired to two external terminals, which sometimes are
long and thin and can resemble tiny metallic antennae or legs.
 These terminals can be plugged into a circuit.

Die electric constant

 The dielectric constant is the ratio of the permittivity of a substance to the
permittivity of free space.
 It is an expression of the extent to which a material concentrates electric flux.
 A quantity measuring the ability of a substance to store electrical energy in an
electric field.

Dielectric strength
 The maximum voltage that can be applied to a given material without
causing it to break down,usually expressed in volts or kilovolts perunit of thickness

Permittivity
 Permittivity is a measure of how easy or difficult it is to form an electric field
inside of a medium.

Piezoelectric Effect
Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials
to generate an electric charge in response to applied
mechanical stress.

NOTES:

7
 Seebeck Effect
 The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two
dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference
between the two substances.
 When heat is applied to one of the
two conductors or semiconductors,
heated electrons flow toward the
cooler one.
 If the pair is connected through an
electrical circuit, direct current (DC)
flows through that circuit.
 The Seebeck effect is responsible for
the behavior of thermocouples,
which are used to approximately measure temperature differences.
 Commonly used thermocouple metal combinations include
constantan/copper, constantan/iron, constantan/chromel and
constantan/alumel.
 Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered the phenomenon in the 1800s.

1.3 THERMAL PROPERTIES:

Thermal properties
Physical property of a solid body related to application of heat energy is
defined as a thermal property.
Thermal properties explain the response of a material to the application
of heat.
Important thermal properties are
Thermal
conductivity
 The thermal conductivity is the rate of heat transfer through a material in
steady state.
 It is not easily measured, especially for materials with low conductivity but reliable
data is readily available for most common materials.
Thermal diffusivity
 The thermal diffusivity is a measure of the transient heat flow through a
material.
Specific heat
 The specific heat is a measure of the amount of energy required to change the
temperature of a given mass of material.
 Specific heat is measured by calorimetry techniques and is usually reported both
as CV, the specific heat measured at constant pressure, or CP, the specific heat
measured at constant pressure.
Melting point
 The melting point is the temperature at which a material goes from the solid to the
liquid state at one atmosphere.

NOTES:

8
  The melting temperature is not usually a design criterion but it offers important
clues to other material properties.

NOTES:

9
 Glass transition temp
 A glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature at which a polymer turns
from a ductile material to a hard, brittle material.
 Each polymer with an amorphous structure has its own unique glass transition
temperature, which makes a given polymer better suited for some applications
over others.
 Above the glass transition temperature, a polymer will behave like a ductile
solid or highly viscous liquid.
 Below Tg the material will behave as a brittle solid.
Thermal expansion coefficient
 The thermal expansion coefficient is the amount a material will change
in dimension with a change in temperature.
 It is the amount of strain due to thermal expansion per degree Kelvin
expressed in units of K-1.
 For isotropic materials “is the same in all directions, anisotropic materials have
separate "s reported for each direction which is different.
Thermal shock resistance
 Thermal shock resistance is a measure of how large a change in temperature
a material can withstand without damage.
 Thermal shock resistance is very important to most high temperature designs.
Measurements of thermal shock resistance are highly subjective because it is
extremely process dependent.
 Thermal shock resistance is a complicated function of heat transfer, geometry
and material properties.
 The temperature range and the shape of the part play a key role in the
material's ability to withstand thermal shock.
 Tests must be carefully designed to mimic anticipated service conditions to
accurately assess the thermal shock resistance of a material.

Creep resistance
 The creep is defined as the property of a material by virtue of which it deforms
continuously under a steady load.
 Creep is slow, temperature aided, time dependent deformation.
 Creep is typically a factor in materials above one third of their absolute melting
temperature or two thirds of their glass transition temperature.
 Creep resistance is an important material property in high temperature design,
but it is difficult to quantify with a single value.
 Creep response is a function of many material and external variables,
including stress and temperature. Often other environmental factors such as
oxidation or corrosion play a role in the fracture process.

NOTES:

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 Exercises
Identify the properties and make a note on each property

Notes: Notes: Notes:

Notes: Notes: Note:

Notes: Notes: Notes:

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NOTES:

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 Basics of Strength of Material
0
2.1 Basics of strength of Material

 Strength of Materials deals with detailed study about the

effect of external forces acts on materials & ability of
materials to resist deformation.
 Shapes & Size of various structures are designed by
knowing its strength.
 Strength of Materials is the scientific study of materials
used in engineering applications like buildings, machinery
and parts, and engineering tools.
 Strength of Materials is a subject which deals with the behavior of objects withstanding
stresses and strains.
 The strength of a material is its capacity to resist the consequences of external loads on
materials. Strength includes all properties which prevent tools from breaking or deforming.
 The study of Strength of Materials helps the tool designer to determine the appropriate
material for tooling, their dimensions, and parameters of work-piece, tool geometry, and the
processing methods.
Properties of Materials
Plasticity: It is the ability of the material to deform without breaking. The material will deform
under a load before it ruptures.
E.g.: paraffin wax
Malleability: - The plastic flow of a material under compressive force is known as malleability. It
is the property that allows the material to be rolled in to thin sheets. E.g.: Lead
Ductility: - It is the property that allows the material to be drawn in to a small diameter wire. E.g.:
Copper, Steel and aluminum
Elasticity: - It is the ability of the material to recover its original shape and size after it has been
deformed under a load.
E.g.: spring
Stiffness: - It is the ability of a material to resist deformation.
Brittleness: - It is the property of a material to break without deformation. E.g.: Cast iron & Glass
Toughness: It is the property of a metal to withstand shock or impact E.g.: Wrought Iron

NOTES:

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 Properties of Materials

Malleability Ductility Toughness Brittle

Load
An external force applied on a rigid body is called load and is denoted by P
SI-unit of load is Newton (N).

Tensile Load
When a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite pulls, the body tends to elongate.
These pulling forces are called as tensile loads

NOTES:

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 Compressive Load
When a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite pushing forces, the length of the body
tends to decrease. These pushing forces are
called compressive loads.

2.1.1 Tensile, Compressive and shear Forces

CLASSIFICATION OF FORCE SYSTEM:

According to the applied load, the force system is classified as follows –
Tensile stress
Compressive stress
TENSILE STRESS:
The resistance offered against the increase in length is called tensile stress and the corresponding
strain is called tensile strain.

Tensile stress, σ = , Tensile strain, є =

Tensile stress, σ =
Axial pull
Area of cross section
Tensile strain, є = Increase in length
original length
COMPRESSIVE STRESS:
The resistance offered against the decrease in length is called compressive stress and
the corresponding strain is called compressive strain.

P P

l - δl

NOTES:

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 Compressive stress, σ = , Compressive strain, є =

Compressive stress, σ = Axial push

Area of cross section
Compressive strain, є = decrease in length
original length

SHEAR FORCE:
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the
resisting across the resisting section, the body tends to be sheared off across the cross section.
Such forces are called shear force.
Example: When a paper is cut with scissors, the paper fails in shear.
SHEAR FORCE:
Shear stress acts tangential to the surface of the material and not perpendicular

SHEAR STRESS:
The shear force per unit area of the section over which it acts is called the shear stress or
shearing stress and is denoted by and the corresponding strain is called shear strain
= (𝑁/𝑚𝑚2)
𝑃
𝑞 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Shear stress,
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
SHEAR STRAIN:
The minute angular deformation in a body under shear forces is called shear strain. The

shear strain is denoted by . The unit of shear strain is radians.

𝑒 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 Shear strain,

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

NOTES:

16
 2.1.2 Stress and Strain
STRESS:
The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as
stress. Mathematically

Stress σ = Applied Force

2
The unit of stress is N/mm . The latest S.I unit for stress is Pascal.
( P) Cross Sectional
1N/m2 = 1 Pascal = 1 Pa
1N/mm2 = 106 N/m2

STRAIN:
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the body.
The ratio of change in length of the body to the original length is known as strain.

Strain, є = Change in Length = δl

Original Length l
The strain is only a ratio between the two same quantities and hence it has no Unit

2.1.3 Modules of Elasticity, Modules of Rigidity, Poisson's ratio

YOUNG’S MODULUS OR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E):

 The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to the corresponding strain is known as
a constant or Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity.
 It may also be defined as the slope of the stress – strain curve. It is denoted by ‘E’.

The elastic constant or the modulus of elasticity is also called the Young’s Modulus.
Stress
Young’s Modulus, the constant, E =
Strain

p
E =
e

NOTES:

17
 We know that,
P
p =
A
δl
e =
l
Were, =
P = Load
A = Area
δl = Increase in length
l = Original length
P
Substituting for p and e, E = A PL
δl or A δl
L
PL
δl =
AE
The unit for Modulus of Elasticity E is N/m2 or N/mm2. The unit for δl is m (or) mm.

