SS1 TERM TWO

WEEK TOPIC OBJECTIVE

1 Computer Network Student should be able to:
 Define computer network
 identify the various criteria for classifying networks (proximity, architecture, etc.)
 list out types of networks under each class and explain in details
 describe the differences between a LAN, a WLAN, a PAN and a WAN
 define network topology
 identify and state the uses of network devices such routers, switches, hub, wireless Access point, modem,
NIC, cables, connectors etc.
 understand how a router works and its purpose
 describe how networks and individual computers connect to the internet
 describe how a router stores computer addresses
 describe how it routes data packets
 understand the use of other common network devices, including: network interface cards, hubs, bridges,
switches, modems
 understand the use of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth in networks
 describe how computers can use Wi-Fi/Bluetooth to connect to a network
 compare and contrast Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
 understand how to set up and configure a small network (LAN & WAN), this involves access to the
internet, the use of a browser, the use of email, access to an ISP
 define what the internet, intranet and extranet.
 describe the differences between an intranet, extranet and the internet
 Explain the purpose of an intranet, extranet and internet and how they differ.
 understand the advantages and disadvantages of using different types of computer to access the internet
 compare the advantages and disadvantages of using laptop computers, desktop computers, tablet
computers and mobile phones to access the internet
 define communication protocol
 list stages of the TCP/IP, OSI model

2 Data transmission Student should be able to:

 Understand the meaning of data transmission
 Distinguish between serial and parallel data transmission
 Distinguish between simplex, half-duplex, full duplex modes of data transmission.
 Show understanding of the reason for choosing serial and parallel data transmission.
 Understand the use of parallel and serial data transmission in USBs and ICs and other e.gs.
 Define data transmission error
 identify types of data transmission errors. (single bit, multiple bits)
 Describe error checking methods
 List error checking methods

Communication and Internet Technology

3 Network Student should be able to:
communication using  describe facsimile communication and describe the differences between physical faxing (which does not
the internet require the use of a network) and electronic faxing (which does require the use of a network)
 describe email communication, including the use of attachments
 describe the advantages and disadvantages of using email compared with faxing
 describe virtual meetings
 identify types of virtual meeting (Teleconference & Web conference
 describe Teleconference and its types (video-conferencing and Audio conference including the hardware
used)
 describe audio-conferencing with examples
 describe web-conferencing and how it can be linked to either video or audio-conferencing
 describe text, video chat with examples
 describe video chat and how it can be linked to text and audio chat
 differentiate instant chat from SMS and MMS

4 Audience Student should be able to:

 show a clear sense of audience when planning and creating ICT solutions
 analyze the needs of an audience
 explain why solutions must meet the needs of the audience
5 Data, Information Student should be able to:
and network security  Define computer security
 Identify levels of security (physical, application, system)
 Identify types of data to secure (At rest, I use, in transit)
 Itemize techniques to secure data at rest (Authentication which is password, pins, patterns, OTP, TOTP,
biometrics, back-ups, etc)
 Itemize techniques to secure data in transit (tokens, encryption, digital certificate,)
 Itemize hardware tools used in security (anti-virus, OS patches, last pass etc.)
  Itemize software tools used in security (anti-virus, firewalls OS patches, last pass etc.)
 Define assets.
 Identify threats
 Identify vulnerabilities and suggest ways to counter and correct the vulnerabilities before they cause
harms.
 explain the need for copyright legislation and the principles of copyright relating to computer software
(e.g. software piracy)
 describe methods that software producers employ to prevent software copyright being broken
 discuss the legal, moral, ethical and cultural implications of creating an ICT solution
 create ICT solutions that are responsive to and respectful of the needs of the audience
 discuss why the internet is not policed (although legislation is enforced in some countries) and the effects
of this, including the existence of inappropriate sites
 list the principles of a typical data protection act

6 Effects of IT on Student should be able to:

employment  Definition of Employment
 Types of jobs/professions/careers
 Effect of IT on jobs/professions/careers
 describe how there has been a reduction of employment in offices, as workers’ jobs have been replaced
by computers in a number of fields (e.g. payroll workers, typing pools, car production workers)
 describe how there has been an increase in employment in other fields (e.g. website designers, computer
programmers, delivery drivers in retail stores)
 describe how the use of computers has led to a number of employees changing their working patterns
(e.g. part-time working, flexible hours, job sharing, compressed hours)
 describe what is meant by part-time working, flexible hours, job sharing, compressed hours

7 ICT applications in Student should be able to:

communication  describe a range of communication applications (e.g. newsletters, websites, multimedia presentations,
music scores, cartoons, flyers and posters)
 describe the use of mobile phones for communication (e.g. text messaging, phone calls, accessing the
internet)
 describe the use of internet telephony, including Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP)
 describe applications for publicity and corporate image publications (e.g. business cards, letterheads,
flyers and brochures)
 describe the use of a range of data handling applications (e.g. surveys, address lists, clubs and society
records, school reports and school libraries)
8 Student should be able to:
 describe a range of measurement applications (e.g. scientific experiments, weather stations)
 explain the difference between analogue data and digital data
 explain the need for conversion between analogue and digital data
 describe the use of microprocessors and computers in a number of applications (e.g. pollution
monitoring, intensive care units in hospitals)
 discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using computers in measurement rather than humans.
 describe the role of a microprocessor or computer in control applications, including the role of the pre-
set value
 describe the use of computer control in applications (e.g. turtle graphics, automatic washing machines,
automatic cookers, computer controlled central heating systems, burglar alarms, computer controlled
glasshouse)
 describe the use of computer modelling in spreadsheets (e.g. for personal finance)
 describe a range of computer controlled applications (e.g. robotics in manufacture and production line
control)
9 Student should be able to:
 discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using computer controlled systems rather than humans
 describe how systems are used to manage learner registration and attendance
 describe how systems can be used to record learner performance
 describe how systems can be used for organizing examinations, creating timetables and
 managing teaching cover/substitution
 describe the positive effects microprocessors have on aspects of lifestyle (e.g. the amount and use of
leisure time, the degree of social interaction, the ability to leave the home)
 describe the negative effects microprocessors have on aspects of lifestyle (e.g. lack of exercise)
 describe repetitive strain injury (RSI) and what causes it
 identify other health issues (e.g. back problems, eye problems, headaches)
 describe some simple strategies for preventing these problems
 evaluate the use of IT equipment and develop strategies to minimize the health risks
 identify areas where booking systems are used (e.g. travel industry, theatre and cinemas)
 describe the online processing involved in booking tickets
10 Student should be able to:
 discuss the advantages and disadvantages of online booking systems
 describe the computer processing involved in Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT)
 describe the computer processing involved in using automatic teller machines (ATM) (e.g. withdrawing
cash, depositing cash or cheques, checking account balance, mini statements, mobile/cellphone
recharge/top up, bill paying, money transfers, ordering paper-based goods)
 describe the use of processing credit/debit card transactions
 describe the clearing of cheques
 describe phone banking
 describe internet banking, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of it
 describe the contents of information systems in medicine (including patient records, pharmacy records,
monitoring and expert systems for diagnosis)
 describe how 3D printers can be used in producing medical aids (e.g. surgical and diagnostic aids,
development of prosthetics and medical products, tissue engineering, artificial blood vessels and the
design of medical tools and equipment)
 describe the files used in libraries (e.g. records of books and borrowers)
 describe the computer processing involved in the issue of books, including the use of direct data entry
methods
 describe the automatic processing involved in issuing reminders for overdue books
 identify a range of applications which use expert systems (e.g. mineral prospecting, car engine fault
diagnosis, medical diagnosis, chess games)
 identify the components of an expert system (e.g. interactive user interface, inference engine, rules base,
knowledge base)
COMPUTER NETWORK
Introduction
We reside in an interconnected global environment where information is
produced, shared, and tracked in real-time across the world. This is achievable
because nearly everyone and everything in the digital realm is interlinked in
various ways.
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers and other devices (such as printers, scanners,
and routers) that are able to communicate and share resources with each other. The purpose of a computer
network is to allow for the sharing of information and resources, such as files, software applications, and
internet connectivity.

Evolution of Networking
 ARPANET (1969):
 The ARPANET, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA), is considered the precursor to the modern internet.
 It was the first network to use the packet-switching technique, dividing data into packets for
more efficient transmission.
 Ethernet (1973):
 Ethernet, developed by Xerox PARC, was a pioneering technology for local area networks
(LANs).
 It allowed computers to communicate over a shared coaxial cable using the Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite (1970s):
 The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) became the standard for
networking, ensuring interoperability between diverse networks.
 TCP/IP remains the foundation of the internet's architecture.
 Commercialization and Expansion (1980s):
 The 1980s saw the commercialization of networking technologies, with companies like Cisco
playing a crucial role in the development of network hardware.
 LANs became more widespread, and networking protocols continued to evolve.
 World Wide Web (1990s):
 The invention of the World Wide Web by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 revolutionized
information sharing and communication over the internet.
 The use of browsers and the HTTP protocol made the internet accessible to a broader
audience.
  Broadband and High-Speed Internet (2000s):
 The 2000s witnessed the widespread adoption of broadband internet, enabling faster and more
reliable connections.
 Technologies like DSL, cable, and fiber-optic broadband became popular, contributing to
improved internet experiences.
 Wireless Networking (2000s-2010s):
 The proliferation of wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi, allowed users to connect to
networks without physical cables.
 Mobile networks, including 3G, 4G, and eventually 5G, transformed how people access the
internet on mobile devices.
 Cloud Computing (2010s):
 Cloud computing emerged as a paradigm, enabling users to access computing resources and
services over the internet.
 Virtualization and distributed computing became integral to network architectures.
 Internet of Things (IoT):
 The IoT involves connecting everyday devices to the internet, enabling them to collect and
exchange data.
 IoT applications span various industries, from smart homes to industrial automation.
 5G and Beyond (2020s and Beyond):
 The rollout of 5G networks promises even faster and more reliable wireless communication,
facilitating the growth of IoT, augmented reality, and other emerging technologies.
 Continued advancements in networking technologies are likely to shape the future, including
quantum networking and improvements in network security.
The evolution of computer networks has been characterized by a constant quest for faster, more reliable, and
scalable communication technologies to meet the increasing demands of an interconnected world.
Types of Networks based on Proximity
Computer networks can be classified according to their geographical scope, the way they are organized, and
the protocols they use to transmit data. The most common types of computer networks include:
Personal Area Network (PAN)
It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like computers,
laptops, mobile phones, smart phones, printers etc., as shown in Figure
below. All these devices lie within an approximate range of 10 meters. A
personal area network may be wired or wireless. For example, a mobile phone
connected to the laptop through USB forms a wired PAN while two
smartphones communicating with each other through Bluetooth technology
form a wireless PAN or WPAN.
Local Area Network (LAN)
It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, tablet, mouse,
printer, etc., placed at a limited distance. The geographical area covered
by a LAN can range from a single room, a floor, an office having one or
more buildings in the same premise, laboratory, a school, college, or
university campus. The connectivity is done by means of wires, Ethernet
cables, fibre optics, or Wi-Fi.

LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic users in the network can

access other computers or shared resources. Users can print documents
using a connected printer, upload/download documents and software to and
from the local server. Such LANs provide the short-range communication
with the high-speed data transfer rates. These types of networks can be
extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite high, and usually varies
from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit Ethernet),
A Local Area Network
where Mbps stands for Megabits per second. Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how computers and other
devices connect with each other through cables in a local area network or LAN.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): A WLAN is a type of LAN that uses wireless connections to link
devices within a limited area, such as a home, office, or public space.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN,
which covers a larger geographical area like a city, town or a
metropolitan area. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps, but
it is considerably less as compared to LAN. Cable TV network or cable
based broadband internet services are examples of MAN. This kind of
network can be extended up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are
connected together to form MAN,
Wide Area Network
Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and MANs,
which are spread across different geographical locations of a country
or in different countries or continents. A WAN could be formed by
connecting a LAN to other LANs via wired/wireless media. Large
business, educational and government organisations connect their
different branches in different locations across the world through
WAN. The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones and millions of
LANs from different continents.
Types of Network based on Architecture or functional relationship, computer network can be
categorized into:
Client-Server Network: A client-server network is a network architecture in which one or more computers
(servers) provide services to other computers (clients) on the network.

Peer-to-Peer Network: A peer-to-peer network is a network architecture in which all computers on the
network can act as both clients and servers, allowing for the sharing of resources among all the computers.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network topology is the layout of the connections or physical or logical arrangement of computers in a
network. Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.
Mesh Topology
In this networking topology, each communicating device is connected with every
other device in the network as shown in diagram, such a network can handle large
amounts of traffic since multiple nodes can transmit data simultaneously. In
addition, such networks are more reliable in the sense that even if a node gets
down, it does not cause any break in the transmission of data between other
nodes. This topology is also more secure as compared to other topologies because
each cable between two nodes carries different data. However, wiring is complex,
cabling cost is high in creating such networks, and there are many redundant or
unutilised connections.

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each node is connected to two other devices, one each on either
side. The nodes connected with each other thus forms a ring. The link in a ring
topology is unidirectional. Thus, data can be transmitted in one direction only
(clockwise or counterclockwise).
Bus Topology
In bus topology, each communicating device connects to a transmission medium, known as bus. Data sent
from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are transmitted to the length of the bus in both directions.
That means, data can be received by any of the nodes connected to the bus.
In this topology, a single backbone wire called bus is shared among the nodes, which makes it cheaper and
easier to maintain. Both ring and bus topologies are considered to be less secure and less reliable.
Star Topology
In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a central node,
which is a networking device like a hub or a switch. Star topology is
considered very effective, efficient and fast as each device is directly
connected with the central device. Although disturbance in one device will
not affect the rest of the network, any failure in a central networking device
may lead to the failure of complete network. A star topology The central
node can be either a broadcasting device means data will be transmitted to
all the nodes in the network, or a unicast device means the node can identify
the destination and forward data to that node only.

Tree or Hybrid Topology

It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple branches and each branch can
have one or more basic topologies like star, ring and bus. Such topologies are usually
realised in WANs where multiple LANs are connected. Those LANs may be in the
form of a ring, bus or star. In figure 10.19, a hybrid topology is shown connecting 4-
star topologies in a bus. In this type of network, data transmitted from source first
reaches the centralised device and from there the data passes through every branch
where each branch can have links for more nodes.

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER NETWORK

The following are the essential components of a computer network:
 Hub: The hub is a device that connects all the computers in a network. In a hub, data arrives in one or
more direction and is forwarded in one or more directions. The hub floods data to all its connected
devices except the port from which the data originates

 Switch: The switch is also a device that connects computers to a network. It sends data only to the
computer that the data is intended for. It transmits data back and forth i.e. in both directions at the same
time, hence the switch is said to be a full duplex device. The switch identifies every node on it by the
Media Access Control (MAC) Address. Unlike the hub that forwards the data packet to all connected
devices, the switch forwards to specific device. A frame is a data type forwarded by a switch or a hub.

 Routers: The router is a network device that connects multiple networks. The router contains the
routing table, which contains all the IP addresses and the paths to the networks. Hence, the router selects
the best path to a network when sending packets to that network.

 Client computer: A client computer is a computer that accesses the service made available by a server.
The server is often on another computer system, in which case the client accesses the service by way
of a network. The term applies to the role that programs or devices play in the client–server model.

 Server computers: These computers provide shared resources. Usually they run server version of OS
such as Windows Server 2003, 2012, Linux and NetWare.

 Modem: (Modulation-demodulation) is a computer peripheral that converts digital signals to analog

signals, this process is called modulation while the conversion of analog signal into digital signal is
called demodulation. A modem could be internal such as a card inserted into a slot in the system unit
or external with its own case outside the computer.

 Network Interface Card: Network Interface Card (NIC) or Network adapter is a device that enables
a computer to communicate with other computer/network using unique hardware addresses or
physical address (MAC) address i.e. Media Access Control address encoded on the card chip, the
data-link protocol employs these addresses to discover other systems on the network so that it can
transfer data to the right destination.
 Types of network cards:
a. Wired: The wired NIC uses cables and connectors as a medium to transfer data.
b. Wireless: The connection is made using antenna that employs radio wave technology. All modern
laptop computers incorporate wireless NIC in addition to the wired adapter.
Network Card Speed
Network Interface card, one of the main computer network components, comes with different speeds, 10Mbps,
100Mbps, and 1000Mbps, so on. Recent standard network cards is built with Gigabit (1000Mbps) connection
speed. It also supports slower speeds such as 10Mbps and 100Mbps. However, the speed of the card depends
on your LAN speed.
For example, if you have a switch that supports up to 100Mbps, your NIC will also transfer a data with this
same speed even though your computer NIC has still the capability to transfer data at 1000Mbps (1Gbps). In
modern computers, network adapter is integrated with a computer motherboard. However, if you want
advanced and fast Ethernet card, you may buy and install on your computer using the PCI (Peripheral
Component Interconnect) slot found on the motherboard (desktop) and Express Card slots on laptop
Communication link: These are media for transmitting data such as coaxial cable, twisted pair cables and
fiber optics cable

BENEFITS OF NETWORKING
 Sharing of resources: Resources such as hard disk, printer, scanner, input and output devices can easily
be shared over the network. Other things that could be shared are information and applications.
 Ease of communication: The use of electronic mails, social media etc. over the internet is made possible
through networking
 Sharing a single internet connection – it is cost-efficient and can help protect your systems if you
properly secure the network.
 Application sharing: Companies may have business application that needs to be update by several users.
Sharing make it possible. It allows several users to work together on a single application.
However, there are also disadvantages:
 _ easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
 _ the development of printer queues, which can be frustrating
 _ slower access to external networks, such as the internet
 _ increased security risk when compared to stand-alone computers
 _ the fact that if the main server breaks down, in most cases the network will no longer function.

INTERNET, INTRANET AND EXTRANET

 Internet (contraction of interconnected network) is the global system of interconnected computer
networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of
networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global
scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The internet
has numerous information resources and services such as the World Wide Web, games, videos, images, e-
mail, social networking, Voice over Internet Protocol(VoIP), Internet Protocol Television(IPTV)etc.
Billions of people are using the internet worldwide.
 Intranet on the other hand is an internal network used by companies to connect their computers on a
network, which is inaccessible from outside. It is a network based on TCP/IP protocols belonging to an
organization accessible only by the organization members, employees or others with authorization.
Usually a firewall is used to protect the network. Just like other networks, the intranet is mainly used to
share data, information, resources, company programs etc.
 Extranet is an internal network that can be accessed externally. It can be thought as an extension of the
company’s intranet. People outside the company can be given a limited access to company’s internal
network for business or education related purposes. The access can be granted to the organization partners,
vendors, suppliers, current and potential customers etc.
The internet, extranet and internet all rely on the same TCP/IP technologies. However, they are different in
terms of the levels of access they allow to various users. An intranet allows for restricted access only to
members of an organization; an extranet expands that access by allowing non-members such as suppliers and
customers to use company resources. The difference between the internet and extranet is that while the extranet
allows limited access to non-members of an organization, the internet generally allows everyone to access all
network resources.

BLUETOOTH: Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances using
short wavelength UHF radio waves in the industrial, scientific and medical radio bands, from 2.400 to 2.485
GHz. Invented by Ericsson in 1994 it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.
Tethering is the act of sharing mobile data of your phone between your desktop or your laptop.

WI-FI (Wireless Fidelity): This technology uses radio waves to provide network connectivity. A wireless
connection is establish using a wireless adapter to create hotspots, i.e. areas near a wireless router that are
connected to the network and allow users to access internet services. Once configured, Wi-Fi provides wireless
connectivity to your devices by emitting frequencies between 2.4GHz – 5GHz based on the amount of data on
the network.

PROTOCOLS
Sometimes called an access method, a protocol is a standard used to define a method of exchanging data
over a computer network, such as local area network, Internet, Intranet, etc. Each protocol has its own method
of how to handle data in the following situations.
 How data is formatted when sent.
 What to do with data once received.
 How data is compressed.
 How to check for errors in the data.
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol, which is used for
communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets that are sent from source
to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used with TCP.
The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network until it reaches
the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission
Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking between
different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing E-Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another. Types
of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two or
more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like text or
images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles, which allow a client system for establishing a
connection with the server machine for making a request. The server acknowledges the request initiated
by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among two computers one using
the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP is used for transferring data between the
client browser (request) and the web server (response) in the hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS
 except that the transferring of data is done in an encrypted format. Therefore, it can be said that https
thwart hackers from interpretation or modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.

9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The connecting process
here is termed as remote login. The system, which requests for connection is the local computer, and
the system, which accepts the connection, is the remote computer.

10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as displaying
documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server principle.

Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI model

The internet protocol suit TCP/IP consists of five protocol layers. These protocol layers are related to the seven
layers of the Open System Interconnect (OSI) model. The table below compares the TCP/IP with the OSI
model
TCP/IP OSI DESCRIPTION
Application layer Provides end user applications
Presentation layer Provides data transmission format
and codes
Application/Process layer Session layer Establishes a common session
between devices
Transport layer Transport layer Supports organization and data
transfer between nodes on a
network
Network layer Network layer Provides routing
Data link layer Provides error free transfer of data
Physical layer frames
Physical layer Provides physical transmission of
data using telecommunications
media on the network

OSI Model
Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a standard reference model for communication between two end users
in a network. In 1983, the International Standards Organisation (ISO) published a document called Basic
Reference Model for Open System Interconnection, which visualises network protocols as a seven-layered
model.
OSI is a layered framework for the design of network system that allows communication between all types of
computer system. It is mainly consisting of seven layers across a network.
Seven Layers of OSI Model and their Functions

Name of the Layer Functions

Application Layer [User-Interface] Retransferring files of information, login,
password checking, packet filtering, etc.
Presentation Layer It works as a translating layer, i.e. encryption or
[Data formatting] decryption
.
Session Layer To manage and synchronise conversation
[Establish and maintain connection] between two systems.
It controls logging ON and OFF, user
identification, billing and session management.
Transport Layer It decides whether transmission should be parallel
[Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) accurate or single path,
data] multiplexing, splitting or segmenting the data, to
break data into smaller units for efficient
handling, packet filtering
Network Layer Routing of the signals, divide the outgoing
[Internet Protocol (IP) routers] message into packets, to act as network controller
for routing data.
Data Link Layer Synchronisation, error detection and correction.
[Media Access Control (MAC) switches] To assemble outgoing messages into frames

Physical Layer Make and break connections, define voltages and

[Signals-cables or operated by repeater] data rates, convert data bits into electrical signal.
Decide whether transmission is simplex, half
duplex or full duplex
DATA TRANSMISSION
Data transmission is the process of transmitting digital or analog data over a communication channel from one
device to another. In simple terms, data transmission is the process of sending and receiving data between two
or more devices. This communication can occur over wired or wireless communication channels and can take
various forms, such as voice, video, text, images, or any other digital format. Data transmission is also known
as digital transmission or digital communications.

