Class 10 practicals

Experiment NO 1
Aim
To determine the focal length of concave mirror by obtaining the image of a distant
object.

Materials Required
A concave mirror, a mirror holder, a small screen fixed on a stand, a measuring scale
and a distant object (a tree visible clearly through an open window).

Theory/Principle
The spherical mirror with inward curved reflecting surface is called concave mirror. A
beam of light generally converges after reflection from its surface, hence it is also called
convergent mirror (Fig. 1).

To obtain the position of image for a given object distance and focal length of a mirror, the
following mirror formula can be used.
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
where, u = object distance,
v = image distance and f = focal length.
All u, v and f should be according to sign convention.
This expression is valid for concave as well as convex spherical mirrors.
 Procedure

1. Fix a concave mirror in the mirror holder and place it on the table near an open
window. Turn the face of mirror towards a distant object (suppose a tree).
2. Place the screen, fitted to a stand, infront of the concave mirror. Adjust the
distance of screen, so dthe image of the distant object is formed on it as given in
the figure below. We can infer from the figure that a clear and bright image could
be obtained if the distant object (a tree), is illuminated with sunlight and the screen
is placed in the shade. A bright image of the Sun could also be obtained, if the
sunlight is made to fall directly on the concave mirror.
3. When a sharp image of distant object is obtained, then mark the position of the
centre of the stand holding the mirror and the screen as (a) and (b)
4. Measure the horizontal distance between the centre of the concave mirror and
the screen with the help of a measuring scale.
5. Record the observations in the observation table.
6. Repeat the experiment two more times by obtaining the images of two different
distant objects and measure the distance between the concave mirror and the
screen in each case. Record them in the observation table.
7. Find the mean value of the focal length for all the observations for different
objects.

Observations And Calculations

Least count of scale used = …………. mm = …………. Cm

Focal length for first object (f1) = ………… m

Focal length for second object (f2) = ………….. m
Focal length for third object (f3) = …………. m
Mean focal length = f1+f2+f33 = ………… m
Result
The approximate value of focal length of the given concave mirror is ………… m.
Precautions

1. Concave mirror should be placed near an open window through which sufficient
sunlight enters, with its polished surface facing the distant object.
2. There should not be any obstacle in the path of rays of light incident on the
concave mirror.
3. If the image of the Sun has to be formed, then it should be focused on the screen
only. The image of the Sun should never be seen directly with the naked eyes.
Sunlight should never be focused on any part of the body as it can burn it.
4. In order to obtain a sharp and clear image of the distant object on the wall/ground,
it must be ensured that the object is well illuminated, so that amount of light
incident on the concave mirror is sufficient to produce a well illuminated and
distinct image.
5. The measuring scale should be parallel to the base of both the stands.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the
measuring scale for precise measurements.

Sources of Error

1. The measuring scale may not be parallel to the base of both the stands.
2. The mirror holder, along with the mirror, may not be kept perpendicular to the
measuring scale.
3. Least count of measuring scale may not be correctly noted.
4. Measurement of distance from pole may not be made accurate.

Experiment No 2

Aim
To determine the focal length of convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Apparatus/Materials Required
A thin convex lens, a lens holder, a small screen fixed on a stand and a measuring
scale

Theory/Principle
A lens which is thicker at the centre and thinner at its ends is called convex lens.
To obtain the position of image for a given object distance and focal length of a lens, the
following lens formula can be used.
1/f=1/v −1/u
where, u = object distance, v = image distance and f = focal length.
All u, v and f should be according to sign convention.
This expression is valid for both types of lenses, i.e. convex and concave.
Procedure

1. Fix a thin convex lens on the lens holder and place it on the table same as that
done in the case of concave mirror.
2. Place the screen fixed to a stand on the other side of the lens. Adjust the position
of screen by moving it back and forth in front of the convex lens to get a sharp and
clear image of the distant object.
3. Mark the position of the centre of the stands holding the lens and the screen,
when a sharp image of the distant object (tree) has been obtained on the screen
4. Now, measure the horizontal distance between the centre of the convex lens and
the screen with the help of a measuring scale.
5. Record the observations in the observation table.
6. Repeat this experiment two more times by obtaining the images of two different
distant objects and measure the distance between the convex lens and the
screen and record them in the observation table.
7. Find the mean value of the focal length for all the observations, for different
objects.
Observation Table
Least count of scale used = ………… mm = ………… cm

Calculations
Focal length for first object (f1) = ………… m
Focal length for second object (f2) = ………… m
Focal length for third object (f3) = ……………. m
Mean focal length or approximate focal length of lens (f) = f1+f2+f33
Result
From the above observations and calculations, the approximate value of focal length of
the given convex lens is ………. m.