Young’s Modulus of a material can also be defined as the direct stress within the elastic
limit of the material that will produce a strain that is equal to one.
Stress
Young’s Modulus =
Strain
Tensile Stress
=
Tensile Strain
Compressive Stress
=
Compressive Strain
a fixed value for a given
=
material (unit is N/mm2)

Tensile stress and compressive stress are termed as longitudinal stresses. Tensile strain and
compressive strain are termed as longitudinal strains.
So, within
Longitudinal Stress = a fixed value, (E)
elastic limit,
Longitudinal Strain

NOTES:

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 Typical values of Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity- E) for different materials are given in
Table – 1

Table –1 Modulus of elasticity of materials

Material Modulus of Elasticity in GN/m2

Steel 200 to 220

Wrought iron 190 to 260
Cast iron 100 to 160
Copper 90 to 110
Brass 80 to 90
Aluminium 60 to 80

MODULUS OF RIGIDITY:
The ratio of shear stress to shear strain within the elastic limit is known a modulus of
rigidity or shear modulus. It is denoted by N or G or C and the unit is N/mm 2. Larger is the
modulus of rigidity, lesser is the distortion when a body is subjected to shear stress.
Modulus of rigidity, 𝑁 =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS:

MATERIAL SHEAR MODULUS

(106psi) (GPa)

Cast Iron 5.9 41

Chromium 115
Concrete 3.0 21
Copper 6.5 45
Glass 26.2
Glass, 96% silica 2.8 19

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 RELATION BETWEEN E (YOUNG’S MODULUS) AND N (RIGIDITY MODULUS):
The relationship between young’s modulus and rigidity modulus is given by

E = 2N(1 + 1 )
𝑚

Where E- Young modulus

N- Rigidity modulus
1/m – Poisons Ratio

POISSON’S RATIO:

 The ratio of the lateral strain to the corresponding longitudinal strain within limits is called
Poisson’s ratio. It is represented by μ or 1/m.

 Poisson’s ratio = =
 For most of the material, Poisson’s ratio lies between 0.25 to 0.33

2.1.4 Explanation of Stress — Strain diagram with terms used

A material which returns to its original length or shape, when the external load is removed, is
called as elastic material. If the material cannot get back to its original length or shape, it is
called as plastic material. If the material cannot offer a resistance equaling the external forces,
the deformation will continue — leading to failure or fracture of the material.

STRESS & STRAIN CURVE:

The elastic behavior of a material can be studied by plotting a curve between the stress
along the X axis and the corresponding strain along the Y axis. This curve is called stress-strain
curve. Fig shows the stress strain diagram of a wire.
As the stress is increased initially Hooke's Law is obeyed - the stress-strain relationship for
the wire is linear and elastic. Just before the plastic region is reached, we get the limit of
proportionality - beyond this for a small section we see non-linear behavior but the stretching is
still elastic.
After the yield strength, the material enters the plastic deformation region, which means that the
stretch of the wire is permanent. (For example, if the wire is stressed to point A on the graph and
the stress is slowly decreased, the stress-strain curve follows the dotted line instead of the original
curve to point B and there is a permanent extension when all stress is removed.) At the facture
point the wire reaches its snaps.

NOTES:

20
 Ultimate Strength:
The maximum stress a material will withstand before failing.
Yield Strength:
The maximum stress a material will withstand before deforming permanently.
Proportional Limit:
The maximum stress a material will withstand before stress-strain relationship becomes non-linear.

STRESS & STRAIN CURVE FOR BRITTLE & DUCTILE

Ductile materials will withstand large strains before the fracture; brittle materials fracture at much
lower strains.

NOTES:

21
 HOOKE’S LAW:
Hooke’s Law states that “When the material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress
developed is directly proportional to the strain produced in a body”
i.e., stress 𝖺 strain
or = A constant
For tensile and compressive stress, the constant is known as Young’s modulus or modulus of
elasticity. For shear stress, the constant is known as modulus of rigidity.

Unit Conversions:
1 Pa (Pascal) = 1 N/m2
1 KPa = 1x103 N/m2
1 MPa = 1x106 N/m2
1 GPa = 1x109 N/m2
1 N/mm2 = 1x106 N/m2 = 1 MPa
1 N/m2 = 1x10-6 N/mm2

Problems:

 A rod of 150 cm long and diameter of 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 KN. If

the modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is
210 N/mm²
5

 determine (a) Stress, (b) Strain, and (C) Elongation of the rod.
Given data:

Length of the rod, l = 150 cm = 1500 mm

Diameter of the rod, d = 2 cm = 20 mm

Axial pull, P = 20 KN = 2 1000 N

Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0105 N/mm²

NOTES:

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 Solution

(a) Stress p = Load P

Area = A

πd2 3.142020
Area, A = =
4 4
= 314 mm2

20000
Stress, p =
314

Stress, p = 63.662 N mm2

Change in length δl
(b) Strain, e =
Original length = l

Stress
E =
Strain

Stress
Strain =
E

63.662
e =
2105

Strain, e = 0.000318

δl
(c) Elongation e =
l

δl = exl

= 0.000318 x 1500

Elongation, δl = 0.477 mm

Stress, p = 63.662 N mm2

Strain, e = 0.000318

Elongation, δl = 7

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 A steel rod of 25 mm diameter and 2 meter long is subjected to an axial pull of 45 KN. Find
(a) Intensity of stress, (b) Strain, and (c) Elongation.
Take E = 210 N/mm².
5

Given data:
Length of the steel rod, l = 2 m = 2000 mm
Diameter of the steel rod, d = 25 mm
Axial pull, P = 45 KN = 45000 N
Young’s modulus, E = 2 105 N/mm²
Solution
(a) Intensity of stress
Stress, p = Load / Area = P A
π
Area, A =  252 = 490.90 mm2
4
45000
p =
490.9
= 91.67 N/mm2
Stress
(b) Strain E =
Strain
Stress
Strain =
E

Strain = 91.67 5
2 10
= 0.0004583
(c) Elongation
Elongation
Strain =
Original length

Elongation = Strain  Original length

Elongation = 0.0004583  2000
= 0.9166 mm
Intensity of stress = 91.67 N/mm2
Strain = 0.0004583
Elongation = 6
NOTES:

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  A wooden tie bar is 75 mm wide, 150 mm deep and 1.50 m long. It is subjected to an axial pull
of 45000 N. The stretch of the member is found to be 0.6380 mm. Find the young’s modulus
for the material.

Given data:
Wooden bar width, w = 75 mm
Length, l = 1.5 m = 1500 mm
Height, h = 150 mm
Axial pull, P = 45000 N
Elongation, δ l = 0.638 mm
Solution
P
Stress, p =
A
Area of the bar, A = wh
= 75150 mm²
45000
 4 N/mm²
Stress =
75150

Elongation 0.6380 0004253

Strain = = 
0.
Original length 1.51000
Stress 4 mm²
Young’s modulus, E = = = 9,405.1 N/
Strain 0.0004253
4
= 0.9405110
E = 110 4 N mm 2 (approximately)

2.2 Testing of Material-Destructive and Non-destructive Testing

Types (classification) of testing material

1) Destructive Test
After being destructively tested the component or specimen either breaks or remains no longer
useful for feature use. The e.g., of destructive test are tensile test, impact test, fatigue test, bend
test, torsion test etc.

NOTES:

25
 2) Nondestructive test
A component does not break in non-destructive testing and even after being tested. As it can be
used for the purpose for which it was made. Examples for nondestructive test are radiography,
ultra-sonic inspection etc.

3) Process inspection (process test)

The name of process inspection or process test may come from the type of manufacture where it is
performed such as foundry, welding assembly etc. There is first piece inspection or final
inspection or sampling and check inspection. The location often associates the name of inspection
as in receiving or incoming inspection, store or stock inspection.

2.2.1 Destructive Test

Tensile Test
It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests. It is performed on a universal testing
machine (UTM). A tensile test helps in determining tensile properties such as tensile strength;
yield point, percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area and modulus of elasticity
It should be carried out preferably on full size standard test pieces. Fig. shows a specimen for
tensile strength. The essential features of a round test specimen are diameter Do, parallel length
PL, gauge length Lo and fillet radius ‘r’. The typical dimension is Do=12mm, LO=50 for short
piece 10 X Do for long piece. Parallel length PL=55mm and radius r = 3mm

Before commencing the test two-gauge marks are made on the specimen longitudinally
usually 50mm-200mm apart according to the size of the test piece. Gripping the ends EE of the
specimen in the tensile testing machine carries out tensile test and applying and increasing pull on
to the specimen till it fracture.
During the test the tensile loads as well as the elongation of previously marked gauge length in
the specimen is measured with the help of load dial of the machine and extensometer respectively.
These reading help in plotting stress-strain curve.
After fracture the two pieces of broken specimen are placed as if fixed together and distance L f
between the two-gauge marks and diameter Df of the place of fracture are measured.