During data transmission, the data is first encoded into a format that can be transmitted over the chosen
communication channel. This encoding process typically involves converting the data into a digital format,
breaking it down into smaller packets, and adding error correction codes to ensure that the data is transmitted
accurately.
Once the data is encoded, it is transmitted over the communication channel using a variety of transmission
methods. For wired communication channels, the data is transmitted over physical cables, while for wireless
communication channels, the data is transmitted over electromagnetic waves.
The receiving device then receives the transmitted data and decodes it back into its original format. The
decoding process typically involves error detection and correction to ensure that the data is accurately
recovered.

Overall, data transmission is an essential process for modern communication, allowing devices to
communicate and exchange data with each other over short and long distances.

SERIAL AND PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

Serial transmission is the sequential transmission of signal elements of a
group representing a character or other entity of data. Digital serial
transmissions are bits sent over a single wire, frequency or optical path
sequentially. Because it requires less signal processing and fewer chances
for error than parallel transmission, the transfer rate of each individual
path may be faster. This can be used over longer distances as a check digit
or parity bit can be sent along it easily. When transferring data between
two physically separate devices, especially if the separation is more than
a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a single
pair of lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time
interval for each bit. This mode of transmission is known as bit-serial
transmission.
 In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
 It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender to receiver.
 Thus, all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
As shown above, suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination. Then the least
significant bit (LSB) i.e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e.
1 will be transmitted in the end via single communication line.
 The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change this parallel
data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
 These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so that it can be
transmitted over single line.
 On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the interval circuitry
of computer can accept it

Application of serial transmission:

 Transmission from one computer to another computer or to external devices
 Medium to long distances
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
In serial transmission, we have synchronous and asynchronous transmission. In synchronous transmission,
the transfer rate between the sender and the receiver is synchronized i.e. the same while in asynchronous
transmission, the transfer rate between the sender and receiver are not synchronized.
Parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of the signal
elements of a character or other entity of data. In digital
communications. Parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission
of related signal elements over two or more separate paths. Multiple
electrical wires are used which can transmit multiple bits
simultaneously, which allows for higher data transfer rates than can be
achieved with serial transmission. This method is used internally within
the computer, for example the internal buses, and sometimes externally
for such things as printers. The major issue with this is "skewing"
because the wires in parallel data transmission have slightly different
properties (not intentionally) so some bits may arrive before others,
which may corrupt the message. A parity bit can help to reduce this.
However, electrical wire parallel data transmission is therefore less
reliable for long distances because corrupt transmissions are far more likely.
Application of parallel transmission
 Fast transmission within a computer system
 Short distances
 Integrated Circuits (IC), Busses
SIMPLEX, HALF DUPLEX AND DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION
Simplex Transmission Mode
In this mode, we have unidirectional communication- meaning it’s a one-way street. Out of the two
connecting devices, only one is capable of transmission- the other one is only capable of receiving. The
simplex mode can always utilize a channel’s entire capacity for sending the data in a single direction.
For Example – Traditional monitors and keyboards use the Simplex transmission mode. In this case, the
monitor can only generate the output, and the keyboard can only introduce an input in the system.

Half Duplex Transmission Mode

In this mode, every station can both- receive and transmit data- but not at the very same moment. When one of
the devices sends information, the other one can only then receive it. It also happens vice versa because the
transmission is not unidirectional. The half-duplex mode comes into play in those cases where we don’t need
the transmission in both directions at the same moment.
For Example – A walkie-talkie uses the Half-Duplex Transmission Mode. Here, we send messages in both
directions, but the transmission still occurs in one direction at a time.

Full Duplex Transmission Mode?

In this mode, both the stations have the ability to both receive and transmit data simultaneously. The signals
that go in one direction in a Full-Duplex mode share the link’s capacity with the signals that go in the other
direction. Such kind of sharing can occur in two alternative ways:

 The transmission link must have two transmission paths that are physically separate- one of them for
receiving and the other one for sending.
 The link can divide the capacity between the signals that travel in either of the directions.
The Full-Duplex communication mode comes into play when one requires a continuous connection in both
directions all the time. However, it needs to divide the channel’s capacity between both these directions.
For Example – Telephone networks that establish communication between two people via a telephone line
use the Full Duplex method. Here, the individuals can listen as well as talk at the very same time.
Error Detection
Error detection in data transmission refers to the process of identifying errors or corruption in the data that
has been sent from one device to another over a communication channel. This is an important aspect of data
transmission, as errors can occur due to a variety of factors, such as noise in the channel, interference, or
hardware malfunctions.
An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver end is not identical to the message
transmitted.

Types of Errors

Errors can be classified into two categories:

Single-Bit Error
Burst Error
Single-Bit Error: The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
In the figure below, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is changed to 1. Single-Bit
Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For example, Sender sends the data at 10
Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1? s and for a single-bit error to occurred, a noise must be more
than 1?s. Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight wires are used
to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is corrupted per byte.

Burst Error: The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error. The Burst
Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:
 Parity check
 Checksum
 Cyclic redundancy check
Parity Check
A parity check is an error-correction process in network communication that ensures data transmissions
between communication nodes are accurate. In this process, the receiver agrees to use the same even parity bit
or odd parity bit scheme as the sender. In an even parity check, parity bits ensure there are an even number of
1s and 0s in the transmission. In an odd parity check, there are an odd number of 1s and 0s in the transmission.
Checksums
This is a block code method where a checksum is created based on the data values in the data blocks to be
transmitted using some algorithm and appended to the data. When the receiver gets this data, a new checksum
is calculated and compared with the existing checksum. A non-match indicates an error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check:
The CRC is a network method designed to detect errors in the data and information transmitted over
the network. This is performed by performing a binary solution on the transmitted data at the sender’s side and
verifying the same at the receiver’s side.
The term CRC is used to describe this method because Check represents the “data verification,” Redundancy
refers to the “recheck method,” and Cyclic points to the “algorithmic formula.”
COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGY
Facsimile (Fax Machine)
When Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) spoke the immortal words "Mr. Watson! Come here! I want to see
you!" into his primitive telephone in March 1876, he became one of the founding fathers of the modern age of
telecommunications. But just suppose for a moment that he'd wanted to send his colleague a picture instead of
spoken words—how exactly would he have done it? Most people assume fax machines (which send documents
down phone lines) are newer than the telephone lines they use, but the first fax (Alexander Bain's "chemical
telegraph") was actually patented decades before the phone in the 1840s. Today, the Internet has largely made
faxing obsolete, but many businesses still rely on trusty old fax technology. Let's take a closer look at how it
works!

How fax machines work

Well, okay, it's not exactly how they work! A fax machine is designed to both send and receive documents so
it has a sending part and a receiving part. The sending part is a bit like a computer scanner, with a CCD
(charged-coupled device) that scans only one line of a document at a time, and only in black and white. Crudely
simplified, it looks at each line separately, detects the black areas and the white areas, and transmits one kind
of electric pulse down the phone line to represent black and another to represent white (just like saying "black"
and "white", in fact). The phone line transmits this information almost instantly to a fax machine at the other
end. It receives the electrical pulses and uses them to control a printer. If the receiving fax hears "black", it
draws a tiny black dot on the page; if it hears white, it moves along slightly, leaving a white space instead. It
takes about a minute or so to transmit a single page of writing (or a complex drawing) in this clumsy but very
systematic way.
What happens inside a fax machine?
Ever wondered what goes on inside your machine when you send or receive a fax?
1. To send a fax, you feed the page into the input slot and it's pulled in between several pairs of rollers.
Larger fax machines have built-in document feeders that automatically feed in multiple pages from a
stack, so you don't have to stand at the machine feeding in pages one at a time.
2. As the paper moves down, a bright light shines onto it. White areas of the page reflect a lot of light;
black areas reflect little or none.
3. The light reflects off the page into a light-detecting CCD (charged-coupled device).

4. The CCD turns the analog pattern of black and white areas on the page into a numeric (digital) pattern
of binary zeros and ones and passes the information to an electronic circuit.
5. The circuit sends the digital information down the telephone line to the fax machine at the receiving
end.
6. When you receive a fax, the same circuit takes incoming digital information from the phone line and
routes it to a built-in printer.
7. In a typical personal fax machine, paper is pulled from a large roll inside the machine. (In a larger
office fax machine, it usually comes from a plain-paper hopper, similar to the one in a laser printer.)

8. The thermal (heat-based) printer, operated by the circuit, reproduces the incoming fax on the paper as
it moves past.
9. An automatic blade cuts the page and the printed fax emerges from the output slot.

