CSC111: COMPUTER OPERATIONS AND ELECTRONIC DATA

PROCESSING

COURSE OUTLINE

✓ Introduction to Digital Computer, Basic Concepts and Applications

✓ Computer Hardware and Software in Computing Engineering.
✓ Introduction to Computer Programming and Concepts
✓ Computer Maintenance, Safety and Security
✓ Introduction to Data Processing

REFERENCES

✓ THE COSIT TEXT, vol. 1

✓ Modern Operating Systems. By Andrew S. Tannenbaum and Herbert Bos, 2014.
✓ Essential Computer Hardware: The illustrated Guide to understanding Computer
Hardware. By Kevin Wilson, 2018.
✓ Computer A+ Guide to IT Hardware and Software: AA CompTIA A+ Core 1 (220-
1001) & CompTIA core 2 (220-1002) Textbook. By Cheryl Schmidt, 2020.
✓ Information Security: Foundations, technologies and applications. By Ali Ismail
Awad, Michael Fairhurst, 2018.
✓ Computer Security Fundamentals. By Chuck Easttom, 2019.
✓ How to Design Programs: An Introduction to Programming and Computing. By
Felleisen et al, 2018.
✓ Computer Fundamentals: A complete guide (Lecture notes). By Dinesh Thakur,
 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMPUTER, BASIC CONCEPTS AND
APPLICATIONS

WHAT ARE COMPUTERS

Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The term
computer is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means to calculate or programmable
machine. Computer cannot do anything without a Program. It represents the decimal numbers through
a string of binary digits. The Word ‘Computer’ usually refers to the Center Processor Unit plus
Internal memory.

Charles Babbage is called the “Grand Father” of the computer. The First mechanical computer
designed by Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine. It uses read-only memory in the form of
punch cards.

The computer is an electronic device that takes input from the user and processes these data under the
control of a set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and saves future use. It
can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

Digital Computer Definition

The basic components of a modern digital computer are: Input Device, Output Device, Central
Processor Unit (CPU), mass storage device and memory. A Typical modern computer uses large scale
integration (LSI) Chips. Four Functions about computer are:
Accepts data Input
Processes data Processing
Produces output Output
Stores results Storage
Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the collection of
letters, numbers, images etc.
Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the computer
system.
Output:
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called as Result.
We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.

Computer Classification: By Size and Power

Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose,
data handling and functionality.
According to functionality, computers are classified as:
Analog Computer: A computer that represents numbers by some continuously variable physical
quantity, whose variations mimic some system’s properties being modelled.
Personal computer: A personal computer is a computer small and low cost. The term “personal
computer” is used to describe desktop computers.
Workstation: A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, the workstation is just a
generic term for a user’s machine (client machine) in contrast to a “server” or “mainframe.”
Minicomputer: A minicomputer is not very mini. At least, not in the way most of us think of mini. You
know how big your personal computer is and its related family. Types of Minicomputers include,
Tablet PCs, Smartphones, Notebooks, Touch Screen Pads, High-End Music Plays, Desktop
Minicomputers

Mainframe: It refers to the kind of large computer that runs an entire corporation. Popular Mainframe
computers include, IBM 1400 series 700/7000 series, System/360, System/370, IBM 308X.

Supercomputer: It is the most giant, fastest, and most expensive computers on earth. Top Five Popular
Supercomputers include, JAGUAR, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, NEBULAE, China,
ROADRUNNER, Los Alamos National Laboratory, KRAKEN, National Institute for Computational
Sciences, JUGENE, Juelich Supercomputing Centre, Germany.
Microcomputer: Your personal computer is a microcomputer. Types of Micro Computer include,
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets, telephones.

DEFINITION OF COMPUTER\MEANING OF COMPUTER

In 1640s, Computer term was first used as “one who calculates.” From 1897, term changed and got
a new computer meaning “Calculating machine”. From 1945 the term indicates as “programmable
digital electronic computer”.

Computer Definition
The word compute is derived from the Latin word ‘computare’, was meaning “arithmetic, accounting”.
The Computer meaning is the digital device that stores information in memory using input devices and
manipulate information to produce output according to given instructions.

The actual machinery, the physical parts of a computer system refer to as Computer hardware; the
instruction (a program) that tells the computer what to do or how to do, that is called Computer
software (often called just software).
Computer Meaning in general term

Technically, a computer means to calculate or electronic programmable machine. Computer is used to

perform some sequence of instructions in fast and accurate manner. Computer receives input in the
form of digitized data, using input devices like keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc. It processes
based on a program instruction to give output.

Three Different Types of Computer Exist: Analog, Digital Computer and Hybrid

1. Analogue Computer: Everything we hear and see is changing continuously. This variable
continuous stream of data is known as analogue data. Analog computer may be used in scientific and
industrial applications such as to measure the electric current, frequency, and resistance of the
capacitor, etc.

Analogue computers directly accept the data in the measuring device without first converting it into
codes and numbers.

Cases of analogue computer are temperature, pressure, telephone lines, Speedometer, immunity of
capacitor, frequency of signal and voltage, etc.

2. Digital Computer: The digital computer is the most widely used and used to process data with
numbers using digits, usually utilizing the binary number system.

A digital computer intended to do calculations and logical operations at a high rate. It takes the raw
data as digits or amounts and procedures using applications stored in its memory to make output. All
modern computers such as laptops and desktops we use at office or home are digital computers.
It works on data, such as magnitudes, letters, and symbols, which expressed in binary code–i.e., with
just the two digits 1 and 0. By counting, comparing, and manipulating those digits or their mixtures by
a pair of instructions stored in its memory, a digital computer may perform such tasks to control
industrial processes and also control the operations of machinery; examine and organize vast amounts
of company data; and mimic the behaviour of dynamic systems (e.g., international climate patterns
and chemical reactions) in scientific study.

Digital computer supplies accurate result, but they are slow compared to an analogue computer.

3. Hybrid Computer: A hybrid computer which combines the aspects of a digital computer and an
analogue computer. It is quick like an analogue computer and contains memory and precision like
digital computers. It is intended to incorporate a functioning analogue unit that is effective for
calculations, nevertheless, has a readily accessible digital memory. In large businesses and companies,
a hybrid computer may be employed to integrate logical operations in addition to provide efficient
processing of differential equations.

For instance, a gas pump includes a chip that converts the dimensions of fuel flow to volume and cost.

A hybrid computer is used in hospitals to gauge the heartbeat of this individual.

Generally, the following computer hardware components are required:

Memory: It is a physical device (integrated circuits or chip) that enables a computer to store data and
programs temporarily or permanently. It is also term as “primary storage”.

Mass storage device (MSD): It is used to store large amounts of data for example hard disks, USB
drive, CD-ROM etc.

Input device: It is any hardware device like keyboard and mouse that sends data to a computer.

Output device: It is a device that sends data from a computer to another device.

CPU (Central Processing Unit): It is also referred to as a processor or brains of a computer that carries
out the instructions of a computer system.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER AND EXPLAIN ITS VARIOUS COMPONENTS
A computer can process data, pictures, sound, and graphics. They can solve highly complicated
problems quickly and accurately. A computer performs basically five major computer operations or
functions irrespective of their size and make. These are
1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,
2) it stores data,
3) it can process data as required by the user,
4) it gives results in the form of output, and
5) it controls all operations inside a computer.

Each of this computer functions are discussed as follows.