NOTES:

26
 The various Tensile Properties are calculated as follows
1) The proportional limit stress = Load of proportional limit
Original area
2) Elastic stress = Load at Elastic limit
Original area
3) Yield stress = Load at yield point
Original Area (π/4(Do) 2)
4) The ultimate tensile strength = Ultimate load (Pmax)
Original area
5) Percentage Elongation = Fracture Length-Gauge length
Gauge length
= (Lf – Lo) x 100
Lo

NOTES:

27
 6) Percentage reduction in area = (original area - fracture area) x 100
original area

7) Young’s modulus of elasticity = Stress any point with in the elasticity

Strain at that point
Or E = P Lo
AoΔl

Where P = Load at any point up to the elastic limit

Lo = the gauge length
Ao = the original area
ΔL = the elongation or change in Lo at any load P, while the specimen is
Within the elastic zone

Shear Test
Shear stress or strength is one of the mechanical properties of a material which is
determined by either performing direct single or double shear test or calculated from tensile
strength. This mechanical property is very vital in shear pins used in variety of application and
cantilever beam loading applications.
Some of the common items on which a shear test is performed are shear pin in locomotive
couplers, various automotive pins, valve pistons, bridges metallic rivets, spot and stud welds, etc.
Compressive Test
It is also conducted on a universal testing machine. In compression stress the piece of
material is subjected to end loading, which produces crushing action. The specimen is usually the
plain right cylinder. Brittle material such as cast iron, concrete, ceramic, bricks etc. are commonly
tested in compressive test.
In order to avoid the bending of specimen the height to diameter ratio of 10 is suggested as
a practical upper limit. The end of specimen to which the load is applied should be flat and
perpendicular to the axis of the specimen.
The compression test specimen says of diameter 25mm and 25mm long cylinder is loaded
between the fixed and movable cross head. The oil pump delivers the oil under pressure to the
cylinder and the ram begins to move up. When the specimen offers the resistance to upward
motion of ram. The load at which the specimen fails is used to calculate the compressive stress.

NOTES:

28
 2.2.2 Non-destructive Testing

A non-destructive test is an examination of a component in any manner and which will not impair
its future use. Also, non-destructive test does not provide direct measurements of mechanical
property. Yet they are extremely useful in relieving defects in component as it could impair their
performance when put to service. Non-destructive tests make component more reliable, safe and
economical.

Visual Inspection

Defects which are easily located by visual inspection are surface roughness, shrinkage etc.
Visual inspection is carried out with the naked eye or using a magnifying glass. Visual inspection
is simplest, fastest and most commonly employed. But it needs greater skill on the part of the
inspection to locate and identifying, different manufacturing defects.

Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT)

It detects flaws that are open to the surface. e.g., crack, lack of bond, porosity, cold shuts
etc., it can be effectively used not only in the case of ferrous metal but it is especially useful for
non-ferrous product and on nonmetallic such as ceramic, plastic and glass.
The principle of LPT is that the liquid used to enter small opening such as crack or
porosities by capillary action. The rate and extent of this action are depended upon such properties
as surface tension, cohesion, adhesion and viscosity. They are also influenced by factors such as
the condition of the surface of material and intensity of discontinuity.
For liquid to penetrate effectively the surface of the material must be thoroughly cleaned
of all material that would obstruct the entrance of the liquid into the defect. After cleaning, the
liquid penetrate is applied evenly over the surface and allow to remain long enough to permit
penetration into possible discontinuities.
The liquid is then completely removed from the surface of component and either the wet
or a dry developer is applied. The liquid that has penetrated the defect will then bleed out on to the
surface and the developer will help delineate them.
This will show the location and general nature and magnitude of any defect present. To
hasten this action, the part may be struck sharply to produce vibration to force the liquid out of the
defect.

NOTES:

29
 Liquid Penetrant Test Result

Magnetic Inspection OR Magnetic Particle Test

Magnetic test is used for detecting surface defects of ferrous magnetic materials and
alloys. The component under test is magnetized applied DC directly to the test piece through a
coil, surrounding the specimen. The magnetic powder like iron is applying to the surface dry or
wet in a suspension of water light oil.
If the surface of the component behaves in the same way as the gap between the south-
north poles of two magnets the lines of force flow across the crack and destruction can be found
out at the crack region.
The magnetic method is very rapid identification of defect and is very easy. The defects
which are perpendicular to the line of force are efficiently detected. But the flaws (defect) that lie
along the lines of force may not detect. The test is suitable only for magnetic material.

Magnetic flux field in magnetized bars having Surface and subsurface discontinuities

NOTES:

30
 Ultrasonic Inspection
It is employed to detect and locate defects
such as internal cracks, porosity and large
non-metallic inclusion. Ultrasonic vibration
can be used to locate defect in ferrous and
non-ferrous metallic object as well in plastic
and ceramics. Ultrasonic inspection for floor
detection makes use of acoustic wave with
frequencies in the range between 20 kHz and
20 MHz, which can be transmitted through
solid [even liquid, and air as well] and get
reflected by the sub-surface defect.
Ultrasonic wave forms a bases for a
detection,
location and size estimation of defect.

Principle of operation
• Ultra sonic wave is usually generated by the piezoelectric effect, which convert electric energy
to mechanical energy. A quartz crystal is used for the purpose
• When a high frequency alternating electric current [of about one million cycles/second] is
impressed across the faces of the quartz crystal, the crystal will expand during the first half of
the cycle and contract when the electric field is reversed. In this manner, the mechanical
vibrations (sound waves) are produced in a crystal.
• Ultrasonic inspection employs separate probes (or search units), one for transmitting the wave
and other to receive them. After passage through the casting (fig A), alternatively since the
ultrasonic wave are transmitted as a series of intermittent pulses the same crystal may be
employed both as the transmitter and the receiver (fig B)
• Before transmitting ultrasonic waves, an oil film is provided between the probe and the casting
surface, this ensures proper contact between them and better transmission of wave from the
probe into the surface of the object to be tested
• For operation, ultrasonic wave is introduced into the metal and time interval between the
transmission of the outgoing and reception of the incoming signals are measured with a cathode
ray oscilloscope (CRO)
• The time base of CRO is so adjusted that the full width of the trace represents the section being
examined.
• To start with as the wave is sent from the transmitter probe it strikes the upper surface of
casting and makes a sharp [peak] of pip [echo] at the left-hand side of the CRO screen. If the
casting is sound this wave will strike the bottom surface of the casting get reflected and
indicated by a PIP towards the right-hand end of the CRO screen.

NOTES:

31
 In case a defect exists in between top and bottom casting surfaces most of the beam
striking this defect will get reflected from the defect
reach the receiver prop and indicate a PIP
(echo) on CRO screen before PIP given by the
wave striking the far end of the casting and
returning.
The distance of the defect from the
surface where transmitted probe applied, can
be determined with the help of a time distance
scale in the form of square wave constantly
shown on the oscilloscope. The distance scale
may be change as per convenience indicate 1 cm or 25 cm etc.

Radiography Testing
This type of inspection is widely used for deep defect in welded products, forging and casting
Principle
X- rays of gamma rays can penetrate through solid material; during transmission through the
material some of the ray is absorbed. Absorption increases with density. If a photographic film is
placed on the other side of material, the defect can be found out.

(a) (b) (c)

NOTES:

32
 X rays
X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube, where a cathode filament provides electron, which
proceeds towards the target (anode), strike and are suddenly, stopped. A part of their kinetic
energy is converted to energy of radiation or X-rays.
The specimen is placed in between these X-rays and photographic film. The defects like
blowholes, crack, and porosity etc. possess lesser density than sound material of the casting they
transmit the x-rays better than the sound metal does. Therefore, the film appears to be darker
where defects are in line of the X-rays beam. Fig (a), (b) and (c) show the radiograph of sound
casting and casting containing blow holes and porosity respectively

Gamma Radiography
Gamma rays are produced by the dis-integration of radioactive material such as radium, Co60 etc.
This is similar to x-ray technique. Gamma ray penetrates more effectively into the metal, since
gamma rays have shorter wavelength than x-rays. So, it has greater penetrating power and
produce sharper images. The specimen is placed of definitive distance from the source with a
photographic film behind the object.
Comparison between X-rays and gamma rays’ radiography
Unlike x-rays, gamma rays from its source are emitted in all direction. Therefore the no.
of separate specimen can be tested at a time using gamma radiation
• No electricity is needed for gamma testing
• X-ray method is much more rapid than gamma ray method because it requires only a few
sec/min instead of hours.

NOTES:

33
 • Gamma ray equipment is being small possesses better portability and convenience of use [off
radium] for second feed inspection.
• Gamma rays give radiation hazards

Limitation of Radiography testing

It can indicate the shape of a defect at right angle to the direction of testing but single
exposure cannot indicate the depth at which it lies

NOTES:

34
 03 FERROUS METALS

3.1 Ferrous Metals

Ferrous metals are the metals that contain iron. MAJOR CONTENTS
These metals are prized for their tensile strength
and durability. Ferrous metals
Iron is obtained by fusing the ore to drive off oxygen,
sulfur, and other impurities. Steel
The ore is melted in a furnace in direct contact with the
fuel using limestone as a flux. Chromium
The limestone combines with impurities and forms a
slag, which is easily removed. Nickel
Ferrous metals have a high carbon content which
generally makes them vulnerable to rust when exposed to Vanadium
moisture.
There are two exceptions to this rule: wrought iron resists Manganese
rust due to its purity and stainless steel is protected from
rust by the presence of chromium. Cobalt

Titanium

3.2 Cast iron

 Cast iron is one of the oldest ferrous metals in commercial use.

