BIOB50 Lecture 2 Notes

Learning Goals
- Understand atmospheric circulation through a conceptual climate model
- Become familiar with the different terrestrial biomes, aquatic biological zones, and biological zones
on mountains, and understand how climate shapes their characteristics
- Begin delving into human effects on the global climate and biomes
Next slide:

● (don’t memorize any of the right map regions) → just need to understand the point of the map layout
○ If we take out sea ice from the polar bears, they won’t be able to catch the seals in the open
water (because seals are faster swimmers) → global warming consequence
○ We are forcing the bears to hunt after other prey and this changes population dynamics

● The physical environment determines what resources are available to organisms and, thus, where they
can live. Understanding the physical environment is therefore key to understanding ecological
phenomena.
A conceptual model for the global climate
Weather vs Climate
● Weather: Current state of the atmosphere at any given time
● Climate: Long-term description of weather, including
average conditions and the full range of variation.
● Climate change: directional change in climate over a period
of at least three decades.

Solar Radiation: Trends across Latitudes

● Because the Earth is a sphere, the heat/energy distribution will vary based on latitudes.

Solar Radiation: Effects of the Tilt of Earth’s Axis

This distribution of heat/light will vary across seasons as well
Atmospheric circulation
● We use five physical principles to explain global patterns of atmospheric circulation (large-scale
movement of air across Earth)

● Atmospheric circulation around the equator → we get more solar energy near the equator (sunlight
comes in perpendicularly)
○ It rains more in the equator because it’s very humid/hot
● Once the air rises and reaches a higher altitude, you have less pressure and the air starts expanding.
Then, it will cool down where it can’t hold as much moisture → release moisture through rain.
From textbook describing figure A:
● The Hadley circulation cell starts as warm, moist air rises at the equator due to solar radiation. As this
air ascends, it expands and cools, releasing its moisture as rainfall. This dynamic produces tropical
rainforests near the equator. Cold air is denser and drops back toward the Earth. As it descends, it
warms. The warm, dry air can absorb water from the Earth’s surface, producing deserts at around 30
degrees noth and south latitudes.
 ● Near the north pole, there’s very low precipitation (deserts don’t have to be hot, they just have to be
dry)
From textbook:
● This idealized diagram shows the atmospheric circulation cells across the planet by latitude.
Atmospheric low pressures result from rising columns of air, and high pressures result from descending
columns of air. A rising column of air cannot rise without limit, so it also moves north or south, away
from the equator. This movement toward higher latitudes, combined with the rise and fall of warmed
and cooled air, creates interconnected cells of circulating air between the equator and the poles. This
circulation pattern produces alternating high-and low-pressure zones, as well as alternating bands of
relatively wet and dry habitats at fairly predictable latitudes across the Earth’s surface.

● Atmospheric circulation depends on air/wind currents and mountain formation (differences in

moisture/dryness)
A conceptual model for the global climate - additional complexities
Coriolis effect: circulating air is deflected toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in
the Southern Hemisphere (alters wind patterns and ocean circulation → effects temperature and precipitation)
● Through Earth’s rotation, the Coriolis effect affects wind patterns and oceanic circulation, with resulting
effects on temperature and precipitation.

Rain Shadows
● “Air picks up moisture and brings it over the mountains → rain clouds form as it moves up → dry air
(rain shadow) moves over to the other side of the mountain”
● Rain shadows: As warm, moist air is forced to higher elevations over a mountain, it expands, cools, and
loses its water as rain. One the back side of the mountain, air that has become cold and dry descends,
warms, and absorbs water from the land surface, producing dry conditions.
○ Topography influences the local climate, for example, via rain shadows.

● Satellite view of a rain shadow formed by the Sierra Nevada mountains between California and
Nevada, with ground-level photographs in inserts. Wind from the west creates moist forests and lakes
on the windward side of the mountains, while the leeward east side is dry and parched.
Heat Capacity & Continental Effects
● Differing heat capacity (how much energy needs to be added to a substance to raise its temperature
by 1 degree Celsius) between water and soil (water has a five times higher heat capacity) leads to
continental effects. The interiors of continents experience large seasonal temperature swings, while in
coastal areas, the ocean buffers the temperature changes, creating a moderating effect on the climate
with cooler summers and warmer winters.