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs into the computer system. You should
know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data
and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us
to the computer in an organized manner for processing.
2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to
be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed.
Therefore, the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit
or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides
space for storing data and instructions. The storage unit performs the following major functions:
✓ All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
✓ Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then
sent back to the storage unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly, the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside
the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again, the output is also stored inside
the computer for further processing.
5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed, and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes
care of step-by-step processing of all operations inside the computer.

Functional Units
To carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between
its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation.
They are:

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU): After you enter data through the input device it is stored in
the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic
Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic, and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After
processing the output is returned to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Control Unit (CU): The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the
supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for coordinating
various operations using time signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer
programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the
main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer
to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they
perform the input and output.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the
central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain
that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer
functions by activating and controlling the operations.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER\GENERATION OF COMPUTER

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. The various generations of computers an listed
below:
(1) First Generation (1946-1954) : In 1946 there was no ‘best’ way of storing instructions and data
in a computer memory. There were four competing technologies for providing computer memory:
electrostatic storage tubes, acoustic delay lines (mercury or nickel), magnetic drums (and disks),
and magnetic core storage.
The digital computes using electronic valves (Vacuum tubes) are known as first generation
computers. the first ‘computer’ to use electronic valves (ie. vacuum tubes). The high cost of vacuum
tubes prevented their use for main memory. They stored information in the form of propagating sound
waves.
The vacuum tube consumes a lot of power. The Vacuum tube was developed by Lee DeForest in 1908.
These computers were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers
of this generation were:

Mark I: The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), called the Mark I
by Harvard University, was an electro-mechanical computer. Mark I is the first machine to
successfully perform a long service of arithmetic and logical operation. Mark I is the First-Generation
Computer. it was the first operating machine that could execute long computations
automatically. Mark I computer which was built as a partnership between Harvard and IBM in 1944.
This was the first programmable digital computer made in the U.S. But it was not a purely electronic
computer. Instead, the Mark I was constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches.
The machine weighed 5 tons, incorporated 500 miles of wire, was 8 feet tall and 51 feet long, and had
a 50 ft rotating shaft running its length, turned by a 5-horsepower electric motor.
ENIAC: It was the first general-purpose electronic computer built in 1946 at University of
Pennsylvania, USA by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert. The completed machine was
announced to the public the evening of February 14, 1946. It was named Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). ENIAC contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, 7,200 crystal diodes,
1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors and around 5 million hand-soldered joints. It weighed
more than 30 short tons (27 t), was roughly 8 by 3 by 100 feet (2.4 m × 0.9 m × 30 m), took up 1800
square feet (167 m2), and consumed 150 kW of power. Input was possible from an IBM card reader,
and an IBM card punch was used for output. These cards could be used to produce printed output
offline using an IBM accounting machine, such as the IBM 405. Today your favourite computer is
many times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.

EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was developed
in 1950.it was to be a vast improvement upon ENIAC, it was binary rather than decimal, and was a
stored program computer. The concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was
introduced here. This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data
and instructions. The other advantage of storing instruction was that computer could do logical
decision internally.
The EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication,
programmed division and automatic checking with an ultrasonic serial memory. EDVAC’s addition
time was 864 microseconds, and its multiplication time was 2900 microseconds (2.9 milliseconds).
The computer had almost 6,000 vacuum tubes and 12,000 diodes and consumed 56 kW of power. It
covered 490 ft² (45.5 m²) of floor space and weighed 17,300 lb (7,850 kg).

EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed by M.V.
Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949. Two groups of individuals were working at the same time
to develop the first stored-program computer. In the United States, at the University of Pennsylvania
the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was being worked on. In England at
Cambridge, the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer) was also being developed.
The EDSAC won the race as the first stored-program computer beating the United States’ EDVAC
by two months. The EDSAC performed computations in the three millisecond range. It performed
arithmetic and logical operations without human intervention. The key to the success was in the stored
instructions which it depended upon solely for its operation. This machine marked the beginning
of the computer age. EDSAC is the first computer is used to store a program

UNIVAC-1: Ecker and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal Accounting Computer setup.
it was the first commercial computer produced in the United States. It was designed principally by
J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, the inventors of the ENIAC.
The machine was 25 feet by 50 feet in length, contained 5,600 tubes, 18,000 crystal diodes, and 300
relays. It utilized serial circuitry, 2.25 MHz bit rate, and had an internal storage capacity 1,000 words
or 12,000 characters.
It utilized a Mercury delay line, magnetic tape, and typewriter output. The UNIVAC was used
for general purpose computing with large amounts of input and output.
Power consumption was about 120 kva. Its reported processing speed was 0.525 milliseconds for
arithmetic functions, 2.15 milliseconds for multiplication and 3.9 Milliseconds for division.
The UNIVAC was also the first computer to come equipped with a magnetic tape unit and was the first
computer to use buffer memory.

Other Important Computers of First Generation

Some other computers of this time worth mentioning are the Whirlwind, developed at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, and JOHNNIAC, by the Rand Corporation. The Whirlwind was the first
computer to display real time video and use core memory. The JOHNNIAC was named in honour of
Jon Von Neumann. Computers at this time were usually kept in special locations like government and
university research labs or military compounds.

Limitations of First-Generation Computer

Followings are the major drawbacks of First-generation computers.
1. They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.
2. They were large, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
3. They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
4. Their computing capabilities were limited.
5. They were not so accurate and reliable.
6. They used machine level language for programming.
7. They were very expensive.
Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc

(2) Second Generation (1955-1964): The second-generation computer

used transistors for CPU components & ferrite cores for main memory & magnetic disks for
secondary memory. They used high-level languages such as FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1960) &
COBOL (1960 – 1961). I/O processor was included to control I/O operations.

Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky Vacuum tubes in the first-generation
computer. Transistors are smaller than Vacuum tubes and have higher operating speed. They have no
filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus, the size of the computer
got reduced considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language and input and output units were developed. The programming languages such
as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period. Some of the computers of the Second
Generation were:
1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly used for
scientific purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.

Features:
1. Transistors were used instead of Vacuum Tube.
2. Processing speed is faster than First Generation Computers (Microsecond)
3. Smaller in Size (51 square feet)
4. The input and output devices were faster.
Example: IBM 1400 and 7000 Series, Control Data 3600 etc.

(3) Third Generation (1964-1977): By the development of a small chip consisting of the capacity of
the 300 transistors. These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many
transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So, it is obvious that the size
of the computer got further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period were IBM-
360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All-
purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this period. Computers of this
generation were small, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very high. Very soon ICs Were
replaced by LSI (Large Scale Integration), which consisted about 100 components. An IC containing
about 100 components is called LSI.

Features:
1. They used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips in place of the transistors.
2. Semiconductor memory devices were used.
3. The size was greatly reduced, the speed of processing was high, they were more accurate and
reliable.
4. Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) were also developed.
5. The minicomputers were introduced in this generation.
6. They used high level language for programming.
Example: IBM 360, IBM 370 etc.

(4) Fourth Generation: An IC containing about 100 components is called LSI (Large Scale
Integration) and the one, which has more than 1000 such components, is called as VLSI (Very Large-
Scale Integration). It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central
processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later very large-
scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs. Thus, the computer which was occupying a very
large room in earlier days can now be placed on a table. The personal computer (PC) that you see in
your school is a Fourth Generation Computer Main memory used fast semiconductors chips up to 4 M
bits size. Hard disks were used as secondary memory. Keyboards, dot matrix printers etc. were
developed. OS-such as MS-DOS, UNIX, Apple’s Macintosh were available. Object oriented
language, C++ etc were developed.