You can see that there are really two separate machines in one: a fax-sender and a fax-receiver. When you
use a fax machine to make quick "photocopies" of documents, the two machines link up together: instead of
sending a fax down the phone line, the circuit reroutes the scanned data directly to the printer so you get a
copy of your original document.
Fax groups
Fax machines come in three basic kinds called group 1, group 2, and group 3. The group number is, broadly
speaking, a measure of how fast the machine can send and receive: a group 1 machine sends and receives at
the slowest speed (about six minutes per page), group 2 can manage a page in about three minutes, and group
3 zips along at a minute or less per page. When a fax machine first dials another fax machine, there's a short
(typically 15–30 second) period of handshaking where the machines agree on the speed they will use for the
transmission. It's always the slower machine that governs the speed so, even if you have a fast group 3 machine,
it will still work at the slowest possible speed if you're sending faxes to (or receiving faxes from) a group 1
machine at the other end of the line.
Pros and cons of fax machines
The great thing about faxing is that it's very simple: just put your document in the machine, dial the number,
wait for the other machine to reply, and hit the START button. Receiving a fax is even easier: assuming your
machine is set to AUTO, you don't need to do a thing. But there are some drawbacks too. Most fax machines
use low-cost thermal printers that burn images into heat-sensitive paper (fax machines like this typically use
tight rolls of paper rather than sheets). The paper is quite expensive to use, fades very quickly, and can't be
recycled in the usual way. It also takes a long time to send a fax: if it takes a minute per page, a 30page
document will take over half an hour to transmit.
Another drawback is the crudeness of faxed documents. A fax machine senses areas of black and white by
shining a bright light onto the page it's transmitting and using photocells (light-sensitive electronic components)
to measure the light reflected back again. The photocells transmit when they see white areas and don't transmit
when they see black. In other words, they can't distinguish shades of gray (or what printers call "half-tones").
That means a photograph or artwork sent by fax will lose much of its detail and may even become completely
unrecognizable at the other end.
Electronic mails
Short for electronic mail is email (or e-mail) is defined as the transmission of messages over communications
networks. Typically the messages are notes entered from the keyboard or electronic files stored on disk. Most
mainframes, minicomputers, and computer networks have an email system.
Some electronic mail systems are confined to a single computer system or network, but others have gateways
to other computer systems, enabling users to send electronic mail anywhere in the world. Companies that are
fully computerized make extensive use of e-mail because it is fast, flexible, and reliable.
Typical Components of an Email System
Most email systems include a rudimentary text editor for composing messages, but many allow you to edit
your messages using any editor you want. Some systems will also provide basic formatting, including bold,
italics, font color and HTML. You can use the program to send the message to a recipient by specifying the
recipient's address. You can also send the same message to several users at once. This is called broadcasting
Although e-mail is a valuable communication tool, its widespread use in academic and business settings has
introduced some challenges for writers. Miscommunication can easily occur when people have different
expectations about the e-mails that they send and receive. In addition, e-mail is used for many different
purposes, including contacting friends, communicating with professors and supervisors, requesting
information, and applying for jobs, internships, and scholarships. Depending on your purposes, the messages
you send will differ in their formality, intended audience, and desired outcome. Finally, the use of e-mail for
advertising purposes has clogged communication channels, preventing some e-mails from reaching their
intended audience. Writers are challenged to make their e-mail stand apart from ―spam‖ and to grab and hold
the attention of their audience.
So—how do you know when sending an e-mail is the most effective way of getting your message across?
When is a brief message o.k., and when it is more appropriate to send a longer, more professional-sounding
e-mail? How should a writer decide what style of writing is appropriate for each task? How can you prevent
your e-mail from ending up in the junk pile? Keep reading for answers to these questions!
Questions to ask yourself before sending an e-mail message
 Is this message suitable for e-mail, or could I better communicate the information with a letter, phone
call, or face-to-face meeting?
 What is my purpose for sending this e-mail? Will the message seem important to the receiver, or will
it be seen as an annoyance and a waste of time?
 How many e-mails does the reader usually receive, and what will make him/her read this message (or
delete it)?Do the formality and style of my writing fit the expectations of my audience?
 How will my message look when it reaches the receiver? Is it easy to read? Have I used correct
grammar and punctuation? Have I divided my thoughts into discrete paragraphs? Are important items,
such as due dates, highlighted in the text?
 Have I provided enough context for my audience to easily understand or follow the thread of the
message?
Did I identify myself and make it easy for the reader to respond in an appropriate manner?
Will the receiver be able to open and read any attachments?
When is e-mail the appropriate form of communication to use?
E-mail is a good way to get your message across when:
 You need to get in touch with a person who is hard to reach via telephone, does not come to campus
regularly, or is not located in the same part of the country or world (for instance, someone who lives
in a different time zone).
 The information you want to share is not time-sensitive. The act of sending an e-mail is instantaneous,
but that does not mean the writer can expect an instantaneous response. For many people, keeping up
with their e-mail correspondence is a part of their job, and they only do it during regular business
hours. Unless your reader has promised otherwise, assume that it may take a few days for him/her to
respond to your message.
 You need to send someone an electronic file, such as a document for a course, a spreadsheet full of
data, or a rough draft of your paper.
 You need to distribute information to a large number of people quickly (for example, a memo that
needs to be sent to the entire office staff).
 You need a written record of the communication. Saving important e-mails can be helpful if you need
to refer back to what someone said in an earlier message, provide some kind of proof (for example,
proof that you have paid for a service or product), or review the content of an important meeting,
deadline, memo.
 When is e-mail not an appropriate form of communication to use?
E-mail is not an effective means of communication when:
 Your message is long and complicated or requires additional discussion that would best be
accomplished face-to-face. For example, if you want feedback from your supervisor on your work
or if you are asking your professor a question that requires more than a yes/no answer or simple
explanation, you should schedule a meeting instead.
 Information is highly confidential. E-mail is NEVER private! Keep in mind that your message could
be forwarded on to other people without your knowledge. A backup copy of your e-mail is always
stored on a server where it can be easily retrieved by interested parties, even when you have deleted
the message and think it is gone forever.
 Your message is emotionally charged or the tone of the message could be easily misconstrued. If
you would hesitate to say something to someone ‘s face, do not write it in an e-mail.
Who is your audience?
People have different opinions about the form and content of e-mails, so it is always helpful to be aware of
the expectations of your audience. For example, some people regard e-mail as a rapid and informal form of
communication—a way to say ―hello‖ or to ask a quick question. However, others view e-mail as simply a
more convenient way to transmit a formal letter. Such people may consider an informal e-mail rude or
unprofessional.
A message like this one might be o.k. to send your friend, but not to your professor:
Hey Joan,
Do you know what the assignment is about? Can U help me?
Although it may be obvious to you that you wouldn’t ‘t send such an e-mail to your professor, let ‘s carefully
examine what assumptions this message makes about the reader and his/her expectations. The tone of this
message is very casual; it assumes that the reader knows who the sender is and has a close personal
relationship with the sender. Because it contains an ambiguous reference to ―the assignment,‖ this message
also assumes that the reader is familiar with the subject matter at hand (for instance, it assumes the reader
will know which course and which particular assignment the sender is referring to). In this message, the
writer also makes an implicit assumption about the reader‘s familiarity with the slang that is often used when
sending an instant message or text message. If the reader is not familiar with this type of slang, the ―U‖ in
―Can U help me?‖ might be confusing, or it might even be taken as a sign that the writer is too lazy to type
out the word ―you.‖Making assumptions about your audience‘s expectations increases the risk that your
message or its tone will be misinterpreted. To ensure that your message has its intended effect, use the
following questions to help you think about your audience and their needs:
 Who is your audience? How often does your audience use e-mail to communicate? How comfortable is
your audience with using electronic communication—for example, when in their lifetime did they
begin using e-mail (childhood or adulthood)?
 What is your audience‘s relationship to you—for example, is the reader your teacher? Your boss? A
friend? A stranger? How well do you know him/her? How would you talk to him/her in a social
situation?
 What do you want your audience to think or assume about you? What kind of impression do you want
to make?
Important components of an effective e-mail:
Subject lines
E-mail subject lines are like newspaper headlines. They should convey the main point of your e-mail or the
idea that you want the reader to take away from your e-mail. Therefore, be as specific as possible.
One word subjects such as ―Hi,‖ ―Question,‖ or ―FYI‖ are not informative and don‘t give the reader an
idea of how important your message is.
If your message is time sensitive, you might want to include a date in your subject line, for example,
―Meeting on Thurs, Dec 2.‖ Think about the subject lines on the e-mail messages you receive. Which ones
do you think are most effective? Why?
Greetings and sign-offs
Use some kind of greeting and some kind of sign-off. Don‘t just start with your text, and don‘t stop at the end
without a polite signature. If you don‘t know the person well, you may be confused about how to address
him/her (―What do I call my TA/professor?‖) or how to sign off (From? Sincerely?). Nonetheless, it is always
better to make some kind of effort. When in doubt, address someone more formally to avoid offending them.
Some common ways to address your reader are:
 Dear Professor Smith,
 Hello Ms. McMahon,
 Hi Mary Jane,
If you don‘t know the name of the person you are addressing, or if the e-mail addresses a diverse group, try
something generic, yet polite:
 To whom it may concern,
 Dear members of the selection committee,
 Hello everyone, your closing is extremely important because it lets the reader know who is contacting
them. Always sign off with your name at the end of your email. If you do not know the reader well, you
might also consider including your title and the organization you belong to; for example:
Mary Watkins
Senior Research Associate
Bain and Company Joseph Smith
UNC-CH, Class of 2009
For your closing, something brief but friendly, or perhaps just your name, will do for most correspondence:
 Thank you,
 Best wishes,
 See you tomorrow,
 Regards,
For a very formal message, such as a job application, use the kind of closing that you might see in a business
letter:
 Sincerely,
 Respectfully yours,
Cc: and bcc: (‘carbon copy’ and ‘blind carbon copy’)
Copying individuals on an e-mail is a good way to send your message to the main recipient while also sending
someone else a copy at the same time. This can be useful if you want to convey the same exact message to
more than one person. In professional settings, copying someone else on an e- mail can help get things done,
especially if the person receiving the copy is in a supervisory role. For example, copying your boss on an e-
mail to a nonresponsive coworker might prompt the co-worker to respond. Be aware, however, that when you
send a message to more than one address using the Cc: field, both the original recipient and all the recipients
of the carbon copies can see all the e-mail addresses in the To: and Cc: fields. Each person who receives the
message will be able to see the addresses of everyone else who received it.
Blind copying e-mails to a group of people can be useful when you don‘t want everyone on the list to have
each other‘s e-mail addresses. The only recipient address that will be visible to all recipients is the one in the
To: field. If you don‘t want any of the recipients to see the e-mail addresses in the list, you can put your own
address in the To: field and use Bcc: exclusively to address your message to others. However, do not assume
that blind copying will always keep recipients from knowing who else was copied—someone who is blind
copied may hit ―reply all‖ and send a reply to everyone, revealing that he/she was included in the original
message.
Some additional tips for writing more effective e-mails
Think about your message before you write it. Don‘t send e-mails in haste. First, decide on the purpose of your
e-mail and what outcome you expect from your communication. Then think about your message‘s audience
and what he/she/they may need in order for your message to have the intended result. You will also improve
the clarity of your message if you organize your thoughts before you start writing. Jot down some notes about
what information you need to convey, what questions you have, etc., then organize your thoughts in a logical
sequence. You can try brainstorming techniques like mapping, listing, or outlining to help you organize your
thoughts.
Reflect on the tone of your message. When you are communicating via e-mail, your words are not supported
by gestures, voice inflections, or other cues, so it may be easier for someone to misread your tone. For example,
sarcasm and jokes are often misinterpreted in e-mails and may offend your audience.
Similarly, be careful about how you address your reader. For instance, beginning an e-mail to your professor
or TA with ―Hey!‖ might be perceived as being rude or presumptuous (as in, ―Hey you!‖). If you‘re unsure
about how your e-mail might be received, you might try reading it out loud to a friend to test its tone.
Strive for clarity and brevity in your writing. Have you ever sent an e-mail that caused confusion and took at
least one more communication to straighten out? Miscommunication can occur if an e-mail is unclear,
disorganized, or just too long and complex for readers to easily follow. Here are some steps you can take to
ensure that your message is understood:
1. Briefly state your purpose for writing the e-mail in the very beginning of your message.
2. Be sure to provide the reader with a context for your message. If you‘re asking a question, cut and
paste any relevant text (for example, computer error messages, assignment prompts you don‘t
understand, part of a previous e-mail message, etc.) into the e-mail so that the reader has some frame
of reference for your question. When replying to someone else‘s e-mail, it can often be helpful to
either include or restate the sender‘s message.
3. Use paragraphs to separate thoughts (or consider writing separate e-mails if you have many unrelated
points or questions).
 4. Finally, state the desired outcome at the end of your message. If you‘re requesting a response, let the
reader know what type of response you require (for example, an e-mail reply, possible times for a
meeting, a recommendation letter, etc.) If you‘re requesting something that has a due date, be sure
to highlight that due date in a prominent position in your e-mail. Ending your e-mail with the next
step can be really useful, especially in work settings (for example, you might write ―I will follow
this e-mail up with a phone call to you in the next day or so‖ or
―Let‘s plan to further discuss this at the meeting on Wednesday‖).
Format your message so that it is easy to read. Use white space to visually separate paragraphs into separate
blocks of text. Bullet important details so that they are easy to pick out. Use bold face type or capital letters to
highlight critical information, such as due dates. (But do not type your entire message in capital letters or
boldface—your reader may perceive this as ―shouting‖ and won‘t be able to tell which parts of the message
are especially important.)
Proofread. Re-read messages before you send them. Use proper grammar, spelling, capitalization, and
punctuation. If your e-mail program supports it, use spelling and grammar checkers. Try reading your message
out loud to help you catch any grammar mistakes or awkward phrasing that you might otherwise miss.
Text chat
Text messaging, or texting, is the act of composing and sending electronic messages, typically consisting of
alphabetic and numeric characters, between two or more users of mobile devices, desktops/laptops, or another
type of compatible computer. Text messages may be sent over a cellular network, or may also be sent via an
Internet connection.
The term originally referred to messages sent using the Short Message Service (SMS). It has grown beyond
alphanumeric text to include multimedia messages using the Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) containing
digital images, videos, and sound content, as well as ideograms known as emoji (happy faces, sad faces,
and other icons), and instant messenger applications (usually the term is used when on mobile devices).
Text messages are used for personal, family, business and social purposes. Governmental and non-
governmental organizations use text messaging for communication between colleagues. In the 2010s, the
sending of short informal messages became an accepted part of many cultures, as happened earlier with
emailing.[1] This makes texting a quick and easy way to communicate with friends, family and colleagues,
including in contexts where a call would be impolite or inappropriate (e.g., calling very late at night or when
one knows the other person is busy with family or work activities). Like e-mail and voicemail and unlike calls
(in which the caller hopes to speak directly with the recipient), texting does not require the caller and recipient
to both be free at the same moment; this permits communication even between busy individuals. Text messages
can also be used to interact with automated systems, for example, to order products or services from e-
commerce websites, or to participate in online contests. Advertisers and service providers use direct text
marketing to send messages to mobile users about promotions, payment due dates, and other notifications
instead of using postal mail, email, or voicemail.
Chat is a text-based communication that is live or in real-time. For example, when talking to someone in chat
any typed text is received by other participants immediately. In contrast, other text-based communications such
as e-mail are modes of correspondence that are not real-time.
There are also several million users chatting through other networks such as IRC. A good example of a chat
on IRC is the Computer Hope chat.
Chat etiquette
Below is a short list of chat etiquette that should be followed when chatting with others online.
1. Behave the same way you would when talking to someone in real-life.
2. Avoid chat slang.
3. Try your best to spell all words correctly and use proper punctuation.
4. Remember no one is perfect, spelling errors and other mistakes are common in chat.
5. Do not WRITE IN ALL CAPS as it makes you appear as you're yelling.
6. Do not send other chat users private messages without asking them first.
7. Abide by the rules created by those running the chat.
8. When first joining a chat with multiple people watch the conversation for a few minutes before
chiming into someone else‘s conversation.
Chat security suggestions
Below are our recommendations for staying safe in chat and security suggestions you should follow when
participating in online chat.
1. Never give your full name, address, phone, e-mail, or other personal information over chat.
Especially if it is a public chat that everyone can read.
2. If absolutely needed you can send a private message (PM) or direct message (DM).
3. Never accept files from others in chat.
4. If you're chatting to find help with your computer and someone wants to remotely connect to your
computer to help you fix a problem realize that the person can do anything to your computer once
they're connected.
Video chat
Video chat is an online face-to-face, visual communication performed with other Internet users by using a
webcam and dedicated software.
The term stemmed from programs that evolved from text-based chats to incorporating two-way video
interaction. Video chat is usually used when video-based communication is incorporated into a pre-existing
service. For instance, when Facebook incorporated Skype video-based communication in 2011, it said that it
was adding a video chat.
Video chat is also known as video conferencing and video calling.
Video conferencing
Videoconferencing (or video conference) means to conduct a conference between two or more participants at
different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. For example, a point-to-point
(two-person) video conferencing system works much like a video telephone. Each participant has a video
camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her computer. As the two participants speak to one
another, their voices are carried over the network and delivered to the other's speakers, and whatever images
appear in front of the video camera appear in a window on the other participant's monitor. Multipoint
videoconferencing allows three or more participants to sit in a virtual conference room and communicate as if
they were sitting right next to each other. Until the mid-90s, the hardware costs made videoconferencing
prohibitively expensive for most organizations, but that situation is changing rapidly. Many analysts believe
that videoconferencing will be one of the fastest-growing segments of the computer industry in the latter half
of the decade.
A video conference is a live, visual connection between two or more people residing in separate locations for
the purpose of communication. At its simplest, video conferencing provides transmission of static images and
text between two locations. At its most sophisticated, it provides transmission of full-motion video images
and high-quality audio between multiple locations.

