OSCILLATORY SYSTEMS

Oscillating system is a system in which a particle or set of particles moves back and forth. In
physics, oscillation is the repeated variation of any quantity or measure in position or magnitude
about a central point. The basic principle of oscillation maintains that an oscillating particle
returns to its initial state after a certain period of time. In an oscillating system, the force always
acts in a direction opposite to the displacement of the particle from the equilibrium point. This
force can be constant, or it can vary with time or position, and is called a restoring force. As long
as the force obeys the above principle, the resulting motion is oscillatory. This kind of motion,
characteristic of oscillations, is called periodic motion, and is encountered in all areas of physics.
Plucking a guitar string, swinging a pendulum, a spring compressing and stretching, bouncing on
a pogo stick—these are all examples of oscillating motion. What sine and cosine can do goes
beyond mathematical formulas and right triangles? You’ll notice that the output of the sine
function is a smooth curve alternating between –1 and 1. This type of a behavior is known as
oscillation, a periodic movement between two points.
a graph of the sine function, where y =
sine(x)

In an oscillating system, the traditional variables x, v, t, and a but in addition we also have
amplitude, period, and frequency.
The frequency (F) is defined as the number of complete oscillations per unit time.
The amplitude (A) is defined as the maximum displacement of an oscillator from its equilibrium
position.
The time period (T) is defined as the time taken for one complete oscillation, in seconds. The
relationship between frequency and period is f = 1/T
The numbers of variables that are necessary to describe a system depend on its complexity. The
most important feature of the system is that its variables should interact with each other in such a
way that repeated oscillations are generated.
There are 3 main types of Oscillation – Free, damped, and forced oscillation. When a body
vibrates with its own frequency, it is called a free oscillation.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

When a body vibrates with its own frequency, it is called a free oscillation. The free oscillation
has a constant amplitude and period without any external force to set the oscillation. This may be
referred to as simple harmonic oscillation. In classical mechanics, a harmonic oscillator is a
system that, when displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring force F
proportional to the displacement x: F=−kx
where k is a positive constant. Examples include the mass-spring system and the vibrations in a
tuning fork. For such systems, the restoring force is proportional to displacement. For the mass-
spring system for instance, the force on it is given by
1
 dx ''
F=ma=m =m x =−kx
dt
Solving this differential equation, we find that the motion is described by the function
y ( t ) =Asin (wt +φ)

Where w=
√ k
m
The period of oscillation T =
2π
w
∧f =
1
T

y ( t ) =Asin (√ mk .t +φ )
o

We can thus obtain an expression for the angular frequency ωo of the free oscillation of the
relationship, ω o=
√
k
m
and the period, T =2 π
m
k√, f o=
1 k
2π m √
The velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator oscillate with the same frequency
as the position, but with shifted phases. The velocity is maximal for zero displacement, while the
acceleration is in the direction opposite to the displacement.
The potential energy stored in a simple harmonic oscillator at position x isU =½ k x 2
Damped oscillation
Most free oscillations eventually die out due to the ever-present damping forces in our
surrounding. A damped oscillation means an oscillation that fades away or decreases with time.
Due to external factors such as friction or air resistance that results in damping, the amplitude of
oscillation reduces with time, and this will result in energy loss from the system. The periodic
motions of gradually decreasing amplitude are damped simple harmonic motion. Examples
include a swinging pendulum, a weight on a spring, and also a resistor - inductor - capacitor
(RLC) circuit.
The condition in which damping of an oscillator causes it to return to equilibrium with the
amplitude gradually decreasing to zero; system returns to equilibrium faster but overshoots and
crosses the equilibrium position one or more times.
The main difference between damped and undamped oscillations is that in damped oscillations,
the amplitude of the generated wave gradually decreases over time, whereas the amplitude of the
generated wave does not change with time, in case of undamped oscillations.