Features:
1. They used Microprocessor (VLSI) as their main switching element.
2. They are also called as micro computers or personal computers.
3. Their size varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop.
4. They have very high speed of processing; they are 100% accurate, reliable, diligent, and versatile.
5. They have very large storage capacity.
Example: IBM PC, Apple-Macintosh etc.

(5) Fifth Generation (1991- continued): 5th generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale
Integration) chips. Millions of transistors are placed in a single IC in ULSI chips. 64bit
microprocessors have been developed during this period. Data flow & EPIC architecture of these
processors have been developed. RISC & CISC, both types of designs are used in modern processors.
Memory chips and flash memory up to 1 GB, hard disks up to 600 GB & optical disks up to 50 GB
have been developed. fifth generation digital computer will be Artificial intelligence.

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

The earliest computers were fixed program machines that were designed to do a specific task. This
proved to be a major limitation as it meant that a complex manual rewiring process was required to
enable the machine to solve a different problem. The computers used today are general-purpose
machines designed to allow a variety of programs to be run on the machine. Von Neumann and others
[VN:45] described the fundamental architecture underlying the computers used today in the late 1940s.
It is known as von Neumann architecture.
Mauchly and others on the design of the EDVAC computer, which was the successor to ENIAC
computer. Von Neumann’s draft report on EDVAC [VN:45] described the new architecture. Von
Neumann architecture led to the birth of stored program computers, where a single store is used for
both machine instructions and data.
The key approach to building a general-purpose device according to von Neumann was in its ability
to store not only its data and the intermediate results of computation but also to store the instructions
or commands for the computation. The computer instructions can be part of the hardware for
specialized machines, but for general-purpose machines, the computer instructions must be as
changeable as the data that is acted upon by the instructions. His insight was to recognize that both the
machine instructions and data could be stored in the same memory.
The key advantage of the von Neumann architecture over the existing approach was that it was much
simpler to reconfigure a computer to perform a different task.
All that was required was to enter new machine instructions in computer memory rather than physically
rewiring a machine as was required with ENIAC. The limitations of von Neumann architecture include
that it is limited to sequential processing and not very suitable for parallel processing.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

1. Speed: –As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that
we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions
(1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer
in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second).
From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.
2. Accuracy: The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with
the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7. Determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors
in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability, it overpowers human being
in routine type of work.
4. Versatility: It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare
electric bills.

5. Power of Remembering: Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data.
Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It
depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve
these data.

6. No IQ: – Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user.
It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want
to do and in what sequence. So, a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

7. No Feeling: – It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge, and experience. Thus, it does
not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

8. Storage: – The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can
also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer
and can be carried to other computers.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER

Computer has making human life faster because of its incredible speed, Accuracy, and storage, with
which human can save anything and search it out easily when needed. We can say computer a versatile
machine because it is very flexible in performing their jobs. but Computers have several
important advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of computer
1) Multitasking: Multitasking is one of the major advantages of computer. Person can perform
multiple tasks, multiple operation, calculate numerical problems within few seconds. Computer
can perform trillion of instructions per second.
2) Speed: Now computer is not just a calculating device. Now a day’s computer has very important
role in human life. One of the main advantages of computer is its incredible speed, which helps
human to complete their task in few seconds. All the operations can be performed very fast just
because of its speed elsewise it takes a long time to perform the task.
3) Cost/ Stores huge amount of data: It is a low-cost solution. Person can save huge data within a low
budget. Centralized database of storing information is the major advantage that can reduce cost.
4) Accuracy: One of the root advantages of computer is that can perform not only calculations but
also with accuracy.
5) Data Security: Protecting digital data is known as data security. Computers provide security from
destructive forces and from unwanted action from unauthorized users like cyber-attack or access
attack.
Disadvantage of Computer
1) Virus and hacking attacks: Virus are a worm and hacking is simply an unauthorized access over
computer for some illicit purpose. Virus is being transferred from email attachment, viewing an infected
website advertisement, through removable device like USB etc. once virus is transferred in host
computer it can infect file, overwrite the file etc. For example: Huge portion of internet was going down
including Twitter, Netflix, Reddit and CNN in October 2016 because the largest DDoS attack was
launched on service provider DYN using IoT Botnet.
2) Online Cyber Crimes

Online cyber-crime means computer and network may have used to commit crime. Cyberstalking and
Identity theft are the points which comes under online cyber-crimes. For example: one may get the
access of the access to your shopping account like amazon account now that person will be able to
know your personal details like debit card or credit card number which can be than misused.

3) Reduction in employment opportunity

Mainly past generation was not used of the computer or they have the knowledge of computer they
faced a big problem when computer came in field. As we have seen in banking sector senior bank
employees faced this problem when computer came to the banking sector.
Above were the main disadvantage of computer, no IQ, Dependency, no feeling, break down are the
basic disadvantages of computer.
USES OF COMPUTER
1. Education: Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information to
make sense. College students spend an average of 5-6 hours a week on the internet. Research
shows that computers can significantly enhance performance in learning. Students exposed to
the internet say they think the web has helped them improve the quality of their academic research
and of their written work. One revolution in education is the advent of distance learning. This
offers a variety of internet and video-based online courses.
2. Health and Medicine: Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All
medical information can now be digitized. Software is now able to computer the risk of a disease.
Mental health researchers are using computers to screen troubled teenagers in need of
psychotherapy. A patient paralyzed by a stroke has received an implant that allows communication
between his brain and a computer; as a result, he can move a cursor across a screen by brainpower
and convey simple messages.
3. Science: Scientists have long been users of it. A new adventure among scientists is the idea of a
“Collaboratory”, an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over the world
can work easily together even at a distance. An example is space physics where space physicists
can band together to measure the earth’s ionosphere from instruments on four parts of the world.
4. Business: Business clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness.
Some areas of business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales and marketing, retailing,
banking, stock trading, etc. Sales representatives not only need to be better educated and more
knowledgeable about their customer’s businesses, but also must be comfortable with computer
technology. The internet has become a popular marketing tool. The world of cybercash has come
to banking – not only smart cards but internet banking, electronic deposit, bill paying, online stock
and bond trading, etc.
5. Recreation and Entertainment: Our entertainment and pleasure-time have also been affected by
computerization. For example:
✓ In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so that special effects
and even imaginary characters can play a part in making movies, videos, and commercials.
✓ In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets for
athletes, and suggest game plan strategies based on the competitor’s past performance.
✓ In restaurants, almost everyone has eaten food where the clerk enters an order by
indicating choices on a rather unusual looking cash register; the device directly enters the
actual data into a computer and calculates the cost and then prints a receipt.
6. Government: Various departments of the Government use computer for their planning, control
and law enforcement activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting,
Education, Aviation, and many others.
7. Defence: There are many uses computers in Defence such as:
 ✓ Controlling UAV or unmanned aircrafts an example is Predator.

✓ They are also used on Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that uses GPS and
Computers to help the missile get to the target.

✓ Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the
incoming target to destroy them.

✓ Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational
Awareness) and in Communications/Battle Management Systems.

✓ Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of getting equipment’s to and
around the battlefield.

✓ Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run the
platform and more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms.

✓ Computers help design and test new systems.

8. Sports: In today’s technologically growing society, computers are being used in nearly every
activity.
9. Recording Information: Official statistics keepers and some scouts use computers to record
statistics, take notes and chat online while attending and working at a sports event.
10. Analysing Movements: The best athletes pay close attention to detail. Computers can slow
recorded video and allow people to study their specific movements to try to improve their
tendencies and repair poor habits.
11. Writers: Many sportswriters attend several sporting events a week, and they take their computers
with them to write during the game or shortly after while their thoughts are fresh in their mind.
12. Scoreboard: While some scoreboards are manually updated, most professional sports venues have
very modern scoreboards that are programmed to update statistics and information immediately
after the information is entered into the computer.
13. Safety: Computers have aided in the design of safety equipment in sports such as football helmets
to shoes to mouth guards.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE IN COMPUTING
ENGINEERING

The term Information Technology refers to the use of computers to process and display data. Computers
are now commonly used to communicate with other people and performing tasks such as word
processing, calculations, and multimedia.