 Cast iron is defined as an iron alloy with more than 2% carbon as the main alloying
element.
 It is primarily composed of iron (Fe), carbon (C) and silicon (Si), but may also
contain traces of sulfur (S), manganese (Mn) and phosphorus (P).
 In addition to carbon, cast irons must also contain from 1 to 3% silicon which
combined with the carbon give them excellent castability.

NOTES:

35
  Cast iron has a much lower melting temperature than steel and is more fluid and less
reactive with molding materials.
 However, they do not have enough ductility to be rolled or forged.
 The precipitation of carbon (as graphite) during solidification is the key to cast
iron's distinctive properties.
 The graphite provides excellent machinability.
 Damps vibration.
 Aids lubrication on wearing surfaces.
 Steels and cast irons are both primarily iron with carbon (C) as the main alloying
element.
 Steels contain less than 2% and usually less than 1% C, while all cast irons contain
more than 2% C.
 About 2% is the maximum C content at which iron can solidify as a single-phase
alloy with all of the C in solution in austenite.
 Thus, the cast irons by definition solidify as heterogeneous alloys and always have
more than one constituent in their microstructure.
 It is typically brittle and nonmalleable (i.e., it cannot be bent, stretched or
hammered into shape) and relatively weak in tension.
 Cast iron members tend to fracture with little prior deformation.
 Cast iron, however, has excellent compressive strength and is commonly used for
structures that require this property.
 The composition of cast iron, the method of manufacture and heat treatments
employed are critical in determining its final characteristics.
Cast irons can be divided into five groups, based on composition and metallurgical structure:
 Grey cast iron,
 Ductile cast iron,
 White cast iron,
 Malleable cast iron,
 Compacted graphite iron and,
 Alloy cast iron.
3.2.1 Grey cast iron
 Grey iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has a graphitic microstructure.
 It is named after the gray color of the fracture it forms, which is due to the presence
of graphite.
 It is the most common cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on
weight.
 Grey Cast Iron is made by remelting pig iron.
 It is an alloy of Carbon and Iron.
 Small amounts of Silicon, Phosphorus, Manganese and Sulfur are also present in it.
 The reasons behind its popularity are: ability to make complex structures and low
cost. In addition, the excellent properties of Grey Cast Iron have made it one of
the most widely used alloys.

NOTES:

36
 Properties:
High Compressive Strength
 This strength is defined by the endurance of any metal or alloy to withstand its
compressive forces
 Grey Cast Iron has a high compressive strength and that’s why, it is widely used in
posts and columns of buildings.
 In addition, their compressive strength can be as high as that of some Mild Steels.

Tensile Strength
 There are different varieties of Grey Cast Iron and their tensile strength
varies accordingly.
 Some varieties show the tensile strength of 5 tons per square inch, some show 19, but
on an average their strength is 7 tons per square inch.
 Addition of vanadium can increase the strength of Grey Cast Iron.

Resistance to Deformation
 Grey Cast Iron is highly resistant to deformation and provides a rigid frame.
 However, if there is some construction related problem, then even Grey Cast
Iron made structure can breakdown.
Low Melting Point
 Grey Cast Iron has low melting point – 1140 ºC to 1200 ºC.
Resistance to Oxidation
 Grey Cast Iron is highly resistant to rust, which is formed by the reaction of
oxygen and Iron.
 It is a perfect solution to avoid the problem of corrosion.

 Now, let’s look at the uses of Grey Cast Iron as per its class.
Uses of Grey Cast Iron:
 Class 300 Grey Iron: Can be used in producing heavy-duty machine tools, bed,
presses, high pressure hydraulic parts, frame, gears, bushings, piston rings,
cams, crankshaft, cylinder block, cylinder head, etc.
 Class 200 and class 250 Grey Iron: Can be used in producing gear, cylinder, base, bed,
flywheel, cylinder liners, cylinder block, pistons, brake wheel, gear boxes, pressure
valve, coupling plate, etc.
 Class 100 and class 150 Grey Iron: Suitable for producing cover body, protective
cover, frame, hand wheels, hammer, floor, handle, box, frame, bed, bearing,
pulleys, bench, pump body, pipe, valve, etc.
 For the usage in above applications, quality Grey Cast Iron can be availed by various
Grey Cast Manufacturers online. These Manufacturers provide the uncontaminated
Grey Cast Iron that is useful for the construction of sturdy products.
3.2.2 White cast iron

 White cast iron is a type of carbon-iron alloy that

contains carbon content greater than 2% in the form of
cementite.

NOTES:

37
  When fractured it exhibits a silver-like (white) fracture.
 White cast iron has high compressive strength and wear resistance.
 White cast iron displays white fractured surfaces due to the presence of an iron carbide
precipitate called cementite.

3.2.3 Alloy cast iron

 Cast iron containing alloying elements (usually nickel or chromium or copper or

molybdenum) to increase the strength or facilitate heat treatment.

3.3 Steel

 Steel, alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content ranges up to 2
percent. (With a higher carbon content, the material is defined as cast iron).
 By far the most widely used material for building the world’s infrastructure and
industries, it is used to fabricate everything from sewing needles to oil tankers.
 In addition, the tools required to build and manufacture such articles are also made
of steel.
 The main reasons for the popularity of steel are the relatively low cost of making,
forming, and processing it.
 The abundance of its two raw materials (iron ore and scrap)
 And its unparalleled range of mechanical properties.

3.3.1 Plain carbon steel

 Carbon steel, or plain-carbon steel, is a metal alloy.

 It is a combination of two elements, iron and carbon.
 Plain carbon steel is a type of steel having a maximum carbon content of 1.5% along
with small percentages of silica, Sulphur, phosphorus and manganese.

Classification of plain carbon steel

Broadly classified, there are three types of plain carbon steel:

(i) Low Carbon Steel (soft steel or Mild Carbon Steel)
(ii) Medium Carbon Steel
(iii) High Carbon Steel
The carbon content of these three types of steels are:
(i) 0.15-0.30% in Low Carbon Steel
(ii) 0.30-0.80% in Medium Carbon Steel
(iii) 0.80-1.5% in High Carbon Steel
In addition to carbon, these steels also contain upto 1% manganese, phosphorus upto 0.5%,
Sulphur upto 3% and silicon upto 0.03%.

Note: Mild Carbon Steel must not be confused with "Mild Steel" which is a type of
steel having carbon content equal to 0.15%.

NOTES:

38
 Properties and Uses:
(i) Low Carbon Steel:

 It possesses good formability, machinability and weldability but lacks in hardness.

 It cannot be strengthened by heat-treating (strengthening can only be accomplished
through cold working).
 The low carbon material is relatively soft and weak.
 Low carbon steel has outstanding ductility and toughness.
 It is relatively inexpensive to produce.

Application

 It is used in making nuts, bolts, sheets, tubes and machine components not requiring
much high strength.
 It is also used in making beams and channels.

(ii) Medium Carbon steel:

 It has higher strength than low carbon steel and is harder due to increased content of
carbon. Its properties can be improved by heat treatment processes.
 The heat-treated medium carbon steels provide tremendous load carrying ability and
hence is very popular.

Application
It is used for making machine parts such as gears, axles, crank-shafts and parts for metal
working machinery.

(iii) High Carbon Steel:

Carbon content 0.6 – 1.4%

 It has low toughness and formability but hardness and wear resistance are high.
 High Carbon content provides high hardness and strength.
 Hardest and least ductile.
 Used in hardened and tempered condition.
 Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W are added as alloying elements to from carbides
of these metals.

Application
 Used as tool and die steels owing to the high hardness and wear resistance property.
 It is used generally for making parts such as cutting tools, cables, springs, etc.
Limitations of Plain Carbon Steel:
(i) Low hardenability
(ii) Major loss of hardness on tempering
(iii) Low corrosion and oxidation resistance

NOTES:

39
 (iv) Low strength at elevated temperatures

Due to the above limitations, to improve the properties of steel, some elements are alloyed
such as: Chromium, Nickel, Manganese, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Vanadium, etc.

3.3.2 Alloy steel

 Alloy steels are made by combining carbon steel with one or several alloying elements,
such as manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium and aluminum.
 These metals are added to produce specific properties that are not found in regular
carbon steel.
 It can be classified further into two types: high-alloy and low-alloy steels.
 Alloy steels are workhorses of industry because of their economical cost, wide
availability, ease of processing, and good mechanical properties.
 Alloy steels are generally more responsive to heat and mechanical treatments than
carbon steels.
The most important and desired changes in alloy steel are:
 Increased hardenability.
 Increased corrosion resistance.
 Retention of hardness and strength
Some of the most common elements that are added to generate alloy steels include:
 Manganese
 Silicon
 Molybdenum
 Chromium
 Vanadium
 Nickel
Applications
With proper combinations, the following are of some of the examples of things that could be
manufactured using alloy steels are:
 Pipes
 Bearings
 Coins, medals, electrical hardware, tools, heavy gears
 Boats, aircraft, railroad cars and machinery
 Corrosion resistant containers
 Heating elements in toasters, electric heaters etc.
 Electrical springs, boat propellers
 Jewellery and art objects
 Silver ware, pots and pans.

