28 Chapter 2 The Optical Fiber

2.7.3 Single-Mode Graded-Index Fibers

It is possible to make single-mode graded-index fibers. The cutoff value of V for single-mode
operation in a fiber with a graded refractive index profile that follows Eq. 2.31 on page 25 is
different from the 2.405 value used for a step-index fiber. For a parabolic-index fiber (g = 2) the
cutoff value is 3.53; for a triangular-index profile (g = 1), it is 4.38 [20]. An estimate of the cutoff
value of V for single-mode propagation in a graded-index fiber can be shown to be [7]

Vco ~ 2.405Jl + (2/g). (2.39)

If other parameters are the same, the core diameter of the graded-index single-mode fiber can
be a factor of JI+ (2/g) larger than the equivalent step-index fiber. This provides an increased
ease of coupling light, an increased ease in splicing, and a reduction in the susceptibility of the
fiber to microbend-induced losses (discussed in Chapter 3). A parabolic-index fiber (g = 2)
provides an improvement by a factor of J2; the triangular-profile fiber (g = 1) provides a y'3
improvement.

2.8 Summary
In this chapter we have introduced the fiber and some of the parameters used to describe the
fiber's performance. The basic optical fiber consists of a core and a cladding; more advanced
designs can add more cladding layers. The refractive index profile is generally modeled as either
a step profile or a power-law profile described by Eq. 2.31 on page 25. We have seen that a
fiber can be designed to be either single-mode or multimode. In a multimode fiber, the fiber V-
parameter, diameter 2a, and the fiber numerical aperture are three of the prime fiber parameters.
In a single-mode fiber the mode field diameter and cutoff wavelength describe its characteristics.
Multimode fibers (especially graded-index fibers) are used for applications calling for moderate
distances or data rates or both. The larger core size makes coupling light into them relatively
easy. Their primary disadvantage is a lack of bandwidth capacity (compared to single-mode
fibers). Also, because of the mode mixing effects described, it is difficult to model and predict
the loss mechanisms in the fiber and at connections and splices.
Single-mode fibers are currently the fiber of choice for applications combining long-distance
and high data-rate. Their advantages in high data-capacity and low attenuation have overcome
the disadvantages of more difficult fabrication tolerances and more difficult coupling of light
from the source. Currently, single-mode fibers are price-competitive with most multimode fibers.
Single-mode fibers are more susceptible to increases in losses (excess losses)' due to bends in the
fiber as it turns corners and to losses induced by core-diameter fluctuations because of spooling
and handling.
Both multimode and single-mode fibers are readily available commercially. The choice of the
fiber type is dictated by the system design trade-offs described in Chapter ;7.

2.9 Problems
1. If n = 1.5, calculate the velocity of light in glass.
2. (a) Find n2 if~= 1% and ni = 1.48.
(b) ... if ~ = 2%?
2.9 Problems 29

(c) ... if~= 0.1%?

3. Light traveling in air strikes a glass plate with an angle of incidence of 57°. If the reflected and
refracted beams make an angle of 90° with each other, ...

(a) ... calculate the refractive index of the glass.

(b) What is the critical angle for this material if the light travels from glass into air?

4. A point source of light is located 1 m below a water-air interface. Find the radius of the light
circle seen by an observer positioned over the source (outside of the water). The refractive index
of water is 1.333.
5. (a) Consider a fiber with a 100 µm core diameter and a 140 µm cladding diameter. Ifni= 1.48
and~= 1%, calculate the V-parameter if the operating wavelength is 850 nm.

(b) .. . if the wavelength is 1300 nm?

(c) Find the value of Vat a wavelength of 850 nm if the diameter of the core is 50 µm?
6. (a) Calculate the number of modes for each case described in the previous problem.
(b) Calculate the percentage of the optical power that is carried in the cladding for each case
described in the prior problem.
7. (a) Calculate the numerical aperture of a step-index fiber having a core index of 1.47 and a
cladding index of 1.45.
(b) Find the value of the largest angle made by a ray that is accepted by the fiber if the outer
medium is air.
(c) ... if the outer medium is water? (n = 1.33)
8. (a) Determine the mode parameter V at 820 nm for a step-index fiber with a 50 µm core diameter,
ni = 1.47 and n2 = 1.45.
(b) How many modes will propagate in this fiber at 820 nm?
(c) .. . at 1300 nm?
(d) What percentage of the optical power is fl.owing in the cladding for each operating wavelength?
9. (a) Find the core diameter required to ensure single-mode operation of a step-index fiber with
ni = 1.485 and n2 = 1.480 at a wavelength of 820 nm. At 1300 nm?
(b) What are the NA and Omax for this fiber?
10. (a) Design a single-mode step-index fiber for operation at 1300 nm with a fused silica core (n 1 =
1.458). Find n2 and the diameter of the core.
(b) Is the fiber still single-mode at 820 nm? If not, how many modes are there?
(c) Calculate the cutoff wavelength Ac.
11. (a) Consider a step-index fiber with a core diameter of 50 µm, a core index of 1.450, and a
fractional index difference of 1.3%. Find the values of the V-parameter and NA of the fiber
if the operating wavelength is 820 nm.
(b) Does the number of modes in the fiber increase or decrease if ni increases?
(c) . . . if .A increases?
12. A step-index fiber has ncore = 1.450, nc1adding = 1.440, and will operate at 820 nm.

(a) Find the diameter of the core that will ensure single-mode operation.
(b) If the core diameter is 50 µm, how many modes will the fiber have?
(c) Calculate the numerical aperture of the fibers in parts (a) and (b).
30 Chapter 2 The Optical Fiber

13. Calculate V and the numerical aperture of a step-index multimode fiber if n 1 = 1.450, ~ = 1.3%,
Ao= 0.82 µm, and a= 25 µm.
14. Design a single-mode fiber (with V =
2.3) for operation at 1300 nm with a fused silica core
(n1 = 1.458). The numerical aperture of the fiber is to be 0.10.
(a) Find the cladding index n2 and the radius a of the fiber.
(b) Calculate the approximate number of modes in the fiber for operation at 820 nm.

15. Using a computer, plot the power-law refractive index profile from n 1 to n 2 vs. radial position for
g = 1, 2, 4, 8 and oo. Assume a core diameter of 50 µm, n 1 = 1.480, and~= 1.00%.
16. (a) Calculate the number of modes in a 50/125 graded-index fiber having a parabolic index (i.e.,
g = 2.0), ni = 1.485 and n2 = 1.460 at an operating wavelength of 820 nm.
(b) . . . at a wavelength of 1300 nm?
(c) Calculate the number of modes in an equivalent step-index fiber at both wavelengths.
17. Prove Eq. 2.15 on page 19 by applying Snell's law at the fiber input face for the ray that meets
the critical angle condition at the core-cladding interface. For generality, assume that the medium
outside the fiber has an index no and then check the equation for no = 1.

References
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