For a computer to work it needs two things – hardware and software. The hardware is the physical
part, such as the keyboard, monitor or printer – the bits you can touch in other words. The software is
part that runs on the hardware, that is, the tools you use to perform tasks such as word processing.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Types of Hardware
On a desktop computer, the case houses all the internal hardware, such as CPU, RAM and Hard disks.
Peripherals sit outside the case, and the Operating System runs on the internal hardware. These are all
mounted onto a main circuit board, called a motherboard.
Basic Peripherals
Computer peripherals are essentially anything that connects to the computer. This can be input devices
such as keyboards, mice, and scanners; output devices such as monitors and printers; or storage devices
such as hard disks, DVD, and flash drives. All these components connect to the computer using a variety
of different connectors and cables; whether it is USB to connect a printer or HDMI to connect a
computer screen or projector. Some familiar ones are pictured below.

Internal Hardware Components

Computer systems are made up of a number of different hardware components such as a central
processor (CPU), memory (RAM), storage space (HDD) and so on. This is called internal hardware
and usually plugs into a main board called a motherboard.
Devices that sit outside the case are called peripherals and can include printers, scanners, keyboards,
mice, cameras and so on.
There is also removable storage such as memory cards, USB sticks and external hard drives that are
designed to be portable.
Let us start by looking at internal hardware.
Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory)
Computer memory is made up of silicon chips and is the computer’s working area. This is where
software instructions and data are stored.

For example, if you are typing a document in Microsoft Word, both Microsoft Word and your document
are loaded into and stored in the computer’s memory while you are working on it. This is not to be
confused with the Hard Disk. Usually measured in Gigabytes
DRAM or Dynamic Ram needs to be constantly refreshed. SRAM or static RAM is a lot faster because
it does not require to be refreshed. Standard system RAM is DRAM or sDRAM. SRAM is reserved for
cache memory and is mounted onto the motherboard already. To confuse things even more, RAM comes
in different forms: DDR, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4. DDR and DDR2 are old now and being phased out
in favour of DDR3 and DDR4. Most of the latest PCs will use DDR3 & DDR4 RAM.
Notice the positions of the cutout notches along the bottom of the DIMM indicated in red on the
photograph above. This is to make sure only the correct RAM fits in the slot on the motherboard.
RAM speed is also measured in MegaHertz (MHz) and you will likely see this when looking at buying
RAM.
Laptops have their own type of memory. It is more or less the same except for the physical size. These
memory modules are called SO-DIMMs.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
The hard disk (also called a hard drive) is like a filing cabinet and permanently stores all your
documents, photographs, music, your operating system (such as Microsoft windows) and your installed
software (such as Microsoft word). When you start up an application such as Microsoft word, the
Microsoft word software is loaded up off the hard disk into the computer’s memory (or ram), where
you can work on your documents. Usually measured in Gigabytes and Terabytes, e.g., 500GB, 1TB,
4TB. The disk spins at 7200rpm on most modern hard disk drives and connects to your computer’s
motherboard using SATA. Some cheaper drives run at 5400rpm and can be slow on modern computers,
so keep this in mind when buying.

Solid State Drive (SSD)

Performs much like a Hard Disk but is extremely fast and expensive. These drives are being used in
smaller laptops/notebook computers and on some tablet computers where you do not require large
amounts of storage space. These drives can also be useful where you need fast data transfer rates, such
as for video editing, playing games and recording audio/video. These can be over 2TB, however large
capacities are expensive. The average size in use is about 250GB.

CD/ DVD/ Blu-ray Drive

Another dying breed, this drive allows you to play CDs, watch DVDs or BluRay movies that come on
a disk. You can also create your own. Most of these drives have a “writer” function that allows you to
copy your own data onto a blank disk; this could be your photographs, documents, or your home movies.
CPU/Processor
The CPU or processor is the brain of the computer and responds to all the commands you give the
computer. It is one of the primary factors in determining the power of the system. Measured in
Gigahertz, the higher the number, the more powerful the processor.
Modern processors have multiple cores. You might see a dual core or quad core processor. A core is an
independent processing unit, meaning the processor can execute more than one instruction at a time, so
the more cores your processor has, theoretically the faster it is. The operation of most CPUs is to execute
a sequence of stored instructions called a program. The instructions are kept in the computer’s memory
(or RAM). There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: (1) fetch, (2) decode (3)
execute, (4) writeback. Processors running at 2Ghz or more, do this billions of times a second.

Sound Card
A sound card also known as an audio card is an internal expansion card, that facilitates the input and
output of audio signals to and from a computer, providing the audio for multimedia applications such
as music, editing video or audio, presentations, games, and video projection, through a speaker or sound
system. Sound cards are usually integrated into most modern motherboards, using basically the same
components as a plug-in card. The best plug-in cards, which use better and more expensive components,
can achieve higher quality than integrated sound and are usually used in higher end applications such
as audio production, music composition and video editing. Some sound cards have more specialist
connections such as digital output for connecting to sound systems and amplifiers.
Video Card
The video card or graphics card is responsible for processing video, graphic and visual effects seen on
your monitor. Most video cards offer various functions such as accelerated rendering of 3D scenes and
2D graphics, MPEG-2/MPEG-4 decoding, TV output, or the ability to connect multiple monitors. Most
modern motherboards have video cards integrated into them, eliminating the need for a plug-in card.
However, integrated video cards are not usually as high quality as plug in cards. This makes plug in
cards more suited to high end video production, graphics processing and video games. Some plug-in
video cards have more specialist connections such as HDMI, DVI, S-Video or Composite for
connecting to high end televisions, projectors, and monitors.

Inside the Case

All these components connect to a large circuit board called a motherboard and is the main circuit board
found in desktop and laptop computer systems. It holds many of the crucial components, such as the
processor (or CPU) and memory (or RAM) and provides connectors for other peripherals. A typical
desktop computer has its processor (CPU), main memory (RAM), and other essential components
connected to the motherboard. Other components such as storage (hard disc, DVD drive) can be
connected to the drive connectors on the motherboard using cables, as can be seen in the photograph
opposite. Cards for video display and sound may be attached to the motherboard and plug into the
expansion slots. In modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these devices into
the motherboard itself namely video and sound cards.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
The functioning of the computer is not dependent on hardware alone. A set of instructions that tells the
computer what is to be done with the input data is required. In computer terminology, this set of
instructions is called a program and one or more programs are termed as a software.

Computer Software or simply Software is a generic term for organizing collections of computer data
and instructions, often broken into two major categories: System software and Application software.
Classification of Software
Computer software can be put into categories based on common function, type, or field of use. There
are two broad classifications:

1. Application software: Application software is the general designation of computer programs

for performing tasks. The application software may be general purpose (word processing, web
browsers.) or have a specific purpose (accounting, truck scheduling). Features of application
software are as follows: (1) Close to the user (2) Easy to design (3) More interactive (4) Slow
in speed (5) Generally written in high-level language (6) Easy to understand (7) Easy to
manipulate and use (8) Bigger in size and requires large storage space.
2. System software: System software is a generic term referring to the computer programs used
to start and run computer systems including diverse application software and networks. Here
is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software: (1) Close to the system
(2) Fast in speed (3) Difficult to design (4) Difficult to understand (5) Less interactive (6)
Smaller in size (7) Difficult to manipulate (8) Generally written in low-level language.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
The Operating System (OS) is a program with the following features:

✓ An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the
computer hardware.
✓ It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and operations
of the computer.
✓ It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that
reside in the computer, including application programs and other system software.