3.3.3 Effects of alloying elements on steel:

Chromium
 Chromium is a lustrous, brittle, hard metal. Its colour is silver-grey and it can be highly
polished.
 Chromium is a chemical element with Cr as its symbol.
 Its atomic number is 24. Chromium belongs to the category of transition metals.
 It is a hard but brittle metal of steel-gray color with the atomic number 24.

NOTES:

40
  This lustrous metal is placed in the group 6 of the periodic table, and is represented by
the symbol Cr.

 The name chromium is derived from the Greek word chroma, which means color.
 Chromium is mined as chromite ore.
 Globally this ore is available in India, South Africa, Finland, Zimbabwe,
Kazakihstan and the Philippines.
 Commercially, chromium is produced from chromite using silicothermic or
aluminothermic reactions.
Applications
The following are the application areas of chromium:
 In metal ceramics
 In chrome plating
 As dyes and paints
 To produce synthetic rubies
 In alloys, e.g., stainless steel
 To manufacture molds for the firing of bricks
 As a catalyst in dyeing and tanning of leather
 In metallurgy to provide corrosion resistance and a shiny finish
 Chromium oxide (CrO2) is used to manufacture magnetic tape.
Harmful effects:
 Chromium metal is an essential trace element, but hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is
very toxic and carcinogenic.
Nickel:
 Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic number 28.
 It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge.
 Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile.
 Nickel is very strong and resistant to corrosion, making it excellent for strengthening
metal alloys.
 It is also very ductile and malleable, properties that allow its many alloys to be
shaped into wire, rods, tubes, and sheets.
 Owing to its high resistance to corrosion in water or air, pure nickel is used as a
protective coating.
Application
Nickel metal has the following applications:
 Its principal use is as an alloying element in stainless steels, alloys steels, non-ferrous
metals and other corrosion resistant alloys.
Examples are: Invar®, Monel®, Inconel®, Nichrome®, Permalloy® and the
Hastelloys®.
 Nickel coatings can be deposited electrolytically by electroplating, chemically by
electroless or autocatalytic deposition.
 Tubing for desalination plants.
 Coinage.
 Additives in amour plate and burglarproof vaults metals.
 To produce a green coloured glass.
 As a catalyst for hydrogenating vegetable oils.

NOTES:

41
  Ceramic manufacturing.
 Alnico magnets.
 Storage batteries (e.g., nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride based batteries. Such
batteries are rechargeable)
 High purity nickels are used in electronic and aerospace applications,
 chemical and food processing equipment,
 caustics evaporators
 Heat shields.
 Aircraft turbines components.
 Beryllium nickel is used for springs, switches, bellows, diaphragms and small valves
 Thermometer bulbs and resistance thermometers.
 Glass to metal and ceramic to metal seals.
 Marine, petroleum and chemical processing equipment. (E.g., Monels).
 Incineration systems.
 Paramagnetic alloys and shape memory alloys (e.g., Nitinol) are used in fire-sprinkler
actuators, tap water anti-scalding devices, green house window hinges, flow
regulators, spacecraft solar-panel releases, numerous toys .

Vanadium
 Vanadium is a chemical element with symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a hard,
silvery grey, ductile, and malleable transition metal.
 Vanadium is a rare, soft, ductile gray-white element found combined in certain
minerals and used mainly to produce certain alloys.
 Vanadium resists corrosion due to a protective film of oxide on the surface.

Application
 The most important use of vanadium is as an additive for steel, with approximately
80% of vanadium going into ferrovanadium, a steel additive. It is used for the
production of rust resistant, spring and high speed tool steels. It is also added to
steels to stabilize carbides.
 Vanadium foil is also used to bond titanium to steel.
 Due to its low fission neutron cross section vanadium is also used in nuclear
applications.
 Vanadium compounds are also used in a number of applications such as:
 Vanadium pentoxide as a catalyst in the ceramics industry.
 As a mordent in the printing and dyeing of fabrics.
 In the manufacture of aniline black.

Manganese
 Manganese is a chemical element with symbol Mn and atomic number 25.
 Manganese is a pinkish-gray, chemically active element.
 It is a hard metal and is very brittle.
 It is hard to melt, but easily oxidized.
 Manganese is reactive when pure, and as a powder it will burn in oxygen, it reacts with
water (it rusts like iron).

NOTES:

42
 Application
 Manganese is an important alloying agent.
 In steels, manganese improves the rolling and forging qualities, as well as
strength, toughness, stiffness, wear resistance, hardness and hardenability.
 Manganese is essential to iron and steel production.
 Manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless steel formulations and certain
widely used aluminium alloys.
 Manganese dioxide is also used as a catalyst.
 Manganese is used to decolorize glass and make violet coloured glass (amethyst colour
in glass.)
Manganese dioxide or pyrolusite is used :
 To depolarise dry cells
 To decolourise green glass containing iron
 To prepare oxygen and chlorine
 To assist the drying of black paints
Manganese permanganate is a powerful oxidising agent used in:
 Quantitative analysis techniques
 Medicine
Cobalt
 Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27.
 Cobalt is silver-white in color with a bluish tinge.
 It is a hard, ferromagnetic, brittle element.
 The primary ores of cobalt are cobaltite, smaltite and erythrite.
 It can also be obtained as a byproduct of lead, nickel, silver, copper and iron mining
and refining processes.
 It has a high melting point.( Melting Point: 1495°C)
 It is one of the three naturally occurring magnetic metals (iron and nickel being the
other two)
 Retains its magnetism at a higher temperature (1100°C) than any other metal.
 Cobalt has the highest Curie point of all metals.

Application
The following are the application areas of cobalt:
 In producing alloys.
 In magnets and magnetic recording media.
 As catalysts for petroleum and chemical industries.
 As drying agents for paints and inks.
 Cobalt blue is used in stained glass, tiles, porcelain, pottery, and enamel jewelry.

Titanium
 Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22.
 It is a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density, and high strength.
 Titanium is common and can be found in many rocks and sediments.
 Some of the minerals of titanium are illemenite, rutile, brookite and titanite.
 Due to its metallic properties, titanium has high boiling and melting points.
 Titanium possesses a very low density and high strength.

NOTES:

43
  One of titanium's most useful properties is its high tensile strength to density ratio.
 Titanium is well known for its high resistance to corrosion even in seawater.
Application
The following are the application areas of titanium:
 Pigments, additives and coatings
 Aerospace and marine
 Industrial
 Consumer and architecture
 Jewellery
 Medical
 Nuclear waste storage
 Titanium compounds are used as paints, rubber, paper, bleaching and opacifying
agents.
 Titanium alloys are known for their high tensile strength and hence used
aircrafts, armour plating and missiles.
 The alkaline earth titanates are used in ultrasonic vibrations generators and sound
generators.

STANDARD STEEL SECTION AND SHEETS

04

MAJOR CONTENTS 4.1 Standard Steel Section and Sheets– Referring Standards
Standard Steel Section and Sheets
Standard Sections and Sheets used in Automobile Industry
Coated, Plated Sections and

Strip – A hot or cold rolled flat product and rolled

approximately in rectangular cross section of thickness usually
12 mm and below with mill rolled or trimmed or sheared edges and in coil form.
Wide strip – Hot/cold rolled strip of width normally equal or greater than 600 mm.
Narrow strip – Hot/Cold rolled strip of width normally less than 600 mm.
Sheet – A hot or cold rolled flat product rolled in rectangular section of thickness below 5 mm
and supplied in straight lengths. The width is at least 100 times the thickness and edges can be
mill finished, trimmed, sheared or flame cut. A sheet can also be obtained by cutting strips.

NOTES:

44
 Plate – A hot or cold rolled flat product, rolled from an ingot or slab, in rectangular cross section
of thickness 5 mm and above and width 600 mm and above and supplied in straight lengths. Strip
can be supplied in mill edge finish or with edges suitably sheared, width having maintained within
tolerance limits and both the edges running parallel, plates can also be supplied identically with
mill edge finish or with sheared edges.
Galvanized plain (GP) sheets are manufactured both using HR or wherever application demands
of using CR sheets. Corrugated galvanized sheets are manufactured from HR or CR. Galvanized
Plain sheets. Tinplates are however invariably manufactured using cold reduced steel strips. Tin
plates to IS 1993 are produced by single cold reduced sheets.

4.2 Standard Sections and Sheets used in Automobile Industry – Specification

and Application
Steels for Automotive Applications
Steel is the primary material in body and chassis structures. It is the backbone of the entire
vehicle. In cars, these days, steel makes up about 65% weight. It plays many roles in present day
vehicles. It protects occupants, provides positive driving experience, reacts to road loads, provides
comforts, and provides attachment points to other components of the vehicle.
As there is a high emphasis on greenhouse gas reductions and improving fuel efficiency in the
transportation sector, the automobile industry is investing significantly in lightweight materials.

Classification of steels for automotive use

Automotive steels can be classified in several different ways. One is a metallurgical designation
providing some process information.
Common designations include
(i) low-strength steels (interstitial free and mild steels),
(ii) conventional high strength steel (HSS) (carbon-manganese, bake hardening and high strength
low alloy steels), and
(iii) the new AHSS (dual phase, transformation-induced plasticity, twinning-induced plasticity,
ferritic-bainitic, complex phase and martensitic steels). Additional higher strength steels for the
automotive industry include hot formed steels, post forming heat treated steels, and steels
designed for unique applications that include improved edge stretch and stretch bending.