Audio conference
Audio conferencing is the conduct of an audio conference (also called a conference call or audio
teleconference) between two or more people in different locations using a series of devices that allow sounds
to be sent and received, for the purpose of communication and collaboration simultaneously. An audio
conference may involve only two parties, or many parties involved at the same time. Audio conferencing can
be conducted either through telephone line or the Internet by using devices such as phones or computers. If
one only wants to listen, he/she just needs speakers. If he/she decides to speak as well, he/she may need a
microphone as well.

Web conferencing
Web conferencing may be used as an umbrella term for various types of online collaborative services
including web seminars ("webinars"), webcasts, and peer-level web meetings. It may also be used in a more
narrow sense to refer only to the peer-level web meeting context, in an attempt to disambiguate it from the
other types of collaborative sessions.[1] Terminology related to these technologies is inexact, and no generally
agreed upon source or standards organization exists to provide an established usage reference.
In general, web conferencing is made possible by Internet technologies, particularly on TCP/IP connections.
Services may allow time point communications as well as multicast communications from one sender to many
receivers. It offers data streams of based messages, voice and video chat to be shared simultaneously, across
geographically dispersed locations. Applications for web conferencing include meetings, training events,
lectures, or presentations from a web-connected computer to other web-connected computers. Most web
conferencing platforms support voice and video conferencing. Some platforms also support screen annotation,
polling, speaker management, chat discussions, shared whiteboards and much more. Platforms that support
video conferencing may also integrate with room-based video conferencing systems.
Web conferencing allows users to conduct business meetings and
seminars, lead presentations, provide online education and offer direct
customer support via remote keyboard mouse control. Control of the
session can be passed among users, so any attendee can act as the main
presenter.
Most web conferencing platforms are accessible via a web browser, but
downloading and installing a client is often required to take advantage of
all features, such as voice and video conferencing and content sharing.

COMPUTER SECURITY

Data, information and network security

What is security?
Security: is the degree of resistance to, or protection from, harm. It applies to any vulnerable and valuable
asset, such as a person, dwelling, community, item, nation, or organization.
What is computer security
Computer security involves safeguarding computing resources, ensuring data integrity, limiting access to
authorised users of online and other accounts, and maintaining data confidentiality.
Levels of computer security: these are:
 Physical security: involves using locks, key, fences, electrified fences, armed guards to safe guard
assets.
 System security: involves putting protocols/devices in place to foster security. Such may include IPS,
IDS and biometrics.
 Application security: Involved fortifying security using things like passwords, pins, firewall rules etc.

Techniques to secure data at rest and in transit

 Through the use of passwords
 Through the use of PIN‘s
 Through the use of encryption
 Through the use of token
 Through the use of hash
Password: is a security code usually comprising of letters, numbers, special characters or combination of
the afore-mentioned three elements used to protect unauthorized access to particular file, site or domain.
PIN: stands for personal identification number. It is usually a 4-digit code made up of numbers used
to provide security to assets. An asset is anything that has value and is worth protecting.
Encryption: is a term mostly employed to safe guard assets that are in transit or meant to be transferred
from one point to another point. For every encryption, an algorithm has to be used to make it possible.
When data is encrypted, we could say it is ciphered and can only be deciphered by the authorized
person.
 Token: is a piece of hardware device that generates random numbers each time the button is pressed
to provide 3rd party authentication to assets. It is mostly used by banks for online fund transfer.
Hash: is a value that is generated based on a particular type of algorithm. Different
types of algorithm will generate different values. Some computer hardware tools used
in security of networks
Firewall: Is a network component (which may be a software or a hardware that works based on set of pre-
defined rules that is capable of filtering or sifting incoming and outgoing traffic from a network. There are
different types of firewalls.
IPS: stands for intrusion prevention system. It is capable of helping to detect the attempt and also take
steps to prevent unauthorized access/intrusion to a network. It is usually placed within the perimeters
of a network.
IDS: Intrusion detection system can detect the attempt of unauthorized access to a network.

Introduction to firewalls

A firewall is a hardware or software system that prevents unauthorized access to or from a network. It
can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are frequently
used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet.
All data entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each packet and blocks
those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
Generally, firewalls are configured to protect against unauthenticated interactive logins from the outside
world. This helps prevent hackers from logging into machines on your network. More sophisticated
firewalls block traffic from the outside to the inside, but permit users on the inside to communicate a
little more freely with the outside.
Firewalls are essential since they provide a single block point, where security and auditing can be
imposed. Firewalls provide an important logging and auditing function; often, they provide summaries
to the administrator about what type/volume of traffic has been processed through it. This is an important
benefit:
Providing this block point can serve the same purpose on your network as an armed guard does for your
physical premises.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 800-10 divides firewalls into three basic
types: Packet filters, state full inspection and proxy firewalls.
These three categories, however, are not mutually exclusive, as most modern firewalls have a mix of
abilities that may place them in more than one of the three. For more information and detail on each
category, see the NIST Guidelines on firewalls and firewall policy.
 One way to compare firewalls is to look at the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
layers that each is able to examine. TCP/IP communications are composed of four layers; they work
together to transfer data between hosts. When data transfers across networks, it travels from the highest
layer through intermediate layers to the lowest layer; each layer adds more information. Then the lowest
layer sends the accumulated data through the physical network; the data next moves upward, through the
layers, to its destination. Simply put, the data a layer produces is encapsulated in a larger container by
the layer below it.
Software tools used for security: These include: anti-virus software, true crypt, digital volcano, eraser,
password safe, kali Linux, security onion, last pass, OS patches etc.
Definition of terms:
Threat: Is any entity that could exploit a vulnerability.
Asset: Anything that has value which is worth protecting
Vulnerability: Is a weakness that could be exploited by a threat against the target

Ways to correct vulnerabilities before they cause harm

 Install a licensed anti-virus on your computer system and update regularly
 Fix any open patch on your OS
 Be vigilant when browsing online
 Avoid clicking links anyhow
 Avoid visiting sites that are unsafe
 Educate yourself periodically on threat landscape through seminars and conferences

Copy right principles

Creators and producers of creative works should receive meaningful protection, recognition and
compensation for their contributions to economic and cultural development.
Copyright law should reflect an appropriate balance between the rights of creators and copyright owners and
the interests of consumers and other users of works.
Copyright law should be regularly reviewed and updated as appropriate to respond to new technologies and
uses. Copyright systems should enable rights to be meaningfully, practically, cost-effectively, and
proportionally enforced.
A wide range of means should be available for creative works to reach the public, as enabled by Internet and
other technologies—maximizing choice for both rights holders and users. It is desirable to have as much
quality content as possible available in as many formats as possible.
Licensing should be streamlined in a content-appropriate manner and simplified to be as easy and efficient as
possible, including for different types of content and across national boundaries.
The public should be educated about the purpose, scope and nature of copyright protections, including
exceptions, and the reasons for proposed changes or government action.
Formulating specific copyright policy approaches can be complex, messy work. But the principles above
can help guide that process, and can serve as a reminder that all of us share an interest in copyright systems
that both incentivize creativity and provide balanced frameworks for accessing the resulting works.
Important facts about copy right laws
The UK copyright law fact sheet outlines the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, the principal
legislation covering intellectual property rights in the United Kingdom and the work to which it applies.
Introduction
Copyright law originated in the United Kingdom from a concept of common law; the Statute of Anne 1709.
It became statutory with the passing of the Copyright Act 1911. The current act is the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988 rights covered.
The law gives the creators of literary, dramatic, musical, artistic works, sound recordings, broadcasts, films
and typographical arrangement of published editions, rights to control the ways in which their material may
be used.
The rights cover; broadcast and public performance, copying, adapting, issuing, renting and lending copies to
the public. In many cases, the creator will also have the right to be identified as the author and to object to
distortions of his work. International conventions give protection in most countries, subject to national laws.
Types of work protected literary song lyrics, manuscripts, manuals, computer programs, commercial
documents, leaflets, newsletters & articles etc.
 Dramatic - plays, dance, etc.
 Musical - recordings and score.
 Artistic - photography, painting, sculptures, architecture, technical drawings/diagrams, maps, logos.
Typographical arrangement of published editions - magazines, periodicals, etc.
 Sound recording - may be recordings of other copyright works, e.g. musical and literary.

