Lecture -5

Tillage- Objectives and types. Furrow terminology and methods of ploughing. Field
capacity and field efficiency
Tillage

The operation, practice, or art of tilling or preparing land for seed, and keeping
the ground in a proper state for the growth of crops.

It is a mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favourable condition for crop

production. Soil tillage consists of breaking the compact surface of earth to a certain
depth and to loosen the soil mass, so as to enable the roots of the crops to penetrate and
spread into the soil.
Objective of Tillage
 to obtain deep seed bed, suitable for different type of crops.
 to add more humus and fertility to soil by covering the vegetation.
 to destroy and prevent weeds.
 to aerate the soil for proper growth of crops.
 to increase water absorbing capacity of the soil.
 to destroy the insects, pests and their breeding places and
 to reduce the soil erosion.
Classification and types of Tillage
Tillage is divided into two classes: i) Primary tillage, ii) Secondary tillage.
Primary tillage
It constitutes the initial major soil working operation. It is normally designed to
reduce soil strength, cover plant materials and rearrange aggregates. The operations
performed to open up any cultivable land with a view to prepare a seed bed for growing
crops is known as primary tillage. Implements may be tractor drawn or animal drawn
implements. Animal drawn implements mostly include indigenous plough and mould-
board plough. Tractor drawn implements include mould-board plough, disc plough,
subsoil plough, chisel plough and other similar implements.
Secondary tillage
 Tillage operations following primary tillage which are performed to create proper
soil tilth for seeding and planting are secondary tillage.
These are lighter and finer operations, performed on the soil after primary tillage
operations. Secondary tillage consists of conditioning the soil to meet the different tillage
objectives of the farm. The implements used for secondary tillage operations are called
secondary tillage implements. They include different types of harrow, cultivators,
levellers, clod crushers and similar implements. These operations are generally done on
the surface soil of the farm. Secondary tillage operations do not cause much soil
inversion and shifting of soil from one place to other. These operations consume less
power per unit area compared to primary tillage operations. The main objectives of
secondary tillage operations are
 To pulverize the soil of the seedbeds in the field.
 To destroy grasses and seeds in the field.
 To cut crop residues and mix them with top soil of the field and
 To break the big clods and to make the field surface uniform and levelled.
Secondary tillage implements may be tractor drawn or bullock drawn implements.
Bullock drawn implements include harrows, cultivators, hoes etc.
Types of Tillage
There are various types of tillage.
Minimum Tillage - It is the minimum soil manipulation necessary to meet tillage
requirements for crop production.
Strip Tillage - It is a tillage system in which only isolated bands of soil are tilled.
Rotary Tillage -It is the tillage operations employing rotary action to cut, break and mix
the soil.
Mulch Tillage -It is the preparation of soil in such a way that plant residues or other
mulching materials are specially left on or near the surface.
Combined Tillage -Operations simultaneously utilizing two or more different types of
tillage tools or implements to simplify, control or reduce the number of operations over a
field are called combined tillage. Tillage is performed by tool, implement or machine.
Tool - It is an individual working element such as disc or shovel.
Implement - It is an equipment generally having no driven moving parts, such as
harrow or having only simple mechanism such as plough.
Machine -It is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies having definite motions and
capable of performing useful work.
Plough - The main implement for primary tillage is plough used for ploughing
operations. Ploughing is the primary tillage operations, which is performed to cut, break
and invert the soil partially or completely. Ploughing essentially means opening the upper
crust of the soil, breaking the clods and making the soil suitable for sowing seeds. The
purpose of ploughing can be summarized as below

 To obtain a deep seed bed of good texture.

 To increase the water holding capacity of the soil.
 To improve soil aeration.
 To destroy weeds and grasses.
 To destroy insects and pests.
 To prevent soil erosion and
 To add fertility to the soil by covering vegetation.
Normal Ploughing: It is the ploughing up to a depth of about 15 cm.
Contour Ploughing: It is the method of ploughing in which the soil broken and turned
along the contours.
Ploughing of Land
The ploughing of land separate the top layer of soil into furrow slices. The
furrows are turned sideways and inverted to a varying degree, depending upon the type of
plough being used. It is a primary tillage operation, which is performed to shatter soil
uniformly with partial or complete soil inversion. There are a few important terms
frequently used in connection with ploughing of land.
 Fig.1. Plough furrow