Objectives of OSs
The objectives of the OS are:
✓ To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
✓ To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
✓ To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 ✓ To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to
access and use other resources.
✓ To manage the resources of a computer system.
✓ To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
✓ To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
Characteristics of OSs
Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating Systems:
✓ Memory Management: Keeps track of the primary memory, that is, what part of it is in use
by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program
requests it.
✓ Processor Management: Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the
processor when it is no longer required.
✓ Device Management: Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that
decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
✓ File Management: Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the
resources.
✓ Security: Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other
similar techniques.
✓ Job Accounting: Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
✓ Control Over System Performance: Records delays between the request for a service and
from the system.
✓ Interaction with the Operators: Interaction may take place via the console of the computer
in the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the
corresponding action, and informs the operation by a display screen.
✓ Error-detecting Aids: Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error-detecting methods.
✓ Coordination Between Other Software and Users: Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

The Five Most Popular OSs:

1. Microsoft Windows, e. g. windows 7, windows 8, windows 8.1, windows 10, etc.
2. Apple macOS, e. g. OS X Yosemite, OS X EI Caption, macOS Sierra, etc.
3. Google’s Android OS e. g. Android 11 (mobile phone), PrimeOS, Chrome OS (PC), etc.
4. Apple iOS e. g. iPhone OS 2, iPhone OS 3, iOS 4, 5,6, 7, etc
5. Linux OS e. g. Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Debian, Fedora, etc.
UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utility programs, commonly referred to as just "utilities," are software programs that add functionality
to your computer or help your computer perform better. These include antivirus, backup, disk repair,
file management, security, and networking programs. Utilities can also be applications such as
screensavers, font and icon tools, and desktop enhancements. Some utility programs help keep your
computer free from unwanted software such as viruses or spyware, while others add functionality that
allows you to customize your desktop and user interface. In general, programs that help make your
computer better are considered utilities.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

1. Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both must work together to
make a computer produce a useful output.
2. Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
3. Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
4. To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware, that is, a device driver is needed.
A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to
your computer. There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-ROM readers,
diskette drives etc. When you buy an operating system, many device drivers are built
into the product.
5. Hardware is a one-time expense.
6. Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
7. Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
8. A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
Hence, if Hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then Software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAMMING AND CONCEPTS
What is a Computer Programming?
Computer programming is the act of writing computer programs, which are a sequence of instructions
written using a Computer Programming Language to perform a specified task by the computer.
Computer Programming is fun and easy to learn provided you adopt a proper approach.
The two important terms that we have used in the above definition:
✓ Sequence of instructions
✓ Computer Programming Language
To understand these terms, consider a situation when someone asks you about how to go to the
Academic Senate building (ASB) here in TASUED. What exactly do you do to tell him the way to go
to ASB?
You will use Human Language to tell the way to go to ASB, something as follows:

First go straight, after half kilometer, take left from at the T-junction and then drive about 200m and
you will find ASB at the left side.

Here, you have used English Language to give several steps to be taken to reach ASB. If they are
followed in the following sequence, then you will reach ASB:

1. Go straight
2. Drive half kilometer
3. Take left at T-junction
4. Drive about 200m
5. Search for ASB at your left side

Now, try to map the situation with a computer program. The above sequence of instructions is
a Human Program written in English Language, which instructs on how to reach ASB from a given
starting point. This same sequence could have been given in Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, or any other human
language, provided the person seeking direction knows any of these languages.

Now, let us go back and try to understand a computer program, which is a sequence of instructions
written in a Computer Language to perform a specified task by the computer. Following is a simple
program written in Python programming Language:

Print “Hello, Class!”

The above computer program instructs the computer to print "Hello, World!" on the computer screen.
Note,
✓ A computer program is also called a computer software, which can range from two lines to
millions of lines of instructions.
✓ Computer program instructions are also called program source code and computer
programming is also called program coding.
✓ A computer without a computer program is just a dump box; it is programs that make
computers active.
As we have developed so many languages to communicate among ourselves, computer scientists have
developed several computer-programming languages to provide instructions to the computer (i.e., to
write computer programs).

Programming Languages
Programming languages are artificial notational languages created or developed to be used in preparing
coded instructions on the computer for later execution by the computer. They are usually composed of
series of usage rules (syntax) that determine the meaning (semantics) of expressions written in the
language. Each programming language comes handy with its own translator; that is, interpreter or
compiler.
As we mentioned earlier, there are hundreds of programming languages, which can be used to write
computer programs and following are a few of them: (1) Java (2) Python (3) MATLAB (4) C (5) C++
(6) Mathematica (7) PHP (8) Perl (9) Ruby (10) LaTeX, and so on

Uses of Computer Programs

Today computer programs are being used in almost every field, household, agriculture, medical,
entertainment, defence, communication, etc. Listed below are a few applications of computer
programs:
✓ MS Word, MS Excel, Adobe Photoshop, Internet Explorer, Chrome, etc., are examples of
computer programs.
✓ Computer programs are being used to develop graphics and special effects in movie making.
✓ Computer programs are being used to perform Ultrasounds, X-Rays, and other medical
examinations.
✓ Computer programs are being used in our mobile phones for SMS, Chat, and voice
communication.

Computer Programmer
A computer programmer is computer scientist (a professional) skilled in using constructs of
programming languages to develop executable and acceptable computer programs. A software
developer is a programmer. Programmers often work hand in hand with system analysts on large
projects. Based on computer programming language expertise, we can name a computer programmer
as follows: C++ programmer, Python programmer, PHP programmer, Java programmer, and so on.

Types of Computer Programming Languages

Computer Programming language can be divided into two types: Low-level Language, and High-level
Language.
1) Low-level Language
✓ Hardware dependent.
✓ Difficult to understand.
Low-level Language can be further divided into two categories:
❖ Machine Language: Machine dependent, difficult to modify or program, For
Example, every CPU has its machine language. The code written in machine language
is the instructions that the processors use.
❖ Assembly Language: Each computer’s microprocessor that is responsible for
arithmetic, logical and control activities need instructions for accomplishing such tasks
and these instructions are in assembly language. The use of assembly language is in
device drivers, low-level embedded systems, and real-time systems.
2) High-level Language
✓ Independent of hardware.
✓ Their codes are very simple, and developers can read, write, and debug as they are similar to
English like statements.
High-level Language can be further divided into three categories.
❖ Procedural Language: Code in the procedural language is a sequential step by step
procedure, that gives information like what to do and how to do. Languages such as
Fortran, Cobol, Basic, C, and Pascal are a few examples of procedural language.
❖ Non-procedural Language: Code in non-procedural language specify what to do but
does not specify how to do. SQL, Prolog, LISP are a few examples of non-procedural
language.
❖ Object-oriented Language: Use of objects in the programming language, where the
code is used to manipulate the data. C++, Java, Ruby, and Python are a few examples
of Object-oriented language.