Precautions

1. The principal axis of the convex lens should be horizontal, i.e. the lens should be
placed vertically.
2. There should be no obstacle in the path of rays of light from the distant object
incident on the convex lens.
3. The image of the sun formed by the lens should be focussed only on the screen.
The image of the sun should never be seen directly with the naked eye or it should
never be focussed with a convex lens on any part of the body, paper or any
inflammable material as it can burn.
4. Sometimes, the parallel rays of light originating from a distant object and incident
on a convex lens may not be parallel to its principal axis. The image in such
situation might be formed slightly away from the principal axis of the lens.
5. The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to
measuring scale. To determine the focal length, the distance between the convex
lens and the screen should be measured horizontally.
Sources of Error

1. The principal axis of convex lens may not be in horizontal position.

2. There may be some obstacle in the path of light ray, coming from the distant
object

Experiment NO-3

Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different
angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of
emergence and interpret the result.

Materials Required
Some drawing pins, a white sheet of paper, a rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a
measuring scale, a drawing board, a sharp pencil and adhesive tape.

Theory/Principle
Refraction of Light
Change in path of a light ray as it passes from one medium to another medium is called
refraction of light. When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser one, it bends towards the
normal (i > r) and when travels from a denser medium to a rarer one, it bends away from the
normal (i < r) (as shown in Fig. 1)
Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board.

2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary
ABCD with the pencil
3. Remove the rectangular glass slab. Draw a thin line XO directing towards O and
inclined to the face AD of the glass slab at any angle preferably between 30° and
60°. It is advisable to take point 0 in the middle of the face AD. Replace the glass
slab exactly over the boundary marked on the paper.
4. Fix two pins P1 and P2 vertically about 5 cm apart by gently pressing their heads
with thumb on the line XO.
5. Observe the images of pins P1 and P2 through the face BC of the rectangular
glass slab. While observing the images of the pins P1 and P2 through the face BC
of the glass slab, fix two more pins at points P3 and P4 such that feet of all the
pins appear to be in a straight line. In other words, the pins P3 and P4 are
collinear with the images of pins P1 and P2.
6. Remove the pins and the glass slab and mark the positions of the feet of all the
four pins. Join points that mark the positions of the pins P3 and P4 and extend the
line upto point O’ where it meets the face BC. Also, join the points O and O’ as
given in the Fig. 3, where XOO’Y show the path of a ray of light passing through
the glass slab. The line XP1P2O represents the incident ray. Line OO’ shows the
path of refracted ray in glass slab while line O’P3P4Y shows the emergent ray.
7. Draw the normal NOM to the face AD at the point of incidence O and similarly,
the normal M’O’N’, to the face BC at point O’. Measure the angle of incidence

8. Record the values of ∠i, ∠r and ∠e in the observation table.

XON (∠i), angle of refraction MOO’ (∠r) and angle of emergence M’O’Y (∠e).

9. Repeat the experiment for two more angles of incidence in the range 30° to 60°
and record the values of angles r and e in each case.

Observations and Calculations

Precautions

1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
2. The tips of pins P1, P2, P3 and P4 should be sharp. These pins fixed on the sheet of
paper may not be exactly perpendicular to the plane of paper. Thus, if their heads
appear to be collinear, their feet may not be so, Therefore, it must be important to
look at the feet of pins and their images while ascertaining collinearity between
them. The mark of the pointed end or the foot of a pin on the paper must be
considered while marking its position.
3. The distance of 5cm between the pins P1 and P2 or P3 and P4 must be carefully
maintained to obtain an accurate direction of incident ray and that of emergent
ray.
4. Take the angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.
5. Thin lines should be drawn using a sharp pencil to obtain accuracy.
6. The angles should be measured accurately using a good quality protractor
having clear markings by keeping the eye above the marking.

Sources of Error

1. Drawing board may be hard.

2. Drawing pins may not be fixed perpendicularly.
3. Eyes may not be kept along the plane of paper in line, while observing the images.

Experiment 4

Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required
A glass prism, some drawing pins, white paper, a drawing board, adhesive tape, a
protractor, a sharp pencil and a measuring scale.
Theory/Principle
Refraction of Light Through a Prism
Prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by atleast two lateral surfaces, inclined to
each other at certain angle. It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
The angle between two lateral surfaces is called angle of prism (∠A).

Angle of Deviation (∠δ)

It is the angle which the emergent ray (produced backward) makes with the incident ray

emergence (∠e) and is given by ∠δ = ∠i + ∠e – ∠A.

(produced forward ). It depends upon angle of prism (∠A), angle of incidence (∠i) and angle of

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board. Draw a thin line XY at the middle of
the paper.
2. Draw a thin line NEN’ perpendicular to the line XY at point of incidence E as given
in the figure below. Also, draw a line DE making any angle, preferably between
30° and 60°.
3. Place the prism with one of its refracting surfaces AB along the line XY.
4. Mark the boundary ABC of the glass prism holding it firmly with your hand.
5. Fix two pins P1 and P2 vertically by gently pressing their heads with thumb, on line
DE at a distance of about 5 cm from each other. View the images of pins P 1 and
P2 from the opposite face AC of the prism.
6. Fix two more pins P3 and P4 vertically such that the feet of pins P3 and P4 appear
to be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P 1 and P2 as
viewed through the face AC of the prism.
 7. Remove the pins and prism. Mark the positions of feet of pins P3 andP4 on the
sheet of paper.
8. Draw a straight line joining the points that mark the positions of pins P 3 and P4.
Extend this line so that it meets the face AC of the prism at point F. The line FG
represents the path of the emergent ray.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray DE till it meets the face AFC. Also extend
backwards the emergent ray FG as given in the figure. These two extended lines
meet at point FI (as shown in Fig. 2).
10. Repeat this experiment for more angles of incidence.

