Research problem

Hypothesis
 Hypothesis

Hypothesis:

The term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of

the problem.

Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified

empirically and based on some rationale.

Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in

research. Its main function is to suggest new experiments and
observations.
 Hypothesis

Definitions of Hypothesis:

“A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which

remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may
be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes basis for
further investigation.” Lundberg

“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally

adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further
investigation.” John W. Best
 Hypothesis
Characteristics of Hypothesis:

1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not

clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be
taken as reliable.
2. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. Some prior study
may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a
testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can
be made from it which can be confirmed or disproved by
observation.”

“students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in

creativity than students not receiving counselling.”
 Hypothesis

Characteristics of Hypothesis:

3. Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it

happens to be a relational hypothesis.
4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A
researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally
more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.

“Higher the poverty, higher the illiteracy in society, higher will be

the rate of crime”
 Hypothesis
Characteristics of Hypothesis:

5. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple

terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned.
6. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e. it
must be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In
other words, it should be one which judges accept as being the
most likely.
7. The hypotheses selected should be amenable to testing within a
reasonable time. The researcher should not select a problem which
involves hypotheses that are not agreeable to testing within a
reasonable and specified time. He must know that there are
problems that cannot be solved for a long time to come.
 Hypothesis

Characteristics of Hypothesis:

8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other
known and accepted generalizations, one should be able to deduce
the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually
explain what it claims to explain, it should have empirical
reference.
 Hypothesis
Nature of Hypothesis:

1. Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the

framework are involved in a hypothesis.
2. Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal
expression of ideas and concepts. It is not merely mental idea but
in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical
verification.
3. It represents the tentative relationship between two or more
variables.
4. Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It
relates to the future verification not the past facts and
information.
5. Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are
designed for verification of hypothesis.
 Hypothesis
Significance of a Hypothesis:

(i) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the
important function of linking together related facts and
information and organizing them into wholes.”
(ii) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, “The
use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate
gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to
the problem under study.”
(iii) Guiding Light: “A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that
lights the way for the research work.”
(iv) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of
irrelevant literature and the collection of useful or excess data.
 Hypothesis
Significance of a Hypothesis:

(v) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which

are irrelevant from the standpoint of problem at hand.
(vi) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity
his problem.
(vii) It is an indispensable research instrument, for it builds a
bridge between the problem and the location of empirical
evidence that may solve the problem.
(viii) It provides the investigator with the most efficient
instrument for exploring and explaining the unknown facts.
(ix) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.
(x) It stimulates the investigator for further research.
 Hypothesis
Types of Hypothesis:

If hypotheses are classified in relation to their functions, we

have two types:-
Descriptive hypotheses: These are propositions which
describe the characteristics of a variable, e.g., income,
expenditure, hours of work, size of public sector
undertakings, etc. The variable may be an object, person,
organization, situation or event. In these cases, the
hypotheses asserts a particular characteristic. Statements
about the rate of inflation during a given period, the number
of unemployed in a certain region, the rate of growth of
agricultural products in a certain state, the income level of
certain class of people, etc., describe particular
characteristics.
 Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis:

If hypotheses are classified in relation to their functions, we

have two types:-
Relational hypotheses: These are propositions which
describe the relationship between two variables. This type
of hypotheses state that something is greater or less than
something or one variable occurs in a certain proposition of
time of another variable. For example, families with small
income spend large proportion of their income on
necessities, increase in standard of living tends to reduce in
income helps in increasing expenditure, etc.
 Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis:

Another approach is to classify hypotheses into three

types:

Working Hypotheses: Hypotheses are formulated while

planning the study of a problem. They may not be
specific in the initial stages. In such cases, they are
called “working hypotheses.” Such hypotheses are
subject to change or modification in the course of
investigation.
 Hypothesis
Types of Hypothesis:

Another approach is to classify hypotheses into three

types:

Null Hypotheses: These are hypothetical statements and they

deny what is stated in working hypotheses. They do not, and
are not ever expected to, exist in reality. We discuss these type
of hypotheses subsequently in the section on testing of
hypothesis. There is some justification for using null
hypotheses. They ensure detachment and objectivity in testing
the hypothesis. Moreover, statements like “education does not
increase the earning capacity of an individual” is a null
hypothesis.
 Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis:

