UNIT II DISPLACEMENT, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS 9

Displacement Sensors – Brush Encoders - Potentiometers, Resolver, Encoders – Optical,

Magnetic, Inductive, Capacitive, LVDT – RVDT – Synchro – Microsyn, Accelerometer –
Range Sensors - Ultrasonic Ranging - Reflective Beacons - Laser Range Sensor (LIDAR) –
GPS - RF Beacons.
 Accelerometer Sensor

Accelerometers detect Linear motion while Gyroscope detects angular velocity ie how quickly an object is
turning
Inertial Measurement Unit IMU which uses MEMs Microelectromechanical
systems
Accelerometer Sensor
Proof mass or Seismic mass
Accelerometer Sensor
Accelerometer Sensor
Accelerometer Sensor
Accelerometer Sensor
Accelerometer Sensor
Accelerometer Sensor
Accelerometer Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensor
Refelctive Beacons
Tiny Devices that are placed in Consumers physical environments which have the ability to emit low energy bluetooth
signals. A

Able to communicate with mobile devices for a variety of purposes like data collection and ad servicing

Beacon technology uses Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) to transmit signals from small, wireless devices to nearby
smartphones and tablets. These devices are often battery-powered, compact, and can be installed in many
environments, such as retail stores and convention centers

Smart beacons, also known as 'bluetooth beacons' 'BLE beacons', or just 'beacons', are small, wireless
bluetooth device that transmit a signal that other bluetooth devices such as smartphones can 'see
Classification of Beacons
More Accurate Location within a narrow range than GPS

Common Beacon Types

Standard Beacon - size of wifi router

Portable Beacon- Size of credit card

USB Beacon- Size of Flash Drive

Video Beacon- interface transmitter plugged into the back of the screen to deliver personalized content

Ai Beacon-Record , Store and analyse the interactions between the screen and the user

Parent beacon - large size beacon used to track other beacons, coordinate and store all the data

Dedicated Beacon- most durable type , Resistant to extreme environmental conditions

Beacons Protocol
Ibeacons and - First Beacon by apple, works with IOS and Android,

The beacons work with ibeacon protocol transmit UUID

UUID- String of 24 nos. Which communicate with installed mobile app

Eddy Stone by Google
frame types

Url

Uid

16 characters which Can be identified by By individual beacons

Device telemetry is the process of automatically collecting and transmitting data from a device to a remote
location.
LVDT
https://automationforum.co/lvdt/
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
The LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

It converts the Linear motion into an electrical signal using an inductive transducer.

Due to its superior sensitivity and accuracy over other inductive transducers, the LVDT is extensively used in many
different fields.

For measuring linear distance, the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a precise and trustworthy tool.

Today, LVDTs are used in computerized manufacturing, robotics, avionics, and machine tools, combining research
facilities, high-level analysis, and analysis to detect damage caused by massive rock deformation or other movements
in the subgrade of old buildings or structures.

This method is used to try to detect failure in concrete slopes and warn or correct the condition. One of the special
problems with historical buildings is that they can easily be damaged by small deformations in the long run.
What is LVDT?

LVDT stands for Linear variable differential transformer.

It is one of the major types of Inductive transducers.
LVDTs are considered the most accurate inductive sensors that measure
displacement according to the polarity and magnitude of the net
induced electromotive force (EMF) and are therefore also known as
linear variable displacement sensors.
LVDT
LVDT
The transformer and LVDT share a similar construction.
It consists of one primary winding(P) and two secondary windings (S1 & S2). The primary and secondary
windings are bounded by a hollow cylinder, known as the former.
The primary winding is at the center and the secondary windings are present on both sides of the primary
winding at an equal distance from the center.
Both the secondary windings have an equal no. of terms and they are linked with each other in series
opposition, i.e. they are wounded in opposite directions, but are connected in series with each other.
The entire coil assembly remains stationary during distance measurement.
The moving part of the LVDT is an arm made of magnetic material.
Working Principle of LVDT

The working of LVDT is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states that “the
electrical power in the network induction circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux in the
circuit.”
As the primary winding of LVDT is connected to the AC power supply, The alternating magnetic field is
produced in the primary winding, which results in the induced EMF of secondary windings.
Let’s assume that the induced voltages in the secondary windings S1 & S2 are E1 & E2 respectively. Now
according to using the rate of change of magnetic flux i.e. dΦ/dt is directly proportional to the magnitude of
induced EMF i.e E1 and E2.
The total output voltage Eo in the circuit is given by Eo = E1-E2
Working Principle of LVDT

Depending on the position of the core some cases arise:

Case 1: When The Core is Moving Towards S1
When the core of LVDT moves towards the second winding S1 then the flux linkage S will be more as
compared to S2. The EMF induced in S1 will be more than the EMF of S2. Hence E1 is greater than E & net
differential voltage Eo(E1-E2) will be +ve. The means output voltage Vo will be in phase with input AC
voltage.
Working Principle of LVDT

Case 2 : When the core is positioned at its null position

When the core is at a null position then the flux generated in both the secondary windings will be the same.
The induced EMF E1 & E2, and both the windings will be the same. Hence the net differential output voltage
Eo will be 0. It shows 0 displacement of the core
Working Principle of LVDT