NOTES:

45
 A second classification method important to part designers is strength of the steel. Therefore, the
general terms HSS and AHSS are used to designate all higher strength steels. This classification
system has a problem with the ongoing development of the many new grades for each type of
steel. Therefore, a DP (dual phase) or TRIP (transformation induced plasticity) steel can have
strength grades that encompass two or more strength ranges.
A third classification method presents various mechanical properties or forming parameters of
different steels, such as total elongation, work hardening exponent, or hole expansion ratio. These
properties are important for press shop operations and virtual forming analyses.

Fig 1 Classification of steels for automotive application

Mild steels
Mild steels generally comprise of one microstructure namely ferrite. These steels have a
maximum tensile strength of 280 N/sq mm and are very easy to form. Mild steels were once the
dominating material in car bodies, but now their use is limited to stiffness-related components and
cosmetic parts with complex bending and drawing.
The two main material types in this group are

NOTES:

46
 (i) mild steels (also called low carbon or plain carbon steels), which have very little alloying
element, and
(ii) interstitial free (IF) steels, which have ultralow carbon and even lower strength, but higher
formability.

High strength steels

High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are carbon manganese steels strengthened with the addition
of a micro alloying element such as titanium, vanadium, or niobium etc. These steels though have
a tensile strength up to 800 N/sq mm, they can still be press formed. HSLA is one of the first
commonly used HSS in the automotive industry.

4.3 Coated, Plated Sections and Sheets – Types, Specification and

Application Coated Steel Sheet
Steel sheet is frequently coated in coil form before fabrication either at the steel plants or by the
specialists coating units. Coated products yield lower production costs, improved product quality,
shorter processing cycles, elimination of production hazards, conservation of energy, minimized
ecological problems, and production expansion without a capital expenditure for new buildings
and equipment. Steel sheets are used throughout a broad spectrum of areas such as automobiles,
home appliances, building materials, housing, beverage cans, and transformers. Coated steel
sheets such as hot-dip galvanized steel sheets and pre-painted steel sheets are widely used in the
construction industry as exterior, interior, and structural materials.
Coated steel sheets, in particular are required to possess not only corrosion resistance but press
formability, weldability, paintability, and various other properties as well.
The basic types of coating include metallic, treated, primed, and painted finishing. Metallic
coating can be made up of zinc, aluminium, zinc-aluminium alloys, tin, and terne metal. Pre-
treatment coatings are normally phosphates, and primed finishes can be applied as a variety of
organic-type coatings. These can be used as a primed-only coating, or a suitable paint top-coat can
be applied. Painting consists of applying an organic paint system to steel sheet on a coil coating
line.
A conventional process sequence in coil coating consists of
(i) cleaning,

NOTES:

47
 (ii) conversion treatment (including optional post-rinse),

NOTES:

48
 (iii) drying,
(iv) primer coating,
(v) top coating, and
(vi) foil lamination (optional).

Fig 1 Schematic of a steel coil coating line

Zinc coatings
Galvanizing is a process for rust proofing steel by the application of a metallic zinc coating. It is
applicable to products of nearly all shapes and sizes, ranging from nail, nuts, and bolts to large
structural assemblies and steel sheet in coils and cut lengths. Other applications include roofing
and siding sheets for buildings, silos, grain bins, heat exchangers, hot water tanks, pipe, culverts,
conduits, air conditioner housings, outdoor furniture, and mail boxes.
A large quantity of zinc coated sheets is used by the automotive industry for both unexposed and
exposed panels, from frames and floor pans to doors, fenders, and hoods.
Metallic zinc is applied to the steel by three processes namely
(i) hot dip galvanizing
(ii) electro-galvanizing
(iii) zinc spraying.

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49
 Corrosion resistance – The use of zinc is unique among methods for the corrosion protection of
steel. The zinc coating serves a two-fold purpose namely
(i) it protects the steel from corrosive attack in most of the environments, acting as a continuous
barrier shield between the steel and the environment,
(ii) it acts as a galvanic protector, slowly sacrificing itself in the presence of corrosive elements by
continuing to protect the steel even when moderate-sized areas of bare metal have been exposed.
Coating test
The thickness (or weight), adhesion, and ductility of a zinc coating can have important effects on
its service life and effectiveness against corrosion. Practical tests for these characteristics are
described in relevant specifications of various standards. Tests for coating thickness normally
include microscopic measurement of the cross-section, stripping tests in which the coating is
removed from a given area, electro-chemical stripping from a given area, and magnetic and
electro- magnetic methods of measurement. Adhesion can be tested and rated by bend test
methods. Other adhesion test methods include reverse impact and draw bend test.
Chromate passivation
This process is suitable for use on hot dip galvanized, electro-galvanized, zinc-sprayed, and zinc-
plated products. Normally, the treatment consists of simply cleaning and dipping the products in a
chromic acid or sodium dichromate solution at around 20 deg C to 30 deg C, followed by rinsing
in cold fresh water and drying in warm air.
Painting – The selection of zinc coated steel as a material for sheds, buildings, roofs, sidings,
appliances, and many hardware items is based on the sacrificial protection and the barrier coating
afforded the base metal by zinc coating. For additional protection and aesthetic appearance, paint
coatings are frequently applied to the zinc coated steel. The performance of the coatings is an
important economic factor in the durability of this material.
Packaging and storage – Zinc coated steel products in bundles, coils, or stacks of sheets are to be
protected from moisture, including condensation moisture, until openly exposed to the weather.
They are to be properly packaged and stored. Otherwise, wet-storage stain, a bulky white deposit
which frequently forms on zinc surfaces stored under wet or humid conditions, can develop. It is
important to examine packages of galvanized products for damage and to take prompt action
where cuts, tears, or other damage is evident.

NOTES:

50
 Hot dip galvanizing – It is a process in which an adherent, protective coating of zinc and iron-
zinc alloys is developed on the surfaces of iron and steel products by immersing them in a bath of
molten zinc. Majority of zinc coated steel is processed by hot dip galvanizing.
Electro-galvanizing – Very thin formable zinc coatings ideally suited for deep drawing or
painting can be achieved on the steel products by electro-galvanizing. Zinc is electro-deposited on
a variety of the products such as sheet, wire, and, in some cases, pipe. Electro-galvanizing the
sheet and wire in coil form produces a thin, uniform coating of pure zinc with excellent
adherence.
Zincrometal – It is also used for outer body panels in automobiles. Zincrometal is a coil coated
product consisting of a mixed-oxide under layer containing metallic zinc particles and a zinc-rich
organic (epoxy) top coat. It is weldable, formable, paintable, and compatible with normally used
adhesives.
Zinc alloy coated steel – Coatings include zinc-iron (15 % Fe to 80 % Fe) and zinc-nickel (10 %
Ni to 14 % Ni) alloys. These coatings are applied by electro-deposition. Zinc-iron coatings offer
good corrosion resistance and weldability. Zinc-nickel coatings are more corrosion resistant than
pure zinc coatings, but problems include brittleness from residual stresses and the fact that the
coating is not completely sacrificial, as is a pure zinc coating.
Zinc spray coating – It consists of projecting atomized particles of molten zinc onto a prepared
surface. Three types of spraying pistols are in commercial use namely
(i) the molten metal pistol,
(ii) the powder pistol, and
(iii) the wire pistol.
Aluminium coatings
Aluminized (aluminium-coated) steel sheet is used for applications where heat resistance, heat
reflectivity, or barrier-layer resistance to corrosion is needed. Aluminium-coated sheet steel
combines the desirable properties of aluminium and steel. The thermal expansion of steel is
around half as much as that of aluminium. The aluminium coating provides corrosion resistance,
resistance to heat and oxidation, and thermal reflectivity.
Typical applications include
(i) automotive mufflers and related components,
(ii) catalytic converter heat shields,

NOTES:

51
 (iii) drying and baking ovens,

NOTES:

52
 Tin coatings
Tin coatings are applied to steel sheet by electrolytic deposition or by immersion in a molten bath
of tin (hot dip process). Hot dip tin coatings provide a non-toxic, protective, and decorative
coating for food handling, packaging, and dairy equipment, and they facilitate the soldering of
components used in electronic and electrical equipment.
Terne coatings
Long terne steel sheet is carbon steel sheet continuously coated by the hot dip process with terne
metal (lead with 3 % to 15 % tin). This coated sheet is duller in appearance than tin coated sheet,
hence the name (terne) from the French, which means dull or tarnished. The smooth, dull coating
gives the sheet corrosion resistance, formability, excellent solderability, and paintability. The term
long terne is used to describe terne-coated sheet, while short terne is used for terne-coated plate.
Other typical applications include
(i) automotive parts, such as air conditioners, air filters, cylinder head covers, distributor tubes,
and oil filters,
(ii) oil pans, radiator parts, and valve rocker arm covers,
(iii) electronic chassis and parts for radios, tape recorders, and television sets,
Phosphate coatings
The phosphate coating of iron and steel consists of treatment with a dilute solution of phosphoric
acid and other chemicals by which the surface of the steel, reacting chemically with the
phosphoric acid, is converted into an integral layer of insoluble crystalline phosphate compound.
Organic composite coatings
Organic composite coated steels are coil coated products and normally use an electroplated zinc
alloy base layer and a chemical conversion coating under a thin organic top coat containing a high
percentage of metal powder. The thinness of the organic top coat allows for good formability
without the risk of damaging the coating.