(i) Furrow -It is a trench formed by an implement in the soil during the field operation
(Fig.1a ).
(ii) Furrow slice - The mass of soil cut, lifted and thrown to one side is called furrow
slice.
(iii) Furrow wall - It is an undisturbed soil surface by the side of a furrow.
(iv) Crown - The top portion of the turned furrow slice is called crown.
(v) Back furrow - A raised ridge left at the centre of the strip of land when ploughing is
started from centre to side is called back furrow. When the ploughing is started in the
middle of a field, furrow is collected across the field and while returning trip another
furrow slice is lapped over the first furrow. This is the raised ridge which is named as
back furrow (Fig.1b ).
(vi) Dead furrow - An open trench left in between two adjacent strips of land after
finishing the ploughing is called dead furrow (Fig.1c).
(vii) Head land - While ploughing with a tractor to turn, a strip of un ploughed land is
left at each end of the field for the tractor to turn, that is called head land. At the end of
each trop, the plough is lifted until the tractor and the plough have turned and are in
position to start the return trip. The head land is about 6 metres for two or three bottom
tractor plough and one metre more for each additional furrow.
Methods of ploughing
In order to provide furrows at all times on the right hand side of the plough two
method of working are used a) Gathering b) Casting.
 Fig 2a. Gathering b. Castering
a) Gathering - Whenever a plough works round a strip of ploughed land, it is said to be
gathering (Fig.2a).
b) Casting - Whenever a plough works round a strip of un ploughed land, it is said to be casting
(Fig.2b).
Ploughing of a field by casting or gathering alone is normally uneconomical. The
following are a few important methods used in tractor ploughing.
i) Continuous ploughing method and ii) Round and round ploughing
Continous ploughing method
In normal conditions, the continuous ploughing method is considered very
convenient and economical. This is a method usually used in which the tractor and
plough never run idle for more than three quarter land width along the headland and
never turn in a space narrower than a quarter land width. In this method, first the
headland is marked and the first ridge is set up at three quarter of a land width from the
side (Fig. a). The other ridges are set at full width over the field. The operator starts
ploughing between the first ridge and the side land. The operator continues to turn left
and cast in the three quarter land until a quarter land width of ploughing is completer on
each side (Fig. b). At this stage, it is important to lift the plough to half depth for last trip
down the side land of the field. This leaves a shallow furrow where the finish comes.
 Fig.3 Continuous ploughing method
After this, the driver turns right and gathers round the land already ploughed on
the first ridge. Gathering is continued till the un ploughed strip in first three-quarter land
has been ploughed and completed. This gathering reduces the first full land by a quarter
(Fig. c). The remaining three quarter land can be treated in exactly the same manner as
the original three quarter land. This process is repeated for all other lands in the field.
(ii) Round and round ploughing
In this method, the plough moves round and round a field. This system is adopted
under conditions where ridges and furrows interfere with cultivation work. The field can
be started in two ways.
a) Starting at the centre
A small plot of land is marked in the middle of the field and it is ploughed first.
After that, the plough works round this small plot and the entire plot is completed. This is
not a very economical method.
b) Starting at the outer end
Tractor starts ploughing at one end of the field and then moves on all the sides of
the plot and comes gradually from the sides to the centre of the field. Wide diagonals are
left unploughed to avoid turning with the plough. There are no back furrows in this
method. Conventional ploughing is usually done by this method.
One way ploughing
This system requires the use of a special type of plough known as reversible
plough or one way plough. Such a plough turns furrows to the left or right. After the
headland has been marked, the operator plough along a straight side land mark. At the
end of the first trip, he turns his tractor in a loop and returns down the same furrow. No
dead and back furrows are left in the field. In gently sloping fields, this method is
suitable.
Theoretical field capacity
It is the rate of field coverage of the implement, based on 100 per cent of time at
the rated speed and covering 100 per cent of its rated width.
w idth (cm) x speed (metre / sec) x 36
Theoretical field capacity in hectares / hr = 10000

Effective field capacity

 It is the actual area covered by the implement based on its total time consumed
and its width.
Field efficiency
It is the ratio of effective field capacity and theoretical field capacity expressed in
percent.
Effectifive field capacity
Field efficiency = x 100
Theoretica l field capacity

Effective field capacity is calculated as follows

Sx W E
C= x
10 100

Where
C = effective field capacity, hectare per hr.
S = speed of travel in km per hour.
W = theoretical width of cut of the machine in metre, and
E = field efficiency in per cent.
No. of weeds before ploughing in a fixed area -

No.of w eeds after ploughing in the same area

Soil inversion = x 100
No.of w eeds before ploughing in the same area

Soil pulverization
It is the quality of work in terms of soil aggregates and clod size. This is measured
by penetrometer.

Model questions:
i. List the animal drawn primary tillage implements and mention its
advantages.
ii. Mention the advantages of iron plough over country plough.
iii. Define Theoretical field capacity.
iv. Define Effective field capacity.
v. Define field efficiency
vi. List Objectives of Tillage
 vi. Differentiate casting and gathering.
vii. Mention furrow terminologies
viii. What do you mean by soil pulverization.
ix. Define conservation tillade
x. Define mulch tillage
Model questions- Objective type

1. Preparation of soil in such a way that crop residues and other mulching materials
are left on the surface is called
a. minimum tillage b. strip tillage c. rotary tillage d. mulch tillage

2. The open trench left in between two adjacent strips of land after finishing the
ploughing is called
a. dead furrow b. back furrow c. head land d. crown

3. Theoretical field capacity of a double action disc harrow is 1.0 ha/h. Field
efficiency is 80 %. What is the actual field capacity?
a. 1.0 ha/h b. 1.5 ha/h c. 0.5 ha/h d. 0.8 ha/h

4. Soil tillage consists of breaking compact surface of soil to certain depth and
loosening the soil True / False

5. Whenever a plough works round a strip of un ploughed land it is called casting

True / False

6. When a plough works round a strip of ploughed land it is called as Casting

True / False