 Film - video footage, films, broadcasts and cable programmes.

he Copyright (Computer Programs) Regulations 1992 extended the rules covering literary works to include
computer programs.

When rights occur

Copyright is an automatic right and arises whenever an individual or company creates a work. To qualify,
a work should be regarded as original, and exhibit a degree of labour, skill or judgement.
Interpretation is related to the independent creation rather than the idea behind the creation. For example,
your idea for a book would not itself be protected, but the actual content of a book you write would be.
In other words, someone else is still entitled to write their own book around the same idea, provided they
do not directly copy or adapt yours to do so.
Names, titles, short phrases and colours are not generally considered unique or substantial enough to be
covered, but a creation, such as a logo, that combines these elements may be.
In short, work that expresses an idea may be protected, but not the idea behind it.

Who owns a piece of work?

Normally the individual or collective who authored the work will exclusively own the work and is
referred to as the first owner of copyright‘ under the 1988 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act. However,
if a work is produced as part of employment then the first owner will normally be the company that is
the employer of the individual who created the work.
 Freelance or commissioned work will usually belong to the author of the work, unless there is an
agreement to the contrary, (i.e. in a contract for service).
Just like any other asset, copyright may be transferred or sold by the copyright owner to another party.

Rights cannot be claimed for any part of a work which is a copy taken from a previous work. For example,
in a piece of music featuring samples from a previous work, the copyright of the samples would still
remain with the original author.
Only the owner, or his exclusive licensee can bring proceedings in the courts.

Duration of copyright
The 1988 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act states the duration of copyright as;
For literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works 70 years from the end of the calendar year in which the last
remaining author of the work dies.
If the author is unknown, copyright will last for 70 years from end of the calendar year in which the
work was created, although if it is made available to the public during that time, (by publication,
authorised performance, broadcast, exhibition, etc.), then the duration will be 70 years from the end of
the year that the work was first made available.
Sound Recordings and broadcasts
50 years from the end of the calendar year in which the work was created, or if the work is released
within that time: 50 years from the end of the calendar year in which the work was first released.
Films - 70 years from the end of the calendar year in which the last principal director, author or composer
dies.

If the work is of unknown authorship: 70 years from end of the calendar year of creation, or if made
available to the public in that time, 70 years from the end of the year the film was first made available.
Typographical arrangement of published editions
 25 years from the end of the calendar year in which the work was first published.
 Broadcasts and cable programmes
 50 years from the end of the calendar year in which the broadcast was made.

Crown Copyright

Crown copyright will exist in works made by an officer of the Crown, this includes items such as
legislation and documents and reports produced by government bodies.
Crown Copyright will last for a period of 125 years from the end of the calendar year in which the work
was made.
If the work was commercially published within 75 years of the end of the calendar year in which it was
made, Crown copyright will last for 50 years from the end of the calendar year in which it was
published.
Parliamentary Copyright
Parliamentary Copyright will apply to work that is made by or under the direction or control of the
House of Commons or the House of Lords and will last until 50 years from the end of the calendar year
in which the work was made.
Restricted acts
It is an offence to perform any of the following acts without the consent of the owner:
 Copy the work.
 Rent, lend or issue copies of the work to the public.
 Perform, broadcast or show the work in public.

Adapt the work.

The author of a work, or a director of a film may also have certain moral rights:
The right to be identified as the author. Right to object to derogatory treatment. Acts that are allowed
Fair dealing is a term used to describe acts which are permitted to a certain degree without infringing the
work, these acts are:
 Private and research study purposes.
 Performance, copies or lending for educational purposes.
 Criticism and news reporting.
 Incidental inclusion.
 Copies and lending by librarians.
 Format shifting or back up of a work you own for personal use.
 Caricature, parody or pastiche.
Acts for the purposes of royal commissions, statutory enquiries, judicial proceedings and parliamentary
purposes.
Recording of broadcasts for the purposes of listening to or viewing at a more convenient time, this is known
as time shifting. Producing a back up copy for personal use of a computer program.

What is software piracy?

Software piracy is the unauthorized copying, reproduction, use, or manufacture of software products. On
average, for every authorized copy of computer software in use, at least one unauthorized or "pirated" copy
is made. In some countries or regions, up to 99 unauthorized copies are made for every authorized copy in
use. Software piracy harms everyone in the software community including you, the end user. Piracy results
in higher prices for duly licensed users, reduced levels of support, and delays in the funding and
development of new products, causing the overall selection and quality of software to suffer.
Piracy harms all software publishers, regardless of their size. Software publishers spend years developing
software for the public to use. A portion of every dollar spent in purchasing original software is funneled
back into research and development so that better, more advanced software products can be produced. When
you purchase pirated software, your money goes directly into the pockets of software pirates instead.
Software piracy also harms the local and national economies. Fewer legitimate software sales result in
lost tax revenue and decreased employment. Software piracy greatly hinders the development of local
software communities. If software publishers cannot sell their products in the legitimate market, they
have no incentive to continue developing programs. Many software publishers won't enter markets where
the piracy rates are too high, because they will not be able to recover their development costs.

Principles of data protection act

They must make sure the information is:
• used fairly and lawfully.
• used for limited, specifically stated purposes.
 • used in a way that is adequate, relevant and not excessive.
• accurate.
• kept for no longer than is absolutely necessary.
• handled according to people's data protection rights.
• KEPT safe and secure.

THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT

As it is known from time immemorial that everything in life is like the two side of a coin, there is always a
positive and negative side of every phenomenon. But whether the effect is positive or negative the effects of
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is far reaching and cannot be overemphasized. The Effects of
ICT lens looks at how our lives have been changed, for better and for worse, by the impact of ICT. It
includes both positive effects and negative effects and looks at how individuals’ organisations and society are
affected.
Positive impacts of ICT on People
ICT can have positive impacts on people
 Access to information: Possibly the greatest effect of ICT on individuals is the huge increase in
access to information and services that has accompanied the growth of the Internet. Some of the
positive aspects of this increased access are better, and often cheaper, communications, such as VoIP
phone and Instant Messaging. In addition, the use of ICT to access information has brought new
opportunities for leisure and entertainment, the facility to make contacts and form relationships with
people around the world, and the ability to obtain goods and services from a wider range of suppliers.
 Improved access to education, e.g. distance learning and on-line tutorials. New ways of learning,
e.g. interactive multi-media and virtual reality. New job opportunities, e.g. flexible and mobile
working, virtual offices and jobs in the communications industry.
 New tools, new opportunities: The second big effect of ICT is that it gives access to new tools that
did not previously exist. A lot of these are tied into the access to information mentioned above, but
there are many examples of stand-alone ICT systems as well:
 ICT can be used for processes what that had previously been out of the reach of most individuals,
e.g. photography, where digital cameras, photo- editing software and high quality printers have
enabled people to produce results that would previously require a photographic studio.
 ICT can be used to help people overcome disabilities. e.g. screen magnification or screen
reading software enables partially sighted or blind people to work with ordinary text rather than
Braille.
Negative impacts of ICT on people
a. Job loss: One of the largest negative effects of ICT can be the loss of a person ‘s job. This has both
economic consequences, loss of income, and social consequences, loss of status and self-esteem. Job
losses may occur for several reasons, including: Manual operations being replaced by automation.
e.g. robots replacing people on an assembly line. Job export. e.g. Data processing work being sent to
other countries where operating costs are lower. Multiple workers being replaced by a smaller
number who are able to do the same amount of work. e.g. A worker on a supermarket checkout can
serve more customers per hour if a bar-code scanner linked to a computerized till is used to detect
goods instead of the worker having to enter the item and price manually
 b. Reduced personal interaction: Being able to work from home is usually regarded as being a
positive effect of using ICT, but there can be negative aspects as well. Most people need some form
of social interaction in their daily lives and if they do not get the chance to meet and talk with other
people they may feel isolated and unhappy.
c. Reduced physical activity: A third negative effect of ICT is that users may adopt a more sedentary
lifestyle. This can lead to health problems such as obesity, heart disease, and diabetes. Many
countries have workplace regulations to prevent problems such as repetitive strain injury or eyestrain,
but lack of physical exercise is rarely addressed as a specific health hazard.
ICT can have a positive effect on organizations
There are three main areas in which organisations are affected by the use of ICT, communications,
information management, and security. The three areas have considerable overlap.
- Communication: By using ICT has brought a number of benefits to organisations, such as: Cost savings
by using e.g. VoIP instead of normal telephone, email / messaging instead of post, video conferencing
instead of traveling to meetings, e-commerce web sites instead of sales catalogues. Access to larger, even
worldwide, markets. Web sites can be seen from all parts of the world and orders can be taken wherever
there is a compatible banking system to process payments, e.g. credit / debit card, Pay-Pal, bank transfer
facility. Web sites also have 24 hour opening and are available every day of the year. Flexible response.
Organisations with good communications can respond to changes quickly. This may mean better
customer relations, an improved supply chain for goods and services, faster development of new products
to meet a new opportunity, etc.
- Information management: Organisations can benefit from using ICT for information management. e.g.
Data mining of customer information to produce lists for targeted advertising. Improved stock control,
resulting in less wastage, better cash flow, etc. Mangers are better informed and will have more reliable
and up-to-date information on which to base their decisions. Security: Although the use of ICT can bring
its own security issues, see next section, it can also solve or reduce some security problems, e.g.
Encryption methods can keep data safe from unauthorized people, both while it is being stored or while
it is being sent electronically. This is important for reasons such as data protection legislation or
commercial secrecy. ICT enables physical security systems such as fingerprint, iris or facial recognition.
Negative impacts of ICT on organizations
Cost: the cost of using ICT may cause a number of problems for organisations. A lot of ICT hardware and
software is expensive, both to purchase and to maintain. An ICT system usually requires specialist staff to
run it and there is also the challenge of keeping up with ever-changing technology. These extra costs should
be offset by the positive effects of using ICT, but if an organisation gets its cost-benefit analysis wrong it
may lose money.
Competition: this is usually thought of as being a good thing, but for some organisations being exposed to
greater competition can be a problem. If the organisation is competing for customers, donations, or other
means of funding nationally or even internationally, they may lose out to other organisations that can offer
the same service for less money.
Security: this is always a problem for any organisation that uses ICT. Data must be kept secure, Internet
connections must be protected from attack, new viruses and other forms of malware are released nearly every
day.
Organisations will usually have legal obligations to protect data such as customer information. Even if the
organisation does not have to comply with a specific data protection law it will usually be in the
organisation‘s interest to protect data from rivals.
ICT can have positive effect on the society
Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on society is allowing members of society to have greatly
increased access to information. This can have numerous positive effects, such as:
a) increasing opportunities for education
b) improving communication
c) allowing people to participate in a wider, even worldwide, society. The positive impact of ICT on
education: On the positive side, the use of ICT in education can provide opportunities that might not
otherwise exist, such as:
1. distance learning, where students can access teaching materials from all over the world,