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 05 NON FERROUS METALS & ALLOYS

5.1 Nonferrous Metals

Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron. MAJOR CONTENTS
For example, aluminium, brass, copper (which can be
remembered as ABC) and titanium. You can also get non- Copper
ferrous metals as alloys
E.g.: brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Aluminum
Nonferrous metals are specified for structural applications
requiring reduced weight, higher strength, nonmagnetic Zinc
properties, higher melting points, or resistance to chemical
and atmospheric corrosion. Tin
They are also specified for electrical and electronic
Brass
applications.
Bronze

5.1.1 COPPER

 The word copper comes from the Latin word 'cuprum', which means 'ore of Cyprus'.
This is why the chemical symbol for copper is Cu.
 Atomic number 29.
 It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical
conductivity.
 A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a reddish-orange color.

NOTES:

54
 Properties
 a good electrical conductor
 a good thermal conductor
 corrosion resistant
 antibacterial
 easily joined
 ductile
 tough
 non magnetic
 attractive colour
 easy to alloy
 recyclable
 catalytic

Applications
The largest end use for copper is in the building industry.
 Roofing
 Cladding
 Rainwater systems
 Heating systems
 Water pipes and fittings
 Oil and gas lines
 Electrical wiring
Copper and copper alloys can be used for the following applications
 Power transmission lines
 Architectural applications
 Cooking utensils
 Spark plugs
 Electrical wiring, cables and busbars
 High conductivity wires
 Electrodes
 Heat exchangers
 Refrigeration tubing
 Plumbing
 Water-cooled copper crucibles

5.1.2 Aluminum
 Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element with symbol Al and atomic number 13.
 Aluminum is the world’s most abundant metal and is the third most common element
comprising 8% of the earth’s crust.
 Aluminium is a silvery-white, lightweight metal.
 It is soft and malleable.
 Aluminium is derived from the mineral bauxite.
 Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide (alumina) via the Bayer Process.
 The alumina is then converted to aluminium metal using electrolytic cells and the Hall-
Heroult Process.

NOTES:

55
 Properties

 Corrosion resistant
 Not magnetisable
 Can be decoratively anodized very well
 Good machinability
 Simple to process
 Smooth surface
 Lower dimensional tolerances
 Low density - Aluminium has a density around one third that of steel and is used
advantageously in applications where high strength and low weight are required.
 This includes vehicles were low mass results in greater load capacity and reduced
fuel consumption.
 Electrical and thermal conductivity - Aluminium is an excellent conductor of both heat
and electricity. The great advantage of aluminium is that by weight, the conductivity of
aluminium is around twice that of copper.
 Light and heat reflectivity - Aluminium is a good reflector of both visible light and heat
making it an ideal material for light fittings, thermal rescue blankets and architectural
insulation.
 Toxicity -non-toxic, does not release any odours or taint products with which it is in
contact. This makes aluminium suitable for use in packaging for sensitive products
such as food or pharmaceuticals where aluminium foil is used.
 Recycling - When recycled there is no degradation in properties when
recycled aluminium is compared to virgin aluminium.

Applications
 Aluminium is used in a huge variety of products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils,
window frames, beer kegs and aeroplane parts.
 Preserving tins
 Furniture
 Boats and particularly yachts
 As a powder form in fireworks
 Ladders
 High pressure gas cylinders
 Sporting goods
 Machined components
 Road barriers and signs
 Lithographic printing plates
 Roof elements
 Electrical engineering
 Foils - Aluminium is produced in commercial foils as thin as 0.0065 mm (or 6.5 µm)
for food packaging, pharmaceutical packaging. (Material thicker than 0.2mm is called
sheet or strip.)

NOTES:

56
 5.1.3 Zinc
Properties
 Zinc is a chemical element with symbol Zn and atomic number 30.
 Zinc is a bluish-white metal with a lustrous appearance.
 It is brittle by nature, but exhibits good malleability and ductility at higher temperatures.

Application
 Galvanization of iron
 Architectural
 Automotive
 Cathode in batteries
 Toys
 Pigments, activator and catalyst (Zinc powder, lithopone and zinc chrome can be made
into pigments.)
 Pharmaceuticals - Zinc oxide can also be used in the pharmaceutical, rubber, paint and
other industries.
 Zinc is non-magnetic, it is suitable for making components and covers of instruments
and meters.
 Explosion-proof equipment- Since zinc produces no sparks, either alone or in collision
with other metals, it is suitable for making explosion-proof equipment.
 Zinc fertilizer (e.g., zinc sulfate and zinc chloride) can promote plant cell respiration
and carbohydrate metabolism.
 Large quantities of zinc are used to produce die-castings, which are important in the
automobile, electrical and hardware industries.
 Zinc is also used in alloys such as brass, nickel silver and aluminum solder.
 Zinc oxide is widely used in the manufacture of many products such as paints, rubber,
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps, batteries, textiles and electrical
equipment.
 Zinc sulfide is used in making luminous paints, fluorescent lights and x-ray screens.

5.1.4 Tin

 Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from Latin: stannum) and atomic
number 50.
 Tin is a silvery, soft and pliable metal which resists corrosion. Below 13°C it slowly
changes to a powder form.
 Tin is most often produced from the mineral cassiterite, which is made-up of about 80%
tin.
 Being so soft, tin is rarely used as a pure metal; instead, it is combined with other
metals in order to make alloys that possess tin's numerous beneficial properties. These
include a low toxicity level and a high resistance to corrosion.
 Tin is also both malleable (easy to press and shape without breaking) and ductile
(able to be stretched without tearing).
Applications
 Tinplate foil
 Collapsible tubes, block tin products and pewter

NOTES:

57
  Alloying, coatings and powder applications
 Coating steel cans
 Solder for joining pipes or electric circuits.

5.1.5 Brass

 Brass is a metallic alloy that is made of copper and zinc.

 The proportions of zinc and copper can vary to create different types of brass
alloys with varying mechanical and electrical properties.
 The addition of zinc to copper raises the strength and gives a range of properties. They
are used for them
 strength
 corrosion resistance
 appearance and colour
 Ease of working and joining.

Applications

 Pipes and fittings -Ideal alloy for the transport of water through pipes and fittings.
 Marine engines and pump parts- It’s also appropriate for use in marine engines and
pump parts.
 Clock and watch components -Its non-magnetic nature so can be used for making Clock
and watch components, electrical terminals etc.

5.1.6 Bronze

 It is defined as an alloy made of copper and another metal, usually tin.

 Compositions vary, but most modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin.
 Bronze may also contain manganese, aluminum, nickel, phosphorus, silicon, arsenic, or
zinc.
 Bronze usually is a golden hard, brittle metal.
 Highly ductile.
 Bronze exhibits low friction against other metals.
 Many bronze alloys display the unusual property of expanding a small amount when
solidifying from a liquid into a solid. For sculpture casting, this is desirable, as it helps
to fill a mold.
 Unlike steel, striking bronze against a hard surface won't generate sparks. This
makes bronze useful for metal used around flammable or explosive materials.

Applications

 Bronze is used in architecture for structural and design elements.

 Used for bearings because of its friction properties.
 Phosphor bronze is used in musical instruments.
 Used in electrical contacts.
 Used for ship propellers.

NOTES:

58
  Aluminum bronze is used to make machine tools and some bearings.
 Bronze wool is used instead of steel wool in woodworking because it doesn't
discolor oak.
 Coins -Bronze has been used to make coins.
 Sculptures-Bronze has been used since ancient times to make sculptures.

Exercise
Encircle the Ferrous metals &Nonferrous Metals

NOTES:

59
 06 PLASTICS

Plastics

The term “plastic” is derived from the Greek word ‘Plasticos’

means “to form”. MAJOR CONTENTS
The term “plastic” is applied to any organic substance of high 1.Thermoplastics 2.Thermoset plastic
molecular weight, which can be formed to desired shape by HDPE
moulding, casting etc. and can be retained its shape, dimension and PS
quality under ordinary conditions of temperature are technically PP
Plastics
known are
as divided in to two groups based on Chemical behavior PA
and by the way it reacts with heat as PMMA
 Thermoplastic PET
 Thermoset plastics
6.1 Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic resin consists of long molecules each of which
may have side chains or groups that are not attached to other
molecules (i.e. They are not cross linked).
 Thus, they can be repeatedly softened and hardened by heating and cooling.
 Usually, thermoplastic materials are in granular form.
 The shape and size of the individual granular differ according to the type of material.
 Heat softens the material so that it can be formed. Subsequent cooling hardens it to the
final desired shape. No chemical change takes place during forming.
Thermoset plastics
 In thermosetting resins reactive portions of the molecules form cross links during
polymerization.