Five Basic Elements or Operations of Programming

1. Input: Data can be input using the keyboard, touch screen, text editor, etc. For Example, to
book a flight, the user can enter his login credentials and then select a departure date and return
 date, the number of seats, starting place and destination place, Name of Airlines, etc, from
desktop, laptop, or mobile device.
2. Output: Once authenticated, and upon receiving the request to book the tickets with the
mandatory inputs, a confirmation of booking for the selected date and destination will be
displayed on the screen, and a copy of the tickets and invoice information is sent to the user’s
registered email id and mobile number.
3. Arithmetic: In case of flight booking, update of the number of seats booked and those seats
need some mathematical calculations, further name of the passenger, no. of seats reserved, date
of journey, journey start date, and starting place, destination place, etc. should be filled into the
airlines server database system.
4. Conditional: It is required to test if a condition is satisfied or not, based on the condition, the
program may execute the function with parameters else it will not get executed.
5. Looping: It is required to repeat /perform the task until the condition holds. Types of loops can
be While loop, Do-while loop, For loop.

Translators (Compiler, Assembler) and interpreter

Any program that is not written in machine language must be translated in machine language before it
is executed by the computer. The means used for translation are themselves computer programs. There
are three types of translator programs; that is, Assembler, Compilers, and Interpreters.

Assembler: Assembler is a computer program which is used to translate program written in Assembly
Language (low-level language) into machine language. The translated program is called object
program. Assembler checks each instruction for its correctness and generates diagnostic messages if
there are mistakes in the program. The functions and features of the assembler includes:
1. Translate mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents. Assigning machine
addresses to symbolic labels.
2. Assembler directives (or pseudo-instructions) provide instructions to the assembler itself. They
are not translated into machine instructions, e. g. START, END.
3. The output of the assembler program is called the object code or object program.
4. The object code is usually a machine code, also called a machine language, which can be
understood directly by a specific type of CPU (central processing unit), such as x86 (i.e., Intel-
compatible) or PowerPC.
Compiler: A compiler is a program that translates a program written in high-level language (HLL) to
executable machine language (binary which is ones and zeros). The process of transferring HLL source
program into object code is a lengthy and complex process as compared to assembling. Compliers have
diagnostic capabilities and prompt the programmer with appropriate error message while compiling a
HLL program. The corrections are to be incorporated in the program, whenever needed, and the
program must be recompiled. The process is repeated until the program is mistake free and translated
to an object code. The job of a compiler includes:
1. To translate HLL source program to machine codes.
2. To trace variables in the program.
3. To include linkage for subroutines.
4. To allocate memory for storage of program and variables.
5. To generate error messages if there are errors in then program.

High-level languages such as C, C++ and Java compilers are employed. The compiler displays the list
of errors and warnings for the statements violating the syntax rules of the language. Compilers also
have the ability of linking subroutines of the program. Some of examples of Compiler are Microsoft
Visual Studio, BlueJ, Quincy 2005.

Interpreter: The basic purpose of interpreter is same as that of complier. In compiler, the program is
translated completely, and directly executable version is generated. Whereas interpreter translates each
instruction, executes it and then the next instruction is translated, and this goes on until end of the
program (that is, the interpreters convert the source code to machine code line by line). In this case,
object code is not stored and reused. Every time the program is executed, the interpreter translates each
instruction freshly. Java script, pearl, python are the examples of interpreter languages.
Advantage of Interpreter
1. Good at locating errors in programs.
2. Debugging is easier since the interpreter stops when it encounters an error.
3. If an error is deducted there is no need to retranslate the whole program.
Disadvantage of Interpreter
1. Rather slow
2. No object code is produced, so a translation must be done every time the program is running.
3. For the program to run, the Interpreter must be present.

Algorithm

From programming point of view, an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to resolve any problem.
An algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite set of well-defined instructions. Thus, a
computer programmer lists down all the steps required to resolve a problem before writing the actual
code. Following is a simple example of an algorithm to find out the largest number from a given list
of numbers:

1. Get a list of numbers 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ⋯ ⋯ 𝐿𝑁 .

2. Assume 𝐿1 is the largest, Largest =𝐿1
3. Take next number Li from the list and do the following
4. If Largest is less than 𝐿𝑖
5. Largest = 𝐿𝑖
6. If 𝐿𝑖 is last number from the list then
7. Print value stored in Largest and come out
8. Else repeat same process starting from step 3

The above algorithm has been written in a crude way to help beginners understand the concept. You
will come across more standardized ways of writing computer algorithms as you move on to advanced
levels of computer programming.
 COMPUTER MAINTENANCE, SAFETY AND SECURITY

Maintenance
Lifespan of technology (usability before requiring equipment replacement) is increasing, while the cost
of computing technology is dramatically lowering. Hardware and software are still usable years after
purchase; however, computers do require maintenance to work properly.

When people notice their computer’s performance slowing, the most common reason is the hard disk.
Your computer’s hard disk is a non-removable area that holds all the information available from your
computer. Over time, hard disks begin to lose their ability to store data efficiently.

Why is regular maintenance necessary?

It is easy to think computers are so advanced that they do not have the same problems as other machines.
The common misconception is that once a computer is set up properly, it should work perfectly all the
time. The truth is that a computer system is a collection of complex machine and software, including
moving parts that wear out with use (hard drives), that performs trillions of calculations, using hundreds
of parts and wires, and is under constant assault by the processing needs of the applications, unwanted
viruses/spyware, and their own users. Some major reasons why every computer needs regular and
proactive maintenance:
✓ Microsoft and Apple critical security updates need to be applied at least once a month.
✓ Firewall, virus, and spyware protection needs regular review and management.
✓ Simple daily use of the Internet can create random network issues with modem and router
equipment.
✓ Management of backup status and data is critical for data recovery in the event of hard drive
failure.
✓ Management and backup of hard drive resources prevents storage issues and crashes.
✓ Regular optimization of hard drives increases speed and efficiency.
✓ Computers are magnets for dust, and dust clogs fans and heat-sinks. This causes overheating,
which in turn leads to system lockups and hardware failure.
Because of these factors, every computer requires regular service maintenance to keep the big problems
away and maintain optimal performance.

Backing Up Files
With modern operating systems, many backup options are done automatically by the computer and
provide various options to recover files in a crisis. Windows Vista introduced Windows Backup, and
Apple computers use an application called Time Machine. Backups contain a copy of the data saved
on the computer’s hard drive. The only effective form of backup is one that happens with no user input;
it must be automatic with no need to remember to initiate the backup.

“A hard drive error can happen at any time and without warning. A hard drive is the only real ‘moving
part’ in a computer. Picture a hard drive as a record player platter with a needle to read the
data. While your computer is on, this platter spins at 5000-10000 revolutions per minute. After years
of use, the bearings that the platter spins on, simply wear out (there is a reason most drives are only
warrantied for a few years). You can usually hear a hard drive that is going to fail – it starts to make
louder noises. In addition, sudden impacts (such as dropping) will immediately destroy a hard drive –
making laptops especially vulnerable.”

Be sure to back up all your personal and business data on a regular basis. Using an external hard drive
(connected via USB) is usually the simplest method as it can be easily configured using the automatic
backup software included in the operating system.

There are also online backup systems that provide space to store your backup files using the
Internet. iCloud is a cloud storage and cloud computing service from Apple launched in 2011. As of
January 2013, the service has more than 250 million users. The service allows users to store data such
as music and applications on remote computer servers for download to multiple devices such phones,
tablets, and personal computers. It also acts as a data-syncing centre for email, contacts, calendars,
bookmarks, notes, reminders (to-do lists), documents, photos, and other data. Other online backup
system includes Dropbox, google drive, Microsoft OneDrive, etc.
Safety and Security
Changing demographics (aging population, acceptance of technology, children, families, etc.) is
redefining the concept of ‘average’ tech user. Security concerns (hacking, viruses, and malware) are
on the rise as usage increases. More and more often, people simply want and need their devices to work
without worry or aggravation. Personal information is now trusted and stored in electronic devices
connected to the Internet. Sharing sensitive information online, including government forms, taxes,
banking, etc. is now commonplace.