Another approach is to classify hypotheses into three

types:

Alternative Hypotheses: The formulation of an alternate

hypothesis is a convention in scientific circles. Its main
function is to explicitly specify the relationship that will be
considered as true in case the research hypothesis proves to be
wrong. Moreover, statements like “education does increase
the earning capacity of an individual” is an alternative
hypothesis.
 Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis:

Another approach is to classify hypotheses into three

types:

Statistical Hypotheses: These are statements about a

statistical population. The statements are derived from a
sample drawn from a given population. Statistical hypothesis
are quantitative in nature as they are numerically measureable.
These hypotheses can be hypotheses of difference or
association, i.e., we can formulate them as null hypotheses or
causal hypotheses.
 Hypothesis

Sources of Hypothesis:

Hypotheses may be developed from a variety of sources. Some

of them are as follows:-

Observation: Hypotheses can be derived from observation.

Relation between personality, leadership style and employee
satisfaction or relationship between accident and climate
change are hypothesized from observation.
 Hypothesis
Sources of Hypothesis:

Hypotheses may be developed from a variety of sources. Some

of them are as follows:-

Theory:

A theory represents what is known and logical deductions from

the theory lead to new hypotheses, which must be true if the
theory is true, e.g., various hypotheses are derived from the
theory based on profit maximization as the aim of a private
enterprise. New hypotheses may be derived from the
established theory by method of logical induction or logical
deduction.
 Hypothesis
Sources of Hypothesis:

Hypotheses may be developed from a variety of sources. Some

of them are as follows:-

Culture:

A very important and major source of hypotheses is the culture

or the socio-economic background in which a researcher has
grown. Hypotheses regarding relationships between caste and
family size, or income level and education level depend on the
socio-economic background. In India, caste system plays an
important role in determining socio-economic status, the same
may not be the case of some other country.
 Hypothesis
Sources of Hypothesis:

Hypotheses may be developed from a variety of sources. Some

of them are as follows:-

Findings of other studies:

Hypotheses may also be developed from the findings of other
studies. This can happen when a study is repeated under
different circumstances or different time periods or for a
different type of population. The findings of an exploratory
studies may be formulated as hypotheses for other structured
studies which aim at testing a hypothesis, e.g., the concept of
trickle down effect of economic growth, later on becomes a
testable hypotheses.
 Hypothesis
Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:

Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –

versa is a critical ingredient of the research to demonstration
process.

The following are the difficulties in the formulation of

hypothesis:

1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.

2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework
logically.
3. Lack of familiarity with available research technique resulting
in failure to be able to phrase the hypothesis properly.
 Hypothesis
Examples: hypothesis formulation

Suppose you want to study the smoking pattern in a

community in relation to gender differentials.

The following hypotheses could be constructed:

1. There is no significant difference in the proportion of male
and female smokers in the study population.
2. A greater proportion of females than males are smokers in
the study population.
3. A total of 60 per cent of females and 30 per cent of males in
the study population are smokers.
4. There are twice as many female smokers as male smokers in
the study population.
 Hypothesis
Errors in testing a hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumption that may prove to be either correct
or incorrect. It is possible to arrive at an incorrect conclusion
about a hypothesis for a variety of reasons. Incorrect conclusions
about the validity of a hypothesis may be drawn if:

• the study design selected is faulty;

• the sampling procedure adopted is faulty;
• the method of data collection is inaccurate;
• the analysis is wrong;
• the statistical procedures applied are inappropriate;
or
• the conclusions drawn are incorrect.
Errors in testing a hypothesis
Hypothesis

• Rejection of a null hypothesis when it is true. This is known as

a Type I error.
• Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is false. This is known
as a Type II error.
 Hypothesis
Assignment or Exercises

1. Tentative TITLE of your study

2. Research Problem

3. Review of Literature for your study

4. Theoretical or conceptual framework of your study

5. Delimitations of your study

6. Variables in your study

7. Write down your preliminary or main hypotheses