2. the ability to perform impossible ‘experiments’ by using simulations,

3. the possibility for students to have individual learning programs within a topic, rather than everybody
having to do the same thing at the same time at the same pace. More -able students can be given more
challenging work, less able students can access remedial lessons. the negative impact of ICT on education:
There are large costs involved and poorer students / educational establishments. Establishments can end up
being disadvantaged. This is often referred to as being a factor in the digital divide
Students, and sometimes teachers, can get hooked on the technology aspect, rather than the subject content.
Just because a topic can be taught via ICT, does not mean that it is taught most effectively via ICT.
Even if a subject can be taught effectively via ICT, and there is the money available, it does not always
follow that there is any advantage to it. There have been a lot of studies / assessments carried out, looking to
see if ICT usage improves learning. The results are mixed. Much simplified, it would appear that:
1. There is some initial impact of using ICT in that students get a wider range of resources and experience
some extra motivation.
2. The motivation effect soon fades as using ICT becomes the new normal

3. The wider resource range remains a positive factor

4. There are some well documented positive effects in specific. e.g. simulation and modelling is effective in
improving science standards, use of word processing and communication software is effective in
developing language skills, but there is concern that large areas of the curriculum are not benefiting.
The manner in which the subject is taught probably has a larger effect than the mere use of ICT. i.e. if the
teacher does not adapt their methods in order to make best use of ICT, the students do not gain from that use.
The attitude of the educational establishment also seems to have a greater effect. i.e. the people running them
may not have the knowledge and experience, or often the money, to enable widespread and effective use of
ICT in their schools.
The attitude of society / government can have a large impact of how ICT is perceived and thus how
effectively it is used. Countries where the government encourages ICT usage and where the majority of the
people use ICT on a daily basis are likely to make better use of ICT in education as well as in the larger
society.
On the other hand, in countries where some uses of ICT are restricted because of e.g political or religious
reasons, the use of ICT in education becomes less effective and may even be seen as a threat to those in
power and thus actively discouraged
Negative impact of ICT on society
Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on society is allowing members of society to have greatly
increased access to information. This can have numerous negative effects, such as: causing a digital divide
between those who can access information and those who cannot, reducing levels of education and
understanding due to the vast amount of incorrect and misleading information that is available causing moral
and ethical problems due to the nature of some of the material available.
Part time Job: A part-time contract is a form of employment that carries fewer hours per week than a full-
time job. They work in shifts but remain on call while off duty and during annual leave. The shifts are often
rotational. Workers are considered to be part-time if they commonly work fewer than 30 hours per week.
Flexible work: Flexible working simply refers to any working schedule that is outside of a normal working
pattern. This means that the working hours, instead of being repetitive and fixed, can involve changes and
variations. It can mean the employee has variables such as when they are required to work or even their place
of work.
Job sharing: Job sharing or work sharing is an employment arrangement where typically two people are
retained on a part-time or reduced-time basis to perform a job normally fulfilled by one person working full-
time. Compensation is apportioned between the workers, thus leading to a net reduction in per-employee
income.
A compressed work: schedule allows an employee to work a traditional 35-40-hour work week in less than
the traditional number of workdays.
Many compressed work schedule options may be negotiated. For example, a full-time employee scheduled
for 40 hours per week could work four 10- hour days instead of five 8-hour days.

Areas where ICT has Increased Employment:

Increased usage of computers has also created new jobs that didn't previously exist. In fact, the computing
industry is one of the largest and fastest growing jobs sector in the world.
Examples of where ICT has helped to create new jobs includes:
1. Network Managers / Technicians: These jobs have been created due to the need for big computer networks
within companies. Network managers make sure that computers on the network run smoothly and are secure.
2. Web Design: The Internet has seen a huge demand for both commercial (business) and personal web sites.
Web designers create these sites and keep them up to date.
3. Computer Imagery: Graphic designers are in high demand to create the visual effects used in web sites,
magazines and the movies.
4. Systems Analyst: These workers are responsible for designing new ICT systems.
5. Computer Programmers: Programmers create all the software that can be used on a computer. This is a
huge industry and produces things like operating systems, applications (word, excel etc) and
computer games.
5. Computer Engineers: Engineers are needed to build the high-tech computers that we use today

Audience Appreciation
Audience (or Target Audience) Definition: "An audience is who the product is aimed at or who is going to
use the product."
Knowing your audience
When designing an ICT product such as websites, PowerPoints and databases etc. you should consider who
is going to use it. There are a range of audience characteristics that should be taken into account:
 Age
 Gender
 Income level
 Interests.
These things should be considered before the product is created, by knowing who will use the product, you
can ensure that it will be possible for them to use it and that it will interest them.

Characteristics of an audience:
A target audience can be identified by their characteristics. The table below discusses how a selection of
websites have been designed with particular audiences in mind (click each image to visit the site):
Age: This can affect whether or not someone will be interested in your product. For example: the website to
the right is designed for children aged 6 and under. The large font styles, child-like, content and colourful
pages would attract this audience.
 Gender: Products should be designed towards a gender in order to ensure that they attract the right
type of person. For example: the website to the right is designed for younger girls. The pink colour,
toy dolls and beauty content would attract this audience.
 Income: ICT products can be aimed at people with different income levels . For example: the website
to the right has been created to promote and sell expensive houses. The houses on display and clear
prices would put off people with lower income.
 Interests: Knowing your customer's interests can help you decide on content . For example: the
website to the right is filled with precise content that will attract fans of Classic Rock. The news
articles, songs, videos and images would keep the target audience coming back to the site
 Disabilities: Knowing if your audience include people with disabilities can help you to design the
best possible product. For example: the website to the right has used very contrasting colour's
between backgrounds fonts. It also uses large fonts and kept the content simple. This will help
visually impaired users to access the content.
The needs of an audience
General Information:
Different audiences have different needs and the developers of an ICT product have to make sure that they
meet as many of those needs as possible.
The more needs that the ICT product caters for, the more likely that the intended audience will be to use it
The table below breaks some of the needs of a variety of audiences:

Audience type Their needs

Young  Bright and cheerful colours

children -  Animations and sounds
 Lots of pictures
  Less text
 Simple wording
 Large text fonts
 Games/activities for content
 Easy to us


Teens /Adults -  Attractive colours (not bright)

 Interesting content (school work, hobbies, social media)
 Balance of pictures and text
 Uncluttered (use white space)
 Don't use childish language
 Clear fonts
 Use bullet points

Seniors -  Contrasting colours (easier to read)

 Include clear instructions
 Use larger font sizes than normal
 Minimise the use of technical terms
 Consistent design (navigation buttons in the same place etc.)
 Easy to use

Why solutions must meet the needs of the audience

If you don't produce ICT solutions that are built for a specific audience you could run into a variety of
problems:

Can't read fonts If your audience are older, they could have eyesight problems. Standard
sized fonts and poor consideration for colour schemes could make text
difficult for them to read.

Can't If your audience is very young children and you use complex wording,
understand there is a good chance that they won't understand. This will make the
wording product useless to them.

Not interesting If the content of your ICT product is not interesting enough for your
enough to use target audience they won't use it.

For example: talking about Spongebob square pants on a website that is

supposed to be for adults is unlikely to hold their interest.
No attraction Attracting the correct people to use an ICT product is often
accomplished with colour schemes.

For example: attracting children to read a PowerPoint would

require bright, cheerful colour's. This would draw them to look at the
slides.

Teens and adults are more drawn to well

designed, professional looking products that use complimentary
colour schemes.

Can't use the If you make a complex product that requires a lot of typing or uses lots
product of buttons, this would be too difficult for a child to use.
 ICT APPLICATIONS
A communications enabled application (CEA) is a set of information technology (IT) components
and communication technology components that are integrated using a particular service-oriented
architecture (SOA) to increase the productivity of an organization and/or improve the quality of
users' experiences.
Examples of communication applications include: Skype, hangout, Whatsapp, Team viewer, yahoo
messenger, face time (comes with apple phones already preinstalled. It requires an apple ID to start
using it), viber, twitter etc.

Communication applications could use a protocol that support SMS and MMS.

Publicity application: is an application program(s) that can be used to create publications meant for
public utilization/usage. Publicity documents include business cards, letter heads, flyers and
brochures.
Internet telephony: offers digital telecommunications services based on Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) that are provisioned via the Internet. ITSPs provide services to end-users directly or
as whole-sale suppliers to other ITSPs.

Data handling applications

These are applications that can be used to create and manage data. This differs depending on platforms.
Some facilitate survey, address list, school reports, library and the likes.
Digital data refers to information stored as zeros and ones, while analog data refers to other storage methods.
Differences between analog and digital data
Digital data is stored as ones and zeros, which may be represented in a number of ways. A charged
portion of a magnetic drive may represent a one, while an uncharged part might represent a zero. CDs
use microscopic grooves to represent ones and zeros. There are no intermediate values with digital data
which makes it easy to transfer between different media.
Analog data is a term created to differentiate it from digital data. Records and cassette tapes are forms of
analog data storage; printed documents are considered analog as well. Analog data tends to be slower
than digital data, but it can also be more precise. Since analog data allows for intermediate values, some
believe it provides higher quality.

Some storage media can be used for both analog and digital data. Tapes are widely used for analog
recordings in professional settings, but they can also be used to store ones and zeros for use with
computers, and many companies still use tapes for hard drive backups.
Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a computer processor which incorporates the functions of a computer's central
processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC), or at most a few integrated circuits.
Applications and uses of microprocessor:

Microprocessors are used widely as controllers in industries and home appliances.

In industries, we use them to control temperature, speed of motor and other parameters. On the other
side we also use them in our home appliances like Microwave Oven and Washing machine etc.
In Instruments: In this field, we use microprocessors in other instruments that may be lab instruments
or industry instruments. This type is just like above. Some examples are: Frequency Counters, Function
Generators and Spectrum Analyzers.

In Communication Systems: Microprocessor is widely used in communication systems. In telephone

industry they are used in telephone handsets, Telephone Exchanges and Modulator-Demodulator etc.
Microprocessors are also used in television broadcasting and satellite communication.

In other Office and Home Applications: As we all know about Personal Computers and almost we all
have them at our homes, offices etc. So we daily use them for different tasks. Daily new software programs
are made to do things more quickly. Microprocessors are also used in some toys and other entertainment
appliances. There are also many sectors where we make use of microprocessors.
Why use computers in measurement?
Computers do not need to take breaks - they can log data all day, every day, without stopping Computers take
much more accurate readings than humans can
Computers can take data readings more frequently (1000s of times a second if necessary)

Since the logged data is already in a computer, the data can be analysed more quickly and easily (graphs
drawn instantly, etc.)

