TEL 231-APPLIED ELECTRICITY

Engr. T. J. Shima
MODULE 1: CONCEPT OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELD AND CAPACITANCE
1.1 Introduction
We have learnt in elementary physics that there exist two kinds of electric charges―positive
and negative charges. We have also learnt that these charges exert forces on each other (like-
charges repel each other while unlike-charges attract each other). This idea of existence of
electric charges and of the forces between them underlies every kind of electrical and
electronic device. In this chapter, we shall concentrate on the forces between charges which
are at rest.

1.2 Electrostatic Field

The science of phenomena involving stationary electric charges is known as electrostatics.
If two parallel plates, 𝐴 and 𝐵, are charged to different potentials as shown in Figure 1.1, a
negative charge placed between the plates will experience a force tending to push it away
from the negative plate 𝐵 towards the positive plate 𝐴.

Figure 1.1: Electrostatic Field

Similarly, a positive charge would experience a force tending to push it towards the negative
plate 𝐵. Any region (such as that shown between the plates in Figure 1.1) in which an electric
charge experiences a force is called an electrostatic field. An electrostatic field has the same
direction as that of the force acting on a positive charge placed in the field and is represented
in magnitude and direction by lines of force drawn between the charged surfaces. The intensity
of the lines is an indication of the strength of the field; i.e., the more dense the lines, the
stronger the field.

1.3 Electric Field of Point Charges

Electric fields are force fields that exist in the region surrounding charged bodies. The direction
of the field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge. Figure 1.2 shows the
field patterns for isolated positive and negative point charges. Figure 1.3(a) also shows the
field pattern for adjacent charges of opposite polarity while Figure 1.3(b) shows the field
pattern for adjacent charges of similar polarity.

Figure 1.2: Electric field patterns of isolated point charges

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Note that electric lines of force (also called electric flux lines) are continuous. They also start
on a positive point charge and terminate on a negative point charge. They do not cross each
other. When a charged body is placed close to an uncharged body, an induced charge of
opposite sign appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This is because lines of force
from the charged body terminate on its surface.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3: Electric field patterns (a) adjacent charges of opposite polarity (b) adjacent
charges of similar polarity

1.4 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that: “the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges Q1 and
Q2 at rest is proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them, and is directed along the line
connecting the two charges”.

The mathematical expression of Coulomb’s law is:

Q1Q2
F=k rˆ (1.1)
r2
where 𝑟 is the distance between the two charges, 𝑘 is the constant of proportionality and r̂ is
a unit vector pointing from Q1 to Q2 if the force on Q2 due to Q1 is required, or from Q2 to Q1 if
the force on Q1 due to Q2 is required. The numerical value of 𝑘 has been determined to be
1 4 , where  is referred to as the permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium in which
the charges are situated. Thus, Equation (1.1) may be written as:
1 Q1Q2
F=  rˆ [𝑁] (1.2)
4 r 2
When the medium is a vacuum or free space, the permittivity is  0 = 8.854 10−12 F m .

Example 1.1

Three identical charges of Q coulomb each are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle
10 cm apart. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge. Take 1 4 0 = 9  109 𝑚/𝐹.

Solution

Figure 1.4 shows the three charges positioned on the vertices of equilateral triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 as
described. The forces exerted by each charge on another are equal in magnitude.

Consider the charge located at vertex 𝐵. The force on charge at 𝐵 due to charge at 𝐴 is
directed from 𝐴 to 𝐵 along line 𝐴𝐵, and we can write:

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2
Q
FAB = 9 109  2
= 9 1011 Q 2 𝑁
0.1
The force on charge at 𝐵 due to the charge at 𝐶 is directed from 𝐶 to 𝐵 along line 𝐶𝐵, and we
can write:

Figure 1.4: Identical point charges on the vertices of an equilateral triangle

Q2
FCB = 9 109  2
= 9 1011 Q 2 𝑁
0.1
Resolving the two forces gives the resultant force on the charge at 𝐵 as:
3
FR = FAB cos 30 + FCB cos 30 = 2  9 1011 Q 2  = 9 1011  3Q 2 𝑁
2
The force experienced by the other charges is also the same.