Result

1. The path of a ray of light incident on one face of glass prism is shown by the ray
DEFG in Fig.2.
2. The value of angle of deviation is ………… for the angle of incidence
………………

Precautions

1. While viewing the collinearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a
distance from the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously.
2. The pins P1, P2, P3 and P4 fixed on the paper may not be exactly perpendicular to
the plane of paper. It is therefore desirable to look at the feet of the pins or their
images while establishing their collinearity.
3. Thus, the position of each pin is marked with pointed tip of the pins on the paper.
4. In order to locate the direction of incident ray and refracted ray with a greater
accuracy, the distance between the pins P1 and P2 and that between P3 and
P4 should not be too short or too large. A separation of nearly 5 cm between the
pins would be sufficient.
 5. The angle of incidence should preferably be taken between 30° and 60°.

Sources of Error
1. Pins may not be exactly perpendicular to the paper.
2. The feet of the pins may not be in same straight line.

TERM 2
EXPERIMENT NO 1
Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I)
passing through it and determine its resistance (R). Also plot a graph between V and I.

Materials Required
A voltmeter and ammeter of suitable range, resistance wire or resistor, some connecting
wires, a key, a dry cell (or battery eliminator), a rheostat and a piece of sand paper.

Theory/Principle
Ohm’s Law
The dependence of current on potential difference can be studied by Ohm’s law.
According to Ohm’s law, the potential difference (V) across the ends of a resistor is
directly proportional to the current (I) through it provided its temperature remains the

i.e. V ∝ I
same.

or
V/I = Constant = R
or
V = RI
Here, R is a constant for the given resistor at a given temperature and is called its
resistance. The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
The graph between the potential difference across the two ends of a resistor and the
current passing through it is a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of this
straight line graph gives the resistance R of the resistor.

Procedure

1. Before starting the experiment, note down the range, least count and zero error (if
any) of the ammeter and voltmeter.
2. Wipe the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove any insulating
layer.
3. Make a set up of the circuit by connecting different components with the help of
connecting wires as shown in Fig. 1(a).
 4. Connect the key, the rheostat, the ammeter and the resistor in series with the
connecting wires to the dry cell, as shown in the circuit diagram [Fig. 1(b)],
Ensure that positive (+) terminal of ammeter is joined to the positive (+) terminal
of the cell. Make neat and tight connections.
5. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, as shown in circuit diagram.
Ensure that the positive (+) terminal of the voltmeter is joined to the positive (+)
terminal of the cell, and the negative (-) terminal of the voltmeter is joined to the
negative (-) terminal of the cell.
6. Insert the key in the plug to let the current establish in the circuit.
7. Adjust the rheostat, so that a small current passes through the resistor, say 0.1
A, so the reading of ammeter will be 0.1 A.
8. Read the corresponding value of potential difference from voltmeter.
9. Repeat the experiment by adjusting the slider, for the values of current 0.3A,
0.4A, 0.5A etc. and record the corresponding values of potential differene in
voltmeter.
10. Lastly, plot a graph between V and I taking V along y-axis and I along x-axis.

Observation
Range of ammeter = ……… A
Least count of ammeter = ……….. A
Zero error of ammeter = ……….. A
Range of voltmeter = ……….. V
Least count of voltmeter = ……… V
Zero error of voltmeter = ………… V

Result

1. From the above calculation and observation, we have concluded that for a
resistor, if temperature remains constant then current through the resistor is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied across it.

1. The value of resistance R of resistor remains the same for all values of current
through it. The graph between V and I is a straight line and passes through the
origin. This verifies Ohm’s law.

Precautions

1. Wires should be thick and their insulation of ends should be removed properly.
2. All the connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may
introduce in the circuit.
 3. Ammeter must be connected in series with the circuit.
4. Voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the circuit.
5. Zero mark of ammeter and voltmeter should be checked properly.
6. There should be tight connections of connecting wires.
7. Put the plug in key, only when reading is to be recorded. Take off plug
immediately after it, to avoid unnecessary heating of wires.
8. Positive terminals of voltmeter and ammeter should be connected to positive
terminal of the cell and vice-versa.

Sources Of Error

1. There may be a reading error of ammeter and voltmeter.

2. Area of cross-section of wire may not be uniform.
3. It may be possible that current has flown for longer period of time through the
circuit.
4. There may be a loose connection in electrical circuit.