This all means that online and network security is of an all-time level of importance. Technology
devices are no longer toys or products for the young; they are integral parts of the lives of people of all
ages and demographics. We trust our most private and important information to be stored in computers,
and knowing this, wrongdoers are daily creating new tools to steal or corrupt this data.

Protect Your Computer

You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing people think of is to install a virus
protection program (anti-virus), however safe computing habits are often just as important. When
you are accepting software or scripts/macros on Internet sites or reading mail from unknown senders
you are making your computer vulnerable. Scripts or macros are small computer programs that contain
a list of instructions for the computer to perform.
An anti-virus program will be able to check files before you save, to analyse your computer for viruses
and to repair damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. However, you may have to replace
infected files that cannot be repaired.

Antivirus programs automatically download regular updates (called definitions), which keep it up-to-
date and able to deal with new viruses as they are encountered. It is a constant struggle for
manufacturers to stay current with virus updates.

“It is unnecessary to pay for a virus protection program. There are many excellent free programs
available for most operating systems (including Microsoft Security Essentials for Windows and Sophos
for Apple Macintosh computers). A popular misconception is that Apple computers cannot get
viruses. This is not true. Apple computers have such a small market share that most viruses are written
for Windows computers (which are much more plentiful). This means Macs are less vulnerable but not
immune to malware.”

Computer Viruses and Malware

Malware: Malware, short for malicious (or malevolent) software, is software used or created by
attackers to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer
systems. Malware is a general term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software
and includes computer viruses, ransomware, worms, trojan horses, rootkits, keyloggers, spyware,
adware, and other malicious programs. Most active malware threats are usually worms (spread without
human interaction) or Trojans (pretends to be a valid program) rather than viruses. We’ll keep things
simple and just use the popular term ‘virus’.

Virus: A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a certain

unwanted function. It can be very destructive and damage your computer’s programs and files
(software) causing the computer to stop working. Though viruses do not damage computer hardware,
there have been attempts to create programs that will do things like run the hard drive until it fails or to
lodge itself in the computer’s clock (which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even
months after the computer has been unplugged.

The reasons why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. Reasons range from simply to see if
it can be done, to anti-corporate actions, to criminal intent, etc.

Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the software on computers it infects, and it can cost a lot of
time and money to correct it. Computer viruses have been around for a long time (even before
computers became widely used) and they will likely remain with us forever. The main, common feature
of a virus is that it is contagious! Their unifying purpose is to spread and infect other computers.

A computer gets a virus from an infected file. A computer cannot get a virus from a plain text email
message or from a simple text file. That is because the virus needs to be ‘run’ or executed before it can
take effect. This usually happens when the user tries to open an infected program, access an infected
disk, or open a file with an infected macro or script attached to it. A plain email message is made up of
text, which does not execute or run when opened. Modern email programs provide the ability to allow
users to format email messages with HTML and attach scripts to them for various purposes. It is
possible for a malicious hacker to attempt to spread a virus by building a virus script into an HTML
type of email message.

Anti-Virus Software
A lot of this software is sold pre-installed on the machine you buy and is offered on a subscription basis.
So, you will pay to update the software. There are some however that are available for free to home
users. Some of this anti-virus software includes:
1. Windows Defender: Windows 10 comes pre-installed with Windows Defender which is
automatically updated by Microsoft for free. This is the bare essentials and is the minimum
protection against viruses and online threats. This is adequate if you just browse the web and
check your email. If you do online banking or shop online, then you should have a look at some
of the more advanced security software packages.
 2. Avast: Avast scans and detects vulnerabilities in your home network, checks for program
updates, scans files as you open them, emails as they come in and fixes PC performance issues.
3. AVG: AVG blocks viruses, spyware, & other malware, scans web, Twitter, and Facebook links
and warns you of malicious attachments.
Other anti-virus software includes: Norton, McAfee, Panda, Bitdefender, BullGuard, etc.

Firewalls
You should also use a firewall on your computer for added security. A firewall is a system that prevents
unauthorized use and access to your computer. A firewall can be either hardware or software based.
Hardware firewalls provide a strong degree of protection from most forms of attack coming from the
outside world and can be purchased as a stand-alone product or are contained in Internet routers.

For individual home users, the most popular firewall choice is a software firewall (both Windows and
Macintosh operating system software include a software firewall). A good software firewall will
protect your computer from outside attempts to control or gain access your computer.

It is important to remember that on its own a firewall is not going to rid you of your computer virus
problems, but when used in conjunction with regular operating system updates and a good anti-virus
scanning software, it will add some extra security and protection for your computer or network.

Updating Software
It is very important to update your software regularly. When a program is released, particularly Internet
browsers, it may contain flaws (bugs). These bugs may be invisible to the user; however, wrongdoers
will exploit these flaws for their own use. Ensuring your software is up to date is a very important step
in keeping your computer secure.
Internet Safety
With the advent of the Internet, computers users now work in an ‘open-system’ and security has become
more complicated. You want to be sure that no one observes the transaction and collects or modifies
your transaction information; you want to be sure that the transaction is secure.

This is where computer security comes in. There are many different types of security systems though
most use a process called encryption. When you connect to your bank or other service to make a
transaction you are often required to send your account number or username as well as a Personal
Identification Number (PIN) or password for verification. This information should only be sent after
establishing a secure connection. If you are using an Internet browser, you will see a small closed lock
appear in the window of the browser.

The transaction often involves the exchange of a small file that keeps track of the transaction and can
act a flag or bookmark when you next visit that website. These small files are called cookies and are set
by the website you are visiting.

A cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is usually a small piece of
data sent from a website and stored in a user’s web browser while a user is browsing a website. When
the user browses the same website in the future, the data stored in the cookie can be retrieved by the
website to notify the website of the user’s previous activity. Cookies were designed to be a reliable
mechanism for websites to remember the state of the website or activity the user had taken in the past.
Cookies perform essential functions in the modern Web, including authentication cookies to verify a
user’s identity and if they are logged in.

Although cookies cannot carry viruses, and cannot install malware on the host computer, tracking
cookies and especially third-party tracking cookies are commonly used as ways to compile long-term
records of individuals’ browsing histories - a major privacy concern that prompted European and US.