Example 1.2

Two charges of Q coulomb each are placed at two opposite corners of a square of side r
metres. What additional charge q placed at each of the other two corners of the square will
reduce the resultant electric force on each of the charges Q to zero?
Solution
Figure 1.5 shows the locations of the various charges as described in the question. The force
of repulsion experienced by the charge Q at point 𝐶 due to the charge Q at point 𝐴 is equal
in magnitude to the force of repulsion experienced by the charge Q at point 𝐴 due to the
charge Q at point 𝐶, and is given by:
2
Q2 Q
FAC = 9 10 
9
= 4.5  10    𝑁
9

( ) r
2
2r

Figure 1.5: Charges on vertices of a square

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If we place the charges − q at points 𝐵 and 𝐷, they will exert forces of attraction on each of
the charges Q . For the charge Q at 𝐶, the forces of attraction due to each of the charges − q
at 𝐵 and 𝐷 will act along 𝐶𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷 respectively, and each is given by:
Qq
FCB = FCD = −9  109  𝑁
r2
The resultant of FCB and FCD acts along 𝐶𝐴, and is given by:
Qq
FCA = 2  9 109 
r2
If the net force on charge Q at point 𝐶 is to be zero, then FCA = FAC . Hence, we write:
Q2 Qq
4.5 109  2
= 9 109  2  2
r r
This gives:
Q
q= coulomb
2 2

1.5 Electric Field Intensity

The electric field intensity or the strength of an electric field is defined as the force per unit
charge that the field exerts on a small, positive test charge, Qt . It units are newtons/coulomb
[𝑁/𝐶] or volts/metre [𝑉/𝑚].

Let the electric field intensity be denoted by E . Then, we can write:

F
E= [𝑁/𝐶] (1.3)
Qt
When a test charge Qt is placed near another charge Q , it experiences a force F whose
magnitude is given by F = QQt ( 4 r ) . Thus, from Equation (1.3), we have:
2

F Q
E= = rˆ (1.4)
Qt 4 r 2
1.6 Electric Flux Density
We observe that the electric field intensity depends on the medium in which the charge is
located. Simply from a convenience point of view, we observe that if we multiply the electric
field intensity E by permittivity  , we get a new vector:

Q
D = E = rˆ (1.5)
4 r 2

This vector has the same direction as E but unlike the expression for E , it is independent of
 and therefore of material properties. In terms of units, the electric field intensity has units of
[N/C] and permittivity has units of C 2 N  m2  . Therefore, the units of D are C m2  . Thus,
because this is a density and because it is derived from the electric field intensity, we will call
it the electric flux density. We can therefore write:

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
D= (1.6)
A
where ψ is the flux passing through area 𝐴.

1.7 Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law states that “the net outward flux passing normally through a closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface”. That is,

 = Q (1.7)
To prove this, let us consider a point charge Q lying at the centre of a sphere of radius 𝑟
which surrounds it completely, as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Charge at the centre of sphere

The electric field of the point charge Q at the surface of the sphere is given by:

Q
E= rˆ (1.8)
4 r 2

Now, the electric flux density at the surface of the sphere is:

Q
D = E = rˆ (1.9)
4 r 2

But by definition:

flux 
D= = (1.10)
Area A

Therefore

Q
 =D A=  4 r 2 = Q (1.11)
4 r 2

Example 1.3

Given that the electric flux density, D = 0.3r 2rˆ nC / m 2 in free space: (a) find E at point
P ( r = 2, = 25,  = 90 ) ; (b) find the total charge within the sphere 𝑟 = 3; (c) find the total
electric flux leaving the sphere 𝑟 = 4. Take  0 = 8.854  10 −12 F / m .

Solution

(a) Given that D = 0.3r 2rˆ 𝑛𝐶/𝑚2, then E at point P ( r = 2, = 25,  = 90 ) is:

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−9
D 0.3  2 10
2
E= = = 135.53rˆ V/m
0 8.854 10−12

(b) According to Gauss’s law, the total charge within the sphere of radius 𝑟 = 3 is equal to
the normal flux through the surface of the sphere. Therefore, we can write:
Q
D= rˆ
4 r 2
Q
0.3 10−9 r 2rˆ = rˆ or Q = 0.3 10−9  4 r 4 = 0.3 10−9  4  81 = 3.0536 10−7 C
4 r 2

(c) According to Gauss’s law, the total flux leaving the sphere 𝑟 = 4 is equal to the total
charge enclosed by the sphere. Hence, we can write:
 = 0.3 10−9  4  44 = 9.6510 10 −7 C or 965 𝑛𝐶.
1.8 Electric Potential and Potential Difference
Potential difference V may be defined as the work done (by an external source) in moving a
unit positive charge from one point to another in an electric field,
final
V = − E dL (1.12)
initial

We have to agree on the direction of movement, and we do this by stating that V AB signifies
the potential difference between points 𝐴 and B and is the work done in moving the unit charge
from 𝐵 (last named) to 𝐴 (first named). Thus, in determining V AB , B is the initial point and 𝐴 is
the final point. Hence the potential difference between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is:
A
VAB = −  E dL (1.13)
B

and V AB is positive if work is done in carrying the positive charge from B to A.