Case 3 : When The Core Moving Towards S2

When the core of LVDT moves towards secondary winding S2 then the flux linkage with S2 will be more
than S1. It means the EMF induced in S2 will be more than the induced EMF of S1
Hence E2 is greater than E1 & net differential voltage Eo (E1-E2) will be negative. It means the output
voltage will be out of phase input AC voltage.
Output of LVDT
● The output of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an AC voltage that is proportional
to the displacement or position of its core.
● A zero-differential output voltage is produced when the core is in the center, or null position, where
the induced voltages in the two secondary coils are equal. The induced voltages in the secondary
coils become unequal as the core moves away from the null position, and the differential output
voltage increases proportionately.
Uses of LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT) are mainly used for work or motion or movement in many
industries and research, they are also used in medicine and patient monitoring similarly in many
applications because of its ability of unique features and advantages.
It offers high precision and accuracy as it has non-coated sensors it can also vary with measurement ranges
like the miniature or subminiature LVDTs are suitable for applications with extremely limited space or
where fine-scale displacement measurements are necessary.
its versatile nature, Long term stability, and reliability are what make it useful and make it a preferred choice
for displacement and position sensing in numerous applications.
LVDT Specifications
As we can understand the Linear Variable Differential Transformer’s (LVDT) specifications can change based
on the model and the requirements of the application. some common specifications of the LVDTs are:
● Linearity
● Sensitivity
● Resolution
● Electrical Output
● Temperature Range etc.
Advantages of LVDT

● High output: For minute variations in the magnetic core position, LVDTs provide a high output.
● Low hysteresis: LVDTs are highly repeatable due to their extremely low hysteresis.
● Low electrical noise: Because LVDTs have sensing coils with low impedance, they can produce extremely low electrical noise
levels.
● Less power Consumption: LVDT’s consume less power as compared to other Transducer’s

Disadvantages of LVDT

● Since LVDT is an inductive transducer it is sensitive to the stray magnetic field, hence an extra setup is required to protect from
stray magnetic field.
● As LVDT is an electromagnetic device, it is also affected by vibrations and temperature.
Applications of LVDT
● It is mostly used in industries in the field of Automation, Aircraft, Turbines, Satellite, Hydraulics etc.
● LVDT is used to measure physical quantity such as force, tension, pressure weight, etc. here LVDT is used as
a secondary transducer.
● LVDT plays important role in geotechnical Instrumentations, as it is used for Monitoring Ground Movements,
Landslides and Structural Stability
● LVDT plays an important role in the marine and offshore industry by Monitoring the Movements and
Positions of ships and Underwater Structures.
● LVDT Plays an important role in Power Generation as it monitors the Critical Components in turbines and
generators.
LiDAR-Light Detection And Ranging
LiDAR: Light Detection and Ranging

LiDAR: Light Detection and Ranging

Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) is a laser-based remote sensing technology. The idea behind LiDAR is quite
simple: point a small laser at a surface and measure the time it takes the laser to return to its source.

This technology is used in geographical information systems (GIS) to produce a digital elevation model (DEM) or a digital
terrain model (DTM) for 3D mapping.
LiDAR scanning operating principle
Emission of a laser pulse
Record of the backscattered signal (return)
Distance measurements (Time of travel x speed of light)
Retrieving plane position and altitude
Computation of precise echo position
How does LiDAR work?
You may have already heard about LiDAR but have no clue about this technology. You’ll learn in what follows the basic
principles behind LiDAR. You’ll also discover several applications for 3D laser mapping with unmanned aerial vehicles
(also known as UAV, UAS or drones).Globalnavigation satellite system (GNSS) is a general term
describing any satellite constellation that provides positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)
services on a global or regional basis
Understanding how LiDAR works
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a technology similar to radar, using laser instead of radio
waves.

LiDAR principle is pretty easy to understand:

it emits a laser pulse on a surface
catches the reflected laser back to the LiDAR pulse source with sensors
measures the time laser travelled
calculates the distance from source with the formula “Distance = (Speed of light x Time elapsed) / 2

This process is repeated a million times by LiDAR instruments and ends up producing a complex map of
the surveyed area known as a 3D point cloud.
Understanding how a LiDAR system is built
The equipment needed to measure a million distances from sensors to surface points is
a LiDAR system.

This advanced technology operates really fast as it is able to calculate the distance
between LiDAR sensors and its target (as a reminder light speed is 300 000 kilometers
per second).

LiDAR systems integrate 3 main components whether they are mounted on

automotive vehicles, aircraft or UAV:
Laser Scanner

LiDAR systems pulse a laser light from various mobile systems (automobiles, airplanes, drones…)
through air and vegetation (aerial Laser) and even water (bathymetric Laser). A scanner receives
the light back (echoes), measuring distances and angles.

The scanning speed influences the number of points and echoes that are measured by a LiDAR
system.

The choice of optic and scanner influences greatly the resolution and the range in which you can
operate the LiDAR system.
Navigation and positioning systems

Whether a LiDAR sensor is mounted on aircraft, car or UAS (unmanned aerial systems), it is crucial to
determine the absolute position and orientation of the sensor to make sure data captured are useable
data.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) provide accurate geographical information regarding the
position of the sensor (latitude, longitude, height) and an Inertial Measurements Unit (IMU) defines at
this location the precise orientation of the sensor (pitch, roll, yaw).

Data recorded by these 2 devices are then used to generate data into static points : the basis of the 3D
mapping point cloud.
● Rotation around the front-to-back axis is called roll.
● Rotation around the side-to-side axis is called pitch.
● Rotation around the vertical axis is called yaw.
Computing technology

In order to make the most of the data : computation is required to make the LiDAR system work by
defining precise echo position.

It is required for on-flight data visualization or data post-processing as well to increase precision
and accuracy delivered in the 3D mapping point cloud.