Improving Slow Computer Performance

A slow computer system can be so frustrating to the use most especially when a task must be completed
urgently. There are different measures that can be carried out to improve the performance of a slow
computer system or to prevent such system from becoming unnecessarily slow. Some of these measures
includes:
1. Dust Control: Dust is very harmful for computer parts. Excess dust can cause mechanical
failures, particularly on computer components with moving parts. Computers should be dusted
regularly by using compressed air machines.
2. Disk Defragmenter: Used to organize files on the hard drive and optimize free space,
improving speed and performance of the computer. Some applications may fail outright if the
disk becomes too fragmented.
 Scan Disk/Check Now: For hard disk faults, use scan disk/check now to scan the hard disk for
faults and even repair them if possible. This option will check the Hard disk for errors.
3. Excess and Unused Files: As a hard disk becomes full, the computer’s performance is reduced.
It takes more time to find, and access needed files. Defragmentation is not as successful due to
a lack of free space to temporarily move files to while they are being rearranged. Therefore, it
is wise for a computer user not to keep files that are no longer needed. Files that have been
stored in a user’s documents folder that are no longer needed (such as extra photos or older
versions of documents) should be deleted.
Disk Cleanup: The Disk Cleanup Utility can determine which files on your hard drive may no
longer be needed and delete those files. In addition to freeing up potentially significant amounts
of hard drive space. Using this utility regularly can improve system performance.
4. Deleting Browsing History: The browser stores the recent history of the web pages that the
user has viewed. This makes it easier to find and load these web pages again. The browser also
stores other small bits of information such as the data entered into forms and usernames or
passwords if a user has asked a web page to “remember me” (although this is not a good idea
for shared computers). This stored information can be easily deleted.
5. Startup folder: Some programs will automatically put a shortcut in the Startup folder, forcing
the program to automatically launch when you turn the computer on or log in. Sometimes this
is desirable, sometimes not. Either way, this practice may slow your computer down to various
degrees, and with the program running all the time, may slow down the performance of your
computer. Thus, delete some of the programs in the Startup folder.
6. Software Inventory: Once the hard disk becomes full, a computer’s performance is reduced.
To avoid installing software that are not necessary, system inventory will require you knowing
what software is needed/wanted on your computer.
7. Overheating: Excessive heat can cause a significant decrease in computer performance. To
cool down an overheated computer processor, avoid operating the computer if the case is in an
enclosed space such as a drawer or cupboard. Also cool the room with fans or air-conditioning
and verify that all the fans in the computer case are functioning properly. Note: Modern
computers have safeguards that shut down the system if a component is overheating.
8. Insufficient RAM: Computer need sufficient RAM to perform the desired functions once the
memory is not sufficient. The performance will be slow. This problem is most likely if the
computer is rather old and has had a newer (and more memory demanding) operating system
installed.
9. Avoid opening too many programs at a (me. It will reduce the performance of the computer.
10. Check any malfunctions of peripherals.
NOTE, one important hint to also keep in mind when you are using a computer is to be patient.
Sometimes the computer has to “think” too! (process).
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA PROCESSING
Whether you use the internet to learn about a certain topic, complete financial transactions online, order
food, etc., data is being generated every single second. The use of social media, online shopping and
video streaming services have all added to the increase in the amount of data. A study in 2020 estimates
that 1.7MB data is created every second for every human being on the planet. And to utilize and get
insights from such a huge amount of data - data processing comes into play.

What is Data Processing?

Data in its raw form is not useful to any organization. Data processing is the method of collecting raw
data and translating it into usable information. It is usually performed in a step-by-step process by a
team of data scientists and data engineers in an organization. The raw data is collected, filtered, sorted,
processed, analysed, stored, and then presented in a readable format.

Data processing is crucial for organizations to create better business strategies and increase their
competitive edge. By converting the data into a readable format like graphs, charts and documents,
employees throughout the organization can understand and use the data.

Data Processing Cycle

The data processing cycle consists of a series of steps where raw data (input) is fed into a process (CPU)
to produce actionable insights (output). Each step is taken in a specific order, but the entire process is
repeated in a cyclic manner. The first data processing cycle's output can be stored and fed as the input
for the next cycle. Generally, there are six main steps in the data processing cycle:
Step 1: Collection. The collection of raw data is the first step of the data processing cycle. The type of
raw data collected has a huge impact on the output produced. Hence, raw data should be gathered from
defined and accurate sources so that the subsequent findings are valid and usable. Raw data can include
monetary figures, website cookies, profit/loss statements of a company, user behaviour, etc.

Step 2: Preparation. Data preparation or data cleaning is the process of sorting and filtering the raw
data to remove unnecessary and inaccurate data. Raw data is checked for errors, duplication,
miscalculations, or missing data, and transformed into a suitable form for further analysis and
processing. This is done to ensure that only the highest quality data is fed into the processing unit.

Step 3: Input. In this step, the raw data is converted into machine readable form and fed into the
processing unit. This can be in the form of data entry through a keyboard, scanner, or any other input
source.

Step 4: Data Processing. In this step, the raw data is subjected to various data processing methods using
machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms to generate a desirable output. This step may
vary slightly from process to process depending on the source of data being processed (data lakes, online
databases, connected devices, etc.) and the intended use of the output.

Step 5: Output. The data is finally transmitted and displayed to the user in a readable form like graphs,
tables, vector files, audio, video, documents, etc. This output can be stored and further processed in the
next data processing cycle.

Step 6: Storage. The last step of the data processing cycle is storage, where data and metadata are stored
for further use. This allows for quick access and retrieval of information whenever needed and allows
it to be used as input in the next data processing cycle directly.

Types of Data Processing

There are different types of data processing based on the source of data and the steps taken by the
processing unit to generate an output. There is no one-size-fits-all method that can be used for
processing raw data.
1. Batch Processing: Data is collected and processed in batches. Used for large amounts of data,
e. g. payroll systems.
2. Real-time Processing: Data is processed within seconds when the input is given. Used for small
amounts of data, e. g. withdrawing money from ATMs.
3. Online Processing: Data is automatically fed into the CPU as soon as it becomes available.
Used for continuous processing of data, e. g. barcode scanning.
 4. Multiprocessing: Data is broken down into frames and processed using two or more CPUs
within a single computer system. Also known as parallel processing, e. g. weather forecasting
5. Time-sharing Processing: Allocates computer resources and data in time slots to several users
simultaneously. For example, a mainframe computer that has many users logged on.

Data Processing Methods

There are three main data processing methods - manual, mechanical and electronic.
Manual Data Processing: In this data processing method, data is processed manually. The entire
process of data collection, filtering, sorting, calculation, and other logical operations are all done with
human intervention without the use of any other electronic device or automation software. It is a low-
cost method and requires little to no tools, but produces high errors, high labour costs and lots of time.

Mechanical Data Processing: Data is processed mechanically using devices and machines. These can
include simple devices such as calculators, typewriters, printing press, etc. Simple data processing
operations can be achieved with this method. It has much lesser errors than manual data processing, but
the increase of data has made this method more complex and difficult.

Electronic Data Processing: Data is processed with modern technologies using data processing
software and programs. A set of instructions is given to the software to process the data and yield output.
This method is the most expensive but provides the fastest processing speeds with the highest reliability
and accuracy of output.

General Examples of Data Processing

Data processing occurs in our daily lives whether we may be aware of it or not. Here are some real-life
examples of data processing:
✓ A stock trading software that converts millions of stock data into a simple graph.
✓ An e-commerce company uses the search history of customers to recommend similar products.
✓ A digital marketing company uses demographic data of people to strategize location-specific
campaigns.
✓ A self-driving car uses real-time data from sensors to detect if there are pedestrians and other
cars on the road.

Advantages of Data Processing

✓ Cost of managing data is reduced. It aids decision making and data storage.
✓ Processing of data reduces paperwork and helps in reducing cost as the management of
documents is costly.
✓ Helps in document management, enables use of integrated process and integrated system.
 ✓ Ability to search in a document saves time. In addition to this, it improves the internal and
external collaboration.
✓ The famous software product such as Ms. Office is using the electronic data processing concept.
The EDP has the facility to reduce the duplication of effort, repeated entries and make decisions.
✓ Provides effective control, increases data security, manages information assets, and creates
effective workflows.

Disadvantages of Data Processing

✓ Electronic form of data is susceptible to hacking attempts. Increased cases of cybercrimes make
it important and essential to think about data security and access control. If the various devices
of an information system are connected in a network, then any flaw or loophole in single part
of the system might affect the whole network.
✓ You might be required to keep data in encrypted form. This is particularly important when
dealing with sensitive data and storing it in data centers since the data is transmitted over a
network.