Potential difference is measured in joules per coulomb, for which the volt is defined as a more
common unit, abbreviated as 𝑉.

We can try out this definition by finding the potential difference between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 at
radial distances rA and rB from a point charge Q. Choosing an origin at Q,
Q
E = Er a r = a r and dL = drar
4 0 r 2
we have
A rA Q Q 1 1
VAB = −  E dL = −  dr =  −  (1.14)
B rB 4 0 r 2
4 0  rA rB 
If rB  rA , the potential difference V AB is positive, indicating that energy is expended by the
external source in bringing the positive charge from rB to rA . This agrees with the physical
picture showing the two like charges repelling each other.

It is often convenient to speak of the potential, or absolute potential, of a point, rather than the
potential difference between two points, but this means only that we agree to measure every
potential difference with respect to a specified reference point that we consider to have zero
potential. Common agreement must be reached on the zero reference before a statement of

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the potential has any significance. Thus, the potential at any point is the potential difference
between that point and a chosen point at which the potential is zero.

Perhaps the most universal zero reference point in experimental or physical potential
measurements is “ground,” by which we mean the potential of the surface region of the earth
itself. Another widely used reference “point” is infinity. This usually appears in theoretical
problems approximating a physical situation in which the earth is relatively far removed from
the region in which we are interested, such as the static field near the wing tip of an airplane
that has acquired a charge in flying through a thunderhead, or the field inside an atom.

If the potential at point 𝐴 is V A and that at 𝐵 is VB , then:

VAB = VA − VB (1.15)
where we necessarily agree that V A and VB shall have the same zero reference point.

1.9 The Potential Field of a Point Charge

Earlier, we found an expression in Equation (1.14) for the potential difference between two
points located at r = rA and r = rB in the field of a point charge Q placed at the origin. How
might we conveniently define a zero reference for potential? The simplest possibility is to let
𝑉 = 0 at infinity. If we let the point at r = rB recede to infinity, the potential at rA becomes
Q
VA =
4 0 rA
or, as there is no reason to identify this point with the A subscript,
Q
V= (1.16)
4 0 r
This expression defines the potential at any point distant r from a point charge Q at the origin,
the potential at infinite radius being taken as the zero reference. Returning to a physical
interpretation, we may say that Q 4 0 r joules of work must be done in carrying a unit charge
from infinity to any point 𝑟 meters from the charge Q.

Example 1.4

A point charge of 10−9 𝐶 is placed at a point 𝐴 in free space. Calculate the potential difference
between two points 20 𝑐𝑚 and 10 𝑐𝑚 away from the charge at 𝐴.

Solution

Electric potential at a point 20 𝑐𝑚 away from the charge is

Q 10−9
V1 = = = 45V
4 0 r1 4  8.854 10−12  0.2
Electric potential at a point 10 𝑐𝑚 away from the charge is
Q 10−9
V2 = = = 90V
4 0 r2 4  8.854 10−12  0.1
Therefore, the potential difference between the two points is
V21 = V2 − V1 = 90 − 45 = 45V

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1.10 Capacitance
A capacitor is a device which can hold or store an electric charge. It is made up of two
conductors, such as parallel metal plates, separated from each other by an insulator, called
the dielectric material. The ability of a capacitor to store electric charge is called the
capacitance of the capacitor, and is measured in farads (F).

More generally, apacitance exists between any pair of conductors which are electrically
insulated from each other, shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7(a): A charged capacitor Figure 1.7(b): Symbol of a

capacitor
When charged, the two conductors of a capacitor will have equal but opposite charges. And
because these plates are separated by a dielectric medium, an electric field is established in
the dielectric medium and a potential difference is set up between the conductors. This
potential difference between the two conductors is found to be proportional to the charge on
either plate of the capacitor. Thus, we can write:
Q
C= (1.17)
Vab
where 𝐶 is the capacitance in farads (𝐹), Q is the charge on conductor 𝑎 in coulombs (𝐶), and
Vab is the potential of conductor 𝑎 with respect to conductor 𝑏 in volts (𝑉).