Transpiration
● Plant life also influences the climate. The Amazon, for example, has a distinct rainy season that
starts 2-3 months before seasonal winds start to bring in moist air from the ocean
● Plants cool the environment directly via transpiration (when plant tissue heats up, they release excess
water vapor from pores in their leaves called stomata). This cools the plant in a similar way as sweating
cools mammals.
Terrestrial Biomes
● Niche of a species: the physical/other constraints of where certain species can thrive
● Ex: A species can only live within a specific temperature → Blackfin icefish can only live at temps below
freezing point of water
 ● Biomes = large geographic areas affected by similar climatic and physical factors, leading to distinctive
formations of animals and plants
● Terrestrial biomes are generally determined by climate (sunlight, temperature, water) and soil types,
but they are usually characterized by characteristics of the plant community [e.g. plant growth form
(trees, shrubs, grasses), morphology (tall, short, shrubby), leaf characteristics (broadleaf, needleleaf),
plant spacing (dense forest, open woodland, savanna].

● The definition of biomes focuses on primary productivity (the synthesis of organic material by
plants through photosynthesis), because this has a direct effect on the organismal composition of
the biome. The diversity of plant species in an ecosystem tends to correlate with the diversity of
other taxa.

The Influence of Temperature and Precipitation

● Each biome is characterized by a typical climate.
● We can draw different biome based on temperature and
precipitation
● Very hot, low precipitation = desert
● Very hot, high precipitation = tropical rainforest

● Each biome is characterized by a typical climate. Climate diagrams can be used to visualize how
temperature and precipitations interact to determine plant growth, and how these factors vary across
biomes.
○ If the blue line is over orange = more precipitation (rainy)
○ If orange line over blue = more evaporation ⇒ very dry environment
Biomes:
Tropical Rainforest: High precipitation, near the equator, warm year-round temperature, high solar input

Tropical Dry Forest: Has rain wet season and a extended dry season (cyclical precipitation), next closest to
equator, warm to hot year-round temperature

Tropical Savanna: Brief wet season followed by extended dry periods, next to tropical dry forests, warm
temperatures

Desert: evaporation generally exceeds precipitation, next to tropical savannas, warm to hot temperatures

Mediterranean Scrubland: cool wet winters followed by hot/dry summers,next to deserts, hot temperatures

Temperate Grassland: cold, frozen winter followed by hot summer, next to scrublands, hot temperatures

Temperate Forest: warm/humid summers followed by freezing winters, hotter temperatures (35 to 60 degrees)
Boreal Forest: long freezing winters with yearly consistent percipitation, relatively very hot temperatures (50-60
degrees)

Tundra: short summers and long harsh winters, relatively low temperatures (-10 to -16 degrees)

Biological Zones on Mountains

● On mountains, temperature and precipitation change with elevation, resulting in similar biological zones
along elevational gradients as found across terrestrial biomes when moving poleward.

Aquatic Biological Zones

● Unlike in terrestrial environments, we cannot use precipitation or soil type to define biological zones.
Instead, aquatic biological zones are determined by:

Marine Zones are characterized based on:

(1) light penetration (photic zone extends to 100-200 m depth; below the
photic zone, energy and nutrients are supplied by falling detritus)
(2) proximity to the shore line
(3) physical location (benthic = on the bottom surface; pelagic = in the water
column)
(4) depth of the pelagic zones
● Everything that lives below the floating zone relies on nutrients that fall down (ex:
whale death provides lots of nutrients for the creatures living in the deep sea)
Marine Zones cont.
● Estuaries: where the ocean meets the river.
Experience shifts in salinity with the tides and are
extremely productive environments. Creates a rare
zone where marine, terrestrial, and freshwater
environments interact. (economically valuable)
● Mangrove forests: serve as important zones for
moderating influences between marine and
terrestrial environments. They catch much of the
runoff from terrestrial environments and reduce
tidal surges into terrestrial environments (second
marine-terrestrial interface)
● Seagrass beds: diverse and productive systems that can harbor many species (third marine-terrestrial
interface)
● Coral reefs: warm-water coral reef systems that rival tropical rainforests. Cover 1/10% of ocean but
harbor ~30% of world’s fish species.
● Rocky-Substrate Zones: present when shoreline consists of a hard substrate/seafloor. This hard
substrate provides a stable anchoring point for numerous species of marine invertebrates and algae.
● Sandy-Bottom Zones: extremely dynamic because sand grains are constantly changing position in
response to wind, waves, and tides. Most organisms, like mole crabs, live beneath the shifting sands.
● Open ocean/oceanic Zone: wide, open, almost featureless habitat that stretches for thousands of km.
● Deep Ocean: deepest parts of our oceans go far deeper than the heights of our tallest mountains

Freshwater
● Although freshwater systems share some characteristics and terminology with marine systems, their
limited extent and network-like spatial structure leads to fundamental differences. Freshwater biomes
are rarely defined; instead, freshwater systems can be characterized as lotic (flowing rivers and
streams), lentic (stationary ponds and lakes), or aquifer (subsurface water).
Human effects on the global climate and biomes
Climate Change: Historial Patterns
● The Earth’s climate has changed several times
through its history due to changes in Earth’s tilt, its
position relative to the Sun, plate tectonics, volcanic
activity, and meteor impacts.

Anthropogenic Climate Change

● Today, the climate is changing at unprecedented rates due to greenhouse gas emissions by humans.
● Greenhouse effect: Warming of Earth by atmospheric absorption and re-radiation of infrared radiation
emitted by Earth’s surface. This effect is due to greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily water
vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2O).

Human Effects on the Global Climate and Biomes cont.

● Which of my models fits the data better?
○ No human influence
○ Human influence (most alike)

Anthropogenic Climate Change: Increased Frequency of Extreme Weather Events

- Sea levels are rising and will continue to rise
Anthropogenic Climate Change: Tipping Points
● When water turns into ice → tipping point example
● “Everything seems fine until you reach that point” → tipping point
● “If we lose the amazon rainforest through multiple factors (fires,...), that’s going to have a massive
impact on all of life on Earth. We are losing the light surface that is good at reflecting energy?”
● Theory that that circulation will stop running anymore

Ecological Impacts of Climate Change and Other

Anthropogenic Pressures: Shifting Biomes
● Climate change has numerous impacts on
the biosphere; we will discuss these in detail
throughout the course (e.g., Lecture 12,
Global Change Ecology)

How do you think the ecological environment can be changing?

The syllabus states: “Both term tests and the final exam will aim to test your knowledge regarding the topics covered in
lecture and in the assigned course readings, as well as your ability to think critically and apply the learned
concepts to novel situations and problems. All exams will be a combination of multiple-choice questions and short
answer questions, similar to those provided in lecture, the tutorials, and in the quizzes.”
- Study the assigned readings. Review all lecture materials. Exams will test the breadth of your knowledge AND your
conceptual understanding. As such, it is critical that you are familiar with all terminology and key concepts that are
presented in the lecture and readings. As a core course, some memorization (e.g., of key definitions) is inevitable in
BIOB50. However, do not get bogged down in minuscule details. Focus on understanding the main concepts! - You should
self-test your understanding while studying, and there are multiple tools at your disposal. When studying, ask yourself
whether you have understood or just memorized. Would you be able to explain the material (e.g., lecture slides, figures in
textbook) to a friend who is not in the course? Would you be able to answers follow-up questions (e.g., what would
happen if an experiment was done slightly differently)? Can you connect concepts across lectures (e.g., applying
population models to understand disease dynamics)? - Typical exam questions will be provided in lecture and tutorials,
weekly quizzes, and online sample exams. Additional practice questions are available in the textbook (e.g., at the end of
chapters; SmartWork). - A note on mathematical equations and models: These are an integral part of modern ecology, so
(unless noted otherwise) you must know them, understand them, and be able to work with them if they were discussed in
lecture and/or in the assigned readings.