NOTES:

60
  Once polymerized or cured the material cannot be softened by heating.
 Normally they are available in powder form and are cured in the mould at high pressure
and temperature.
 The major difference between thermoplastics and thermoset plastics are:

6.2 Properties and Application of some important Thermoplastics are as follows:

LDPE - Low density poly ethylene

Properties

Advantages

 Low cost
 Moisture resistant
 Good chemical resistance
 Food chemical resistance available
 Readily processed by all thermoplastic methods.

Disadvantages and limitations

 High thermal expansion

 Poor weathering resistance
 Flammable
 Subjected to stress cracking

Applications

 Toys, utensils, films, bottles, pipe and processing equipment.

 Wire and cable insulations

NOTES:

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 HDPE - High density poly ethylene

Advantages
 Cost-effective
 Can withstand temperatures from -148 to 176 degrees Fahrenheit
 Non-leaching
 UV-resistant
 Dishwasher safe
 Resistant to most chemical solvents
 Stiff material
Disadvantages
 Poor weathering resistance
 Flammable
 Sensitive to stress cracking
 Difficult to bond
Applications
 Shampoo Bottles
 Toys
 Chemical Containers
 Pipe Systems
 Milk Jugs
 Recycling Bins
 Grocery Bags
 Cereal Box Liners
 Flower Pots
 carrier bags
 Food wrapping material.
PS- Polystyrene
 Polystyrene can be solid or foamed.
 General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle.
 It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight.
 Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be coloured with colourant
Applications
 Plastic cutlery and dinnerware
 CD cases
 smoke detector housings
 license plate frames,
 plastic model assembly kits
 Disposable Razor

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58
 PP-Polypropylene
Advantages
 Readily available and relatively inexpensive.
 High flexural strength due to its semi-crystalline nature.
 Polypropylene has a relatively slippery surface.
 Very resistant to absorbing moisture.
 Good chemical resistance over a wide range of bases and acids.
 Possesses good fatigue resistance.
 Polypropylene has good impact strength.
 Polypropylene is a good electrical insulator.
 Living hinge-Hinged applications(e.g., shampoo bottle cap)
Disadvantages
 Polypropylene has a high thermal expansion coefficient which limits its high
temperature applications.
 Polypropylene is susceptible to UV degradation.
 Polypropylene has poor resistance to chlorinated solvents and aromatics.
 Polypropylene is known to be difficult to paint as it has poor bonding properties.
 Polypropylene is highly flammable.
 Polypropylene is susceptible to oxidation.
Applications
 Automotive Applications
 car Bumpers
 Household Goods
 Film
 Containers
 Appliances
 Packaging
 Electrical/electronic application
 Ropes
 Carpets
 upholstery, clothing
PA-Poly Amide

Advantages
 Tough and can withstand repeated loads.
 High rigidity
 Excellent abrasion resistance and exceptionally low coefficient of friction
 High chemical resistance high temperature resistance
 It can be machined

NOTES:

59
Applications
Light duty gears
 Bushing, sprockets and gears
 Electrical equipment housing
 Lenses, containers
 Tooth brush bristles
 Handles
 Ropes
 Fishing net
 Carpets

PMMA-Poly methyl metha acrylate

Properties
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic or acrylic glass as well as by
the trade names Crylux, Plexiglas, Acrylite, Lucite, and Perspex among several others (see
below), is a transparent thermoplastic often used in sheet form as a lightweight or shatter-resistant
alternative to glass.
Advantages
 Best transparency and optical properties
 Exceptional resistance to sunlight
 Outstanding weathering and resistance to UV radiation
 Transparent
 High gloss and hardness (when modified)
 Good rigidity
 Dimensionally stable
 Good abrasion resistance - surface scratches can be polished out (when modified)
Disadvantages
 Not a tough material in comparison with engineering plastics - notch sensitive
and generally brittle.
 Although not attacked by alcohol alone, alcohol with carbon tetrachloride and
ether will cause swelling.
Applications
 Sinks, baths, knobs and batons
 Displays and signs
 Aircraft glazing, technical models, tap tops and accessories
 Automotive rear light housings, automotive components such as badges
 Lenses

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60
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC )
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl) is an economical and versatile thermoplastic polymer. It is
widely used in the building and construction industry to produce door and window profiles. It also
finds use in:

 Drinking and wastewater pipes,

 Wire and cable insulation,
 Medical devices, etc.

It is the world’s third-largest thermoplastic by volume after polyethylene and polypropylene.

It is a white, brittle solid material available in powder form or granules. PVC is now replacing
traditional building materials in several applications. These materials include wood, metal,
concrete, rubber, ceramics, etc. in several applications. This is due to its versatile properties
such as:

Properties of PVC

 By nature, PVC is a lightweight, sturdy and abrasion-resistant material.

 This versatile thermoplastic polymer is resistant to the action of all inorganic chemicals.
 PVC is an excellent material for insulation due to its high dielectric strength and
vapour barrier capacity.
 It can withstand extreme climatic conditions, shock and is free from corrosion. Hence, it
is the preferred method for several outdoor applications.
 Since the durability is more, long-life is assured.
 PVC products are self-extinguishing due to high chlorine content.
 PVC can be made more flexible and softer by adding plasticizers such as phthalate and
can be bent as per requirement.
 PVC is an intrinsic flame retardant.
 It offers good tensile strength and is rigid by nature.
 It is economical and is an affordable solution.
 It demands less maintenance and offers resistance to grease and oil.

Applications

 Plasticized PVC is used in flooring or (PVC-U) unplasticized PVC is used in making

window frames.
 It is used in making sewage pipes and other pipe applications where cost or vulnerability
to corrosion limit the use of metal.
 Used in construction fields for insulation on electrical wires or in flooring for hospitals,

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 schools, homes, and other areas where a sterile environment is a priority.

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  It is used in various industries like building, electronics, electrical, automotive,
medical and packaging.
 PVC fabric is used in the manufacture of aprons shower curtains, raincoats, jackets
and sports bags.
 It is used in the garden hose and imitation leather upholstery.

Recycling of plastics

Plastics in automobiles

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 INSULATORS
07

MAJOR CONTENTS 7.0 Insulators:

Insulators are materials that do not allow charge or electricity to

Properties of Insulators.
pass through.
Common insulating material - Application
Insulating Material used in Industry

Examples of Insulators:
 Glass
 Rubber
 Oil
 Air
 Dry wood
 Fiberglass
 Quartz
 Diamond
 Plastic
 Asphalt, etc.
7.1 Properties of Insulators:
 They have high resistance and low conductivity.
 The electric field inside insulators is zero.
 Covalent bonds are strong, therefore, too hard to be broken.
 They have high resistivity.
 The temperature coefficient of resistance of an insulator is negative.

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 7.2 Common insulating material Application
 It is used in the transmission and distribution of electricity supply.
 It provides necessary safety for humans and animals.
 Many electronic components used insulation materials like plastic
 Rubber as an insulating material to make slippers, vehicle tires, fire-resistant clothes, etc.,
 PVC, Kapton, Teflon, etc. for providing a protective layer to the electrical wires.

7.3 Insulating material used in industries:

 Fiberglass or plastic to make printed circuit boards, etc.
 These are used in circuits, electric boards to ensure safety techniques.
 These insulators protect the materials from electricity and heat.
 Plastic and rubbers are used to manufacture daily products.

CONDUCTORS
08
MAJOR CONTENTS 8.0 Conductors:

Conductors are materials that allow charge or electricity to pass

Properties of Electrical Conductor.
through.
Common Electrical Conductors - Application
Conductors used in Industry

Examples of Conductors:
 Copper
 Aluminium
 Silver
 Gold

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  Graphite
 Platinum
 Water
 Human Body
8.1 Properties of Conductors:
 High electrical conductivity: Conductors have a high ability to conduct electric current
through them with minimal resistance.
 Low resistivity: Conductors have low resistivity, which is a measure of how much a material
resists the flow of electric current.
 High melting point: Conductors have high melting points, which means they can withstand
high temperatures without melting or degrading.
 Ductility: Conductors are often ductile, which means they can be easily drawn into wires or
other shapes without breaking.
 Malleability: Conductors are often malleable, which means they can be easily shaped or
molded without breaking.
 High density: Conductors are often dense materials, which means they have a high mass per
unit volume.
 High thermal conductivity: Many conductors also have high thermal conductivity, which
means they can transfer heat efficiently.
8.2 Common Electrical Conductors -Application
 It is used in the manufacturing of cooking vessels
 It is used in Ironing of clothes
 Solder is a metal alloy tool used for connecting electronics components.
 Copper is used in electric cables
8.3 Conductors used in Industries
 Mercury is a popular component of thermometers to measure the body’s temperature.
 Aluminum is used in the production of foils for storing food items. Aluminium is also utilized
for the making of fry pans that keep heat in a hurry.
 Iron is a material commonly utilized in the manufacturing of motor vehicles to transfer heat.
 The iron plate is composed of steel that absorbs heat quickly.
 Conductors are used in radiators in cars to remove the heat of the motor.

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