1.11 Capacitance of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor

For a parallel-plate capacitor, as shown in Figure 1.8, experiments show that capacitance 𝐶
is proportional to the area 𝐴 of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate spacing 𝑑 (i.e., the
dielectric thickness) and depends on the nature of the dielectric.

Figure 1.8: Parallel-plate capacitor

So, we can write:

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A
C= (1.18)
d

where area 𝐴 is in square meters and spacing d is in meters. The parameter 𝜀 is the absolute
dielectric constant or the permittivity of the insulating medium. It is a measure of how easy it
is to establish electric flux in a material. Its units are farads per meter (F/m). For air or vacuum,
it is given as 𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚.

The ratio of the absolute permittivity of a material 𝜀 to that of the vacuum 𝜀0 is called the
relative permittivity, 𝜀𝑟 of the material. So, we can write:

 =  0 r (1.19)

1.12 Capacitors in Parallel and in Series

Consider Figure 1.9 in which two capacitors, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , are connected in parallel.

Figure 1.9: Parallel capacitors

Let Q1 be the charge on either plate of C1 and Q2 be the charge on either C2 . If a voltage
source of emf 𝑉 is connected across the parallel combination of the two capacitors, then the
total charge developed by the two capacitors is:
QT = Q1 + Q2 (1.20)
But QT = CTV , Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C2V . Thus, from Equation (1.20), we can write:
CTV = C1V + C2V (1.21)
Where CT is the total circuit capacitance. Hence, we can see that:
CT = C1 + C2 (1.22)
It follows that for 𝑁 capacitors connected in parallel, we have:
N
CT = C1 + C2 + ... + C N =  Ci (1.23)
i =1

Now, let us consider 𝑁 capacitors connected in series as shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10: Capacitors in series

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Since the same current flows through each capacitor, the same charge QT also appears on
each. Thus, we have that V1 = QT C1 , V2 = QT C2 , and so on. Applying 𝐾𝑉𝐿, we get:
V = V1 + V2 + ... + VN (1.24)
Therefore,
QT QT Q  1 1 1 
V= + + ... + T = QT  + + ... +  (1.25)
C1 C2 CN  C1 C2 CN 
But V = QT CT . Therefore, substituting this into Equation (1.25) and cancelling QT yields
N
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ... + = (1.26)
CT C1 C2 CN i =1 Ci
For 𝑁 equal capacitors in series, Equation (1.26) reduces to:
C
CT = (1.27)
N

1.13 Energy Stored by a Capacitor

The energy, 𝑊, stored by a capacitor is equal to the average potential difference, 𝑉, across
the capacitor multiplied by the charge, Q , on either plate of the capacitor. Thus, we can write:
1 1 1 Q2
W = QV = CV 2 = (1.28)
2 2 2 C
1.14 Capacitor 𝑣-𝑖 Relationship
Recall from Equation (1.17) that the relationship between charge Q and voltage V for a capacitor
is given by:
Q = CV (1.29)
For a time-varying case, standard industry practice requires that we use lowercase letters for the
time-varying signals, rather than capital letters as for dc. Therefore, we can write:
q = CvC (1.30)
But we define current as the rate of movement of charge. In calculus notation, we write:
dq d
iC = = ( CvC ) (1.31)
dt dt

Since 𝐶 is constant, we get:

dvC
iC = C (A) (1.32)
dt
Equation (1.32) shows that current through a capacitor is equal to C times the rate of change
of voltage across it. This means that the faster the voltage changes, the larger the current,
and vice versa. It also means that if the voltage is constant, the current is zero, as shown in
Figure 1.11.

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(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 1.11: (a) Capacitor in a circuit (b) current surge during charging (c) Capacitor voltage.

1.15 Capacitor Charging and Discharging

A basic switched RC circuit is shown in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: Circuit for charging and discharging a capacitor.

First, we assume the capacitor is uncharged and that the switch is open. Now, we move the
switch to the charge position, Figure 1.13(a). At the instant the switch is closed the current
jumps to E/R amps, then decays to zero, while the voltage, which is zero at the instant the
switch is closed, gradually climbs to E volts. This is shown in (b) and (c).

Figure 1.13: (a) Circuit for charging a capacitor (b) capacitor voltage during charging (c)
capacitor current during charging.

When the capacitor voltage and current reach their final values and stop changing (Figure
1.13(b) and (c)), the circuit is said to be in steady state.