Consider an object of mass m attached to a spring of constant k. Let the damping force be
proportional to the mass’ velocity by a proportionality constant, b, called the vicious damping
coefficient. We can describe this situation using Newton’s second law, which leads to a second
2
order, linear, homogeneous, ordinary differential equation. We simply add a term describing the
damping force to our already familiar equation describing a simple harmonic oscillator to
describe the general case of damped harmonic motion.
2
d x dx
F net=m 2
+ b +kx =0(1)
dt dt
2
d x b dx k
¿ 2+ + x=0
d t m dt m
2
d x dx 2
¿ 2
+ γ + ωo x=0(2)
dt dt

∧γ = (b is the coefficient of damping and 𝛾, damping ratio)

2 k b
Where ω o=
m m
To solve this differential equation for the equation of motion of the system, x(t), We assume a
solution in the form of an exponential, x (t )=eat , where a is a constant to be determined.
Substituting this into the differential equation we find that there are three results for a, which will
dictate the motion of our system. We can solve for a by using the quadratic equation,
2 2
F net=a x + γax +ω o x=0(3)
2 2
¿ a + γa+ ωo=0

γ ∓ √ γ 2−4 ω2o
a= (4)
2
The physical situation has three possible results depending on the value of a. This expression can
be positive, negative, or equal to zero which will result in overdamping, underdamping, and
critical damping, respectively.
2 2
γ >4 ωo is the Over Damped case. In this case, the system returns to equilibrium by
exponentially decaying towards zero. The system will not pass the equilibrium position more
than once.
2 2
γ <4 ωo is the Under Damped case. In this case, the system oscillates as it slowly returns to
equilibrium and the amplitude decreases over time.
2 2
γ =4 ω o is the Critically Damped case. In this case, the system returns to equilibrium very
quickly without oscillating and without passing the equilibrium position at all.

−t
Suppose on the alternative we the solution of the form: x (t )= Acos ( ωt + φ ) e τ (5)

Then we write down the first and second derivative of this function as
−t −t
dx −1
= Acos ( ωt + φ ) e τ −ωAsin(ωt +φ)e τ
dt τ

3
 −t −t −t −t
d2 x 1 ω ω
2
= 2 Acos ( ωt +φ ) e τ + Acos ( ωt+ φ ) e τ + Acos ( ωt+ φ ) e τ −ω2 Acos (ωt +φ)e τ

dt τ τ τ

Substituting all in equation (1), we obtain equation (5) is a solution as long as

m 2 b
−m ω − +k =0
τ
2
τ

2mω
−bω=0 ??
τ
So, if we can measure the mass m, and the force constant k, and the resistance force coefficient
b, then we can compute the time constant tau and the frequency of oscillation omega.

τ=
2m
b
∧ω=
k
−
b2
m 4 m2 √
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We can distinguish three types of motion (just by the size of damping)
1. Subcritical damping oscillator: When the system damping is relatively small (that
condition b < ωo is satisfied), the damping is such that it causes quasiperiodic oscillations
described by the expression:
−bt
y ( t ) = y m e sin(ω T t+ φo )

Where b is the coefficient of damping and ω T = √ ω o−b

2 2

Both the amplitude and angular frequency are affected by damping.

2. Critically damped oscillator: If the damping of the system is such that condition b = ω is
satisfied, damping of the oscillator is critical. Then it also applies that ωo2 – b2 = 0 and
also ωT = 0. That is, the periodic or quasi-periodic oscillations don't occur.

(a) (b)
The two upper figures represent subcritical while (a) and (b) represent critical and
supercritical damping respectively.
3. Supercritical damping oscillator: When b > ωo, we then say that the damping of the
oscillator is supercritical. The expression ωo2 – b2 < 0 that the angular frequency ωT don't
exists for real numbers. Again, periodic or quasiperiodic oscillation does not exist.
EXAMPLE: A mass of 2 kg oscillates on a spring with constant 50 N/m. By what factor does
the frequency of oscillation decrease when a damping force with constant b = 12 is
introduced?