Data logging systems can operate in difficult environments (e.g. in the Arctic, or on top of a mountain)
People are free to do other more useful tasks (rather than watching a thermometer).
Some measurement applications could be found online. Such requires internet connectivity. Below
are some useful sites for some measurement applications:
http://resources.oswego.org/games/StopTheClock/sthec1.html - for teaching time
http://www2.smarttutor.com/player/swf/Math_measurement_tools_Length_Lev4_vol_01_ss_t3_edact_n
_y_4_1.swf - for teaching how to use a ruler for measurement
http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/mathgames/measurement/MeasurementInches.swf - for converting from
one unit to another unit.
Computer modelling: A computer-based model is a computer program that is designed to simulate what
might or what did happen in a situation. They are used in many ways including in astronomy, economics and
sciences such as physics and biology.
When you gather enough data, you could simulate future scenarios. You could use AutoCAD to design how
you want a city or an estate or road should be. You could also use Excel to design forecast for finance for an
organization or nation.
Advantages of using computer controlled systems
Using a computer to control a process has a number of important advantages over controlling the same
process manually. o Computer systems respond more quickly than humans. o A computer system can take
readings from sensors and o turn devices on and off many thousands of times a second. o Once the initial
purchase cost has been paid, control systems are usually reasonably cheap to run. o Most computer control
systems have lower operating costs than similar systems which are manned by humans.
Computer control systems are very reliable. Unlike a human a control system will not lose concentration.
Computer systems can continue to operate reliably twenty-four hours a day.
Disadvantages of using a computerized system:
• The initial cost of designing a new system and purchasing hardware and software may be high.

• There may be job losses as computers replace humans.

• The control system will only operate correctly if the software program which runs the system
has been designed well. Flaws in the design may produce unexpected problems during
operation.
• Managing learners‘ registration/attendance/performance

Examples of computerizes applications

ExamBuilder offers customized grouping capabilities designed to help you manage your students more
effectively. Common ways to group are by: Department. Region, Job function Country
However, you can create your own group categories to meet your organization‘s needs. The advantages to
creating group categories are:
 Your students will be better organized within the system
 You can schedule a group to take a specific exam with 1-click
Statistical reports can be generated that compare student performance by group (region, customer or
department) ExamBuilder provides flexibility in student registration. There are 3 ways students can be placed
into your instructor account: Web-based form. The Instructor Console has a simple web based form you can
use to add students to the system
Self-registration. Students can self-register for ExamBuilder with a registration code that links them to your
account
Web-based API. You can automate adding students to your account by using ExamBuilder‘s web-based API
Digital systems for organizing exams: See www.exambuilder.com
1. Time table creating software: see
https://www.timetablegenerator.io/ and
http://www.asctimetables.com/?gclid=CNfepaPEjs8CF
W8W0woduEEOuw – the best and used in LJC.

Effects of micro-processor devices on our lifestyle the effect of these devices on our lives

Look at the list of devices above. Now try to imagine living without them – washing your clothes by hand!
Life would be a lot tougher.

- Microprocessor-controlled devices mean that we have more leisure time to relax and enjoy
ourselves instead of doing household chores.

- We are able to communicate with people very easily using computers, mobile phones, etc.

- We can become part of online social networks, making friends with people from all over the
world.

- Computers and Internet connections mean that many of the tasks that involved us
leaving the house, for example, shopping for music, clothes or food, can now be done
on-line.

- Online shopping gives us more choices of products and saves us time. It is also great from
those who are unable to get out of the house easily, such as the elderly, or the disabled.
The effects on leisure time – microprocessor controlled domestic appliances such as washing
machines, cookers, heating systems etc. do not need direct human control because they have timers,
operating programs and safety checks built in. This means the user can leave them to complete their
tasks so they have more leisure time.

The effects on social interaction – from the comfort of the home people can communicate in many
more ways than the traditional telephone and postal service.

Email allows fast efficient communication with the ability to send files as attachments and email many
people at the same time.

Online messaging allows users to send text, images and files in real time, as well as communicate via voice
and video.

Wireless phones and mobile phones allow interaction by telephone conversations from any room or the
garden.
SMS (Short Messaging Service) text messages, images and video clips to be sent between mobile phones
and computers.
Answer machines allow messages to be left for users who cannot answer the telephone.

Social interaction websites allow users to interact by leaving messages and adding comments to
blogs. Users can also upload and share image and video files.

The effects on the need to leave the home – computers linked to the Internet have greatly reduced the
need for people to leave the home.

Entertainment – music and games can be downloaded. Movies can be downloaded and this, along
with Interactive digital television, means there is no need to go to the cinema or video rental shop.
Goods – these can be easily ordered from online stores and delivered to the home. Food – takeaway food
and groceries can be ordered online and delivered directly to the door.
Services – banking, ordering insurance and many other services can be carried out over the telephone or
the Internet.

RSI – Repetitive Strain Injury: Is a condition in which the prolonged performance of repetitive actions,
typically with the hands, causes pain or impairment of function in the tendons and muscles involved.
Health issues related to RSI Back problem Eye problem Headaches
Booking Systems

Areas where booking systems are used:

(a) Airport flight reservation

(b) Hotel accommodation management system
(c) Admission processing system
(d) Purchase orders
(e) Cinemas for movies, theatres etc.
Practical discussion: Students are expected to discuss how online ticket reservation/booking system works.

Merits and demerits of online booking systems

Many individuals use online booking to accomplish a variety of tasks. Instead of going to a brick-and-mortar
travel agency and manually buying flight and hotel tickets, or going to a concert hall and buying performance
tickets, an individual can simply go online and order them. There is no need to discuss the matter with another
person. The process of online booking sidesteps many of the usual inconveniences and saves time.

Available Options
One of the advantages individuals get from online booking is the amount of options available to them on the
websites. By booking holiday flights and hotels online, these individuals have instantaneous access to a
comprehensively detailed list of both flights and hotels, often with the ability to separate the information into
fields more useful for a specific search. For example, if an individual wishes to only choose between lists of
business class flights, or wishes to stay in a hotel ranked three stars or above, a narrowed search is easily achieved
at the touch of a button.

Collection Of Information
Another advantage with online booking is the fact that the Internet has established links between the large national
and international airline companies and the large hotel companies. This combined information is advertised freely
on the Internet, making it much easier for individuals to make complete plans for their holidays. The existence of
these packages deals means that individuals don't have to worry about booking flights and hotels separately and
worry about the timing.
They merely choose a package that meets their preferences.

Disadvantages Greater Competition

One of the disadvantages of booking online is directly linked to one of the biggest advantages. Due to being
online, there is a much wider customer base to the information. In other words, information that in the past was
more available to individuals in a specific country is now available to anyone in the world that has an Internet
connection. This creates an environment of first-come-first-serves competition. The cheapest options are then
available to the individuals who see the advertisements first and have funds to purchase immediately.

Security issues

Due to the need for exchanging sensitive personal data, such as home addresses and bank and credit card details,
the online booking process is an attractive target for cyber criminals looking to steal this information. Fake
websites created for the sole purpose of stealing personal information is also an ever-present danger.
Plus, as individuals don't have another individual to deal with in the booking process, it is left to them to read
and understand the often complicated terms and conditions.
INTERNET BANKING ETF: ELECTRONIC FUNDS TRANSFER

Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is the electronic transfer of money from one bank account to another, either
within a single financial institution or across multiple institutions, through computer-based systems and without
the direct intervention of bank staff.
CLEARING CHEQUES
Cheque clearing (or check clearing in American English) is the process of moving a cheque from the bank in
which it was deposited to the bank on which it was drawn, and the movement of the money in the opposite
direction. This process is called the clearing cycle and normally results in a credit to the account at the bank of
deposit, and an equivalent debit to the account at the bank on which it was drawn.
The process would take a number of days as cheques would have to be physically taken back to the issuing
bank. In many countries this would be via a central clearing house operated by the banks to make the process
more efficient. If there was not enough funds in the account when the cheque arrived at the issuing bank, the
cheque would be returned as a dis-honoured cheque marked as non-sufficient funds.
Telephone banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution, that enables customers to
perform a range of financial transactions over the telephone, without the need to visit a bank branch or
automated teller machine. Telephone banking times are usually longer than branch opening times, and some
financial institutions offer the service on a 24-hour basis. Most financial institutions have restrictions on which
accounts may be accessed through telephone banking, as well as a limit on the amount that can be transacted.
The types of financial transactions which a customer may transact through telephone banking include obtaining
account balances and list of latest transactions, electronic bill payments, and funds transfers between a
customer's or another's accounts.
From the bank's point of view, telephone banking minimizes the cost of handling transactions by reducing the
need for customers to visit a bank branch for noncash withdrawal and deposit transactions. Transactions
involving cash or documents (such as cheques) are not able to be handled using
telephone banking, and a customer needs to visit an ATM or bank branch for cash withdrawals and cash or
cheque deposits.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Internet banking
Internet Banking has several advantages over traditional one which makes operating an account simple and
convenient. It allows you to conduct various transactions using the bank's website and offers several
advantages. Some of the advantages of internet banking are:
 Online account is simple to open and easy to operate.
 It is quite convenient as you can easily pay your bills, can transfer funds between accounts, etc. Now you do
not have to stand in a queue to pay off your bills; also you do not have to keep receipts of all the bills as you
can now easily view your transactions.
 It is available all the time, i.e. 24x7. You can perform your tasks from anywhere and at any time; even in
night when the bank is closed or on holidays. The only thing you need to have is an active internet
connection.
 It is fast and efficient. Funds get transferred from one account to the other very fast. You can also manage
several accounts easily through internet banking.
 Through Internet banking, you can keep an eye on your transactions and account balance all the time. This
facility also keeps your account safe. This means that by the ease of monitoring your account at any time,
you can get to know about any fraudulent activity or threat to your account before it can pose your account
to severe damage.
 It also acts as a great medium for the banks to endorse their products and services. The services include loans,
investment options, and many others.

Disadvantages of Internet Banking

Though there are many advantages of internet banking, but nothing comes without disadvantages and everything
has its pros and cons; same is with internet banking. It also has some disadvantages which must be taken care of.
The disadvantages of online banking include the following:
 Understanding the usage of internet banking might be difficult for a beginner at the first go. Though
there are some sites which offer a demo on how to access online accounts, but not all banks offer this
facility. So, a person who is new, might face some difficulty.
 You cannot have access to online banking if you don‘t have an internet connection; thus without the
availability of internet access, it may not be useful.
 Security of transactions is a big issue. Your account information might get hacked by unauthorized people
over the internet.
Password security is a must. After receiving your password, do change it and memorize it otherwise your account may be
misused by someone who gets to know your password inadvertently.
 You cannot use it, in case, the bank‘s server is down.
 Another issue is that sometimes it becomes difficult to note whether your transaction was successful or
not. It may be due to the loss of net connectivity in between, or due to a slow connection, or the bank‘s
server is down.
Internet Banking has definitely made the life easy for users by providing online access to various banking services. Describe
the contents of information systems – make reference to SIS, online platforms storing data etc.

Visit: http://libraries.ucsd.edu/help/glossary.html to see a glossary of terms used in a library. Practical discussion: students
are to discuss how automatic reminders could be automated