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Now, let us consider the discharge case. We, first, assume the capacitor in Figure 1.13(a) is
charged to E volts and that the switch is open. Now, we close the switch to position 2 as shown
in Figure 1.14(a). Since the capacitor has 𝐸 volts across it just before the switch is closed, and
since its voltage cannot change instantaneously, it will still have 𝐸 volts across it just after as
well. The capacitor therefore looks momentarily like a voltage source, and the current thus
jumps immediately to − 𝐸 ⁄𝑅 amps. (Note that the current is negative since it is opposite in
direction to the reference arrow.) The voltage and current then decay to zero as indicated in
Figure 1.14(b) and Figure 1.14(c).

(b) (c)
(a)
Figure 1.14: (a) Circuit for discharging a capacitor (b) capacitor voltage during discharging
(c) capacitor current during discharging

(a) Capacitor charging equations

Applying 𝐾𝑉𝐿 to Figure 1.13(a) yields:

E = iC R + vC (1.33)
But iC = CdvC / dt (Equation (1.32)). Substituting this into Equation (1.33) yields:
dvC
RC + vC = E (1.34)
dt
Rearranging Equation (1.34) gives:
dvC dt
= (1.35)
E − vC RC
Integrating both sides of Equation (1.35), we have:
t
− ln ( E − vC ) = +k (1.36)
RC
where 𝑘 is the constant of integration. When 𝑡 = 0 𝑠, 𝑣𝐶 = 0 volt. Substituting these initial
conditions into Equation (1.36) gives:
k = − ln ( E ) (1.37)
Substituting Equation (1.37) into Equation (1.36) yields:
t
ln ( E − vC ) − ln ( E ) = − (1.38)
RC
Or
 E − vC  t
ln  =− (1.39)
 E  RC
Hence, during charging, the voltage across the capacitor, 𝑣𝐶 , at any instant, 𝑡, is given by:
 −
t

vC = E 1 − e RC  (1.40)
 

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Also, from Equation (1.32), we have that:
dvC d −
t

iC = C = CE 1 − e RC 
dt dt  
This gives:
E − RCt
iC = e (1.41)
R
The rate at which a capacitor charges depends on the product of 𝑅 and 𝐶. This product 𝑅𝐶 is
known as the time constant of the circuit and is defined as the time required for the p.d.
across 𝐶 to increase from zero to its final value if it continued increasing at its initial rate. It is
given the symbol 𝜏, and has the units of seconds. Thus, we write:
 = RC (s) (1.42)

(b) Capacitor discharging equations

Applying 𝐾𝑉𝐿 to Figure 1.14(a) gives

dvC
RC + vC = 0 (1.43)
dt
This can be solved for 𝑣𝐶 using basic calculus, as in the case of charging equations, to give:
vC = Ee −t RC (1.44)
Also,
E −t RC
iC = − e (1.45)
R

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 1

1. A capacitor with circular plates 0.1 𝑚 in diameter and an air dielectric has 0.1 𝑚𝑚
spacing between its plates. What is its capacitance? 𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚.
2. Determine total capacitance looking in at the terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏 for the following circuit:

Figure Q2: Diagram for question 2

3. A 10 𝜇𝐹 and a 4.7 𝜇𝐹 capacitor are connnected in parallel. After a third capacitor is

added to the circuit, 𝐶𝑇 = 2.695 𝜇𝐹. What is the value of the third capacitor? How is it
connected?

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4. A dc source is connected to terminals of Figure Q4. If 𝐶𝑥 is 12 𝜇𝐹 and the voltage
across the 40 𝜇𝐹 capacitor is 80 𝑉,

Figure Q4: Diagram for question 4

(a) What is the source voltage?

(b) What is the total charge on the capacitors?
(c) What is the charge on each individual capacitor?
(d) What is the total energy stored in the circuit?
5. Consider the charging circuit for a capacitor shown in Figure Q5:

Figure Q5
Given that 𝐶 = 10 𝜇𝐹 and 𝑣𝐶 (0) = 0 𝑉, if the switch is closed at 𝑡 = 0 𝑠:
(a) calculate the circuit time constant.
(b) determine the equation for capacitor voltage.
(c) determine the equation for capacitor current.
(d) compute 𝑣𝐶 and 𝑖𝐶 at 𝑡 = 50 𝑚𝑠.

6. Consider the circuit of Figure Q6. Assume that the capacitor is charged to 50 𝑉
before the switch is closed.
(a) Calculate the time constant of the circuit 𝜏.
(b) Determine the equation for the discharge voltage 𝑣𝐶 .
(c) Determine the equation for discharge current 𝑖𝐶 .
(d) Compute 𝑣𝐶 and 𝑖𝐶 at 𝑡 = 𝜏 and 2𝜏.

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