4
 The original angular frequency of oscillation is given by ω o=
√ k
m
=5 . According to our

√ ( ) √ ( )
2
k b 12 2
equation, the new frequency is given by: ω= − ¿ 25− =4
m 2m 4

Thus, the frequency decreases by 1 rad/s, or by 20 percent of its original value.

Forced oscillation
All free oscillations eventually die out due to the ever-present damping forces in the surrounding.
However, if an external agency or force is used to maintain these oscillations, the oscillations are
known as forced or driven harmonic oscillations. So forced oscillations occur when an oscillating
system is driven by a periodic force that is external to the oscillating system. In such a case, the
oscillator is compelled to move at the driving frequency νd = ωd/2π of the driving force. When
something oscillated by being influenced by an external periodic force, it is called a forced
oscillation. Here, the amplitude of oscillation experiences damping but remains constant due to
the other external energy supplied to it. Example of forced oscillations is when a child uses his
feet to move the swing or when someone else pushes the swing to maintain the oscillations.
Damped oscillation is similar to forced oscillation except that forced oscillation has continuous
and repeated force as it is going.
The phenomenon of driving a system with a frequency equal to its natural frequency is called
resonance. The less damping a system has, the higher the amplitude of the forced oscillations
near resonance. The more damping there is, the broader reaction it has to various driving
frequencies.
Consider if an external force F(t) of amplitude Fo that varies periodically with time is applied to a
damped oscillator as
F ( t )=F o cos ω d t (1)
The forces acting on the oscillator are its restoring force, the external force and a time-dependent
driving force. Therefore,
ma ( t ) =−kx ( t ) −bv ( t ) + F o cos ω d t∨¿
2
d x dx
m 2
+b + kx=F o cos ω d t(2)
dt dt

Equation 2 is the equation of an oscillator on which a periodic force of frequency ωd is applied.

When the external periodic force is applied, the oscillations with natural frequency die out and
the body then oscillates with the driven frequency. Therefore, its displacement after the natural
oscillations die out is given by:
x (t )= Acos ( ωt + φ ) (3)
Taking the first- and second-time derivative of x(t) and substituting them into the force equation
shows that x (t )= Asin (ωt +φ) is a solution as long as the amplitude is equal to

5
 Fo
A= (4)
√m ( ω −ω ) +b ω
2 2 2
o
2 2

Resonance
The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the driving force is close to the natural
frequency of the oscillator is known as resonance. Consider two pendulums of nearly equal (but
not equal) lengths (therefore, different amplitudes) suspended from the same rigid support.
When we swing the first pendulum which is greater in length, it oscillates with its natural
frequency and the energy transfers through the rigid support to the second pendulum which is
slightly smaller in length. The second pendulum starts oscillating with its natural frequency first.
At one point, the frequency with the second pendulum vibrates becomes nearly equal to the first
one. When the second pendulum now starts with the frequency of the first one, which is the
driven frequency, the amplitude of the oscillations is maximum. Thus, resonance takes place.
Or from equation (4), when the driving frequency is much smaller, or much larger, than the
2
natural frequency, the square of the difference of the two angular frequencies ( ω2−ω2o ) is
positive and large, making the denominator large, and the result is a small amplitude for the
oscillations of the mass. As the frequency of the driving force approaches the natural frequency
of the system, the denominator becomes small and the amplitude of the oscillations becomes
large. The maximum amplitude results when the frequency of the driving force equals the natural

(
frequency of the system A max= o
F
bω )

.
The curves represent the same oscillator with the same natural frequency but with different
amounts of damping. All three curves peak at the point where the frequency of the driving force
equals the natural frequency of the harmonic oscillator. Note that since the amplitude grows as
the damping decreases, taking this to the limit where there is no damping (b = 0), the amplitude
becomes infinite.
The ability to pick out a certain frequency (the narrower the curve, the better), is known as the
∆ω
quality of the system defined by Q= . For a small damping, the quality is approximately
ωo
2b
equal to Q ≈ .
m
6
 1
For an RLC circuit, the resonant frequency is given by, f r= √ LC (5)
2π