Md.

Samaul Alam
Lecturer
Leather Engineering
University of Dhaka
Colour and Vision
Syllabus: Theories of colour vision; Attributes of color, Discrimination of color attributes; Colour
space; Sensitivity of retinal cones; Method of investigating the perception of color, Color
appearance phenomena.

Colour:
Colour: The quality of an object or substance with respect to light reflected by the object, usually
determined visually by measurement of hue, saturation, and brightness of the reflected light;
saturation or chroma; hue.
Colour is defined as an attribute of things that results from the light they reflect, transmit, or emit
in so far as this light causes a visual sensation that depends on its wavelengths.
It is a sensation that adds excitement and emotion to our lives. Color can also be used to describe
emotion. To understand color, we need a brief overview of light. Without light, there would be no
color.
Description of Color
Hue is the name of the color itself, the dominant wavelength of light or the choice of pigment.
Lightness (brightness) - Is the lightness or darkness of the color, the amount of light reflected or
transmitted.

Saturation - Is the level of white, black or grey, ranges from neutral to brilliant (pastel to full color).
Value-How light or dark a color is.
CHROMA: Saturation or purity of a color from its most vivid pure to its lightest tint.
TEXTURE: The surface properties of a color as in shiny or matte, reflective or diffusing
Aggressive-AKA 'Warm'. The yellows, oranges, and reds. These come towards the eye more
(spatially) and are generally louder than passive colors.

Passive-AKA 'Cool'. The greens, blues, and violets. These recede from the eye more (spatially)
and are generally 'quieter' than the aggressive colors. Light is made up of energy waves which are
grouped together in what is called a spectrum. Light that appears white to us, such as light from
the sun, is actually composed of many colors. The wavelengths of light are not colored, but produce
the sensation of color.

Electromagnetic radiation spectrum, electromagnetic spectrum refers to the complete range of

wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum includes the following
different types of of radiation (from lowest energy to highest): radio, microwaves, infrared, visible,
ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma-rays

Black is the absence of color (and is therefore not a color)

White is the blending of all colors and is a color.

Explanation:

Light appears colorless or white. Sunlight is white light that is composed of all the colors of the
spectrum. A rainbow is proof. You can't see the colors of sunlight except when atmospheric
conditions bend the light rays and create a rainbow. You can also use a prism to demonstrate this.

Colour can be described by the three (hue, value and chroma) properties.

Hue: Hue is what makes a color identifiable and different from any other color, e.g. orange, red-
orange, red.) Hues are determined (and can be measured) by a color's wavelength. There are
millions of hues around the color wheel chart, but the human eye & brain cannot distinguish them
all from each other.)

The hue is the pure range of colors and their pigment on the color wheel. The color wheel consists
of primary, secondary, and tertiary colors. This includes:

• The three primary colors: red, yellow, and blue

• The three secondary colors: orange, green, and purple

• The six tertiary colors: yellow-orange, red-orange, red-violet, blue-violet, blue-green,

and yellow-green.

Black, white, and gray aren't considered hues and don't form part of the color wheel. They're
defined as 'neutral colors.' A hue contains no added black, white, or gray.
•
Value: The value of a color is its relative lightness or darkness (i.e. whiteness or blackness),
irrespective of its saturation. The level of color lightness or darkness determined by the addition
of white (which makes a tint) or black (which makes a shade). A bright color may appear faded,
while a darker color may resemble black.

Saturation / Chroma: Saturation is the degree of intensity ('chroma'), purity and brilliance of a
color. You can gradually desaturate a color by adding black, white or grey, or by mixing it with
another color that has itself been muddied down (brown is a good candidate for desaturating other
colors). A completely desaturated color is called achromatic (=colorless). A color with high
saturation is a pure hue, while a color with low saturation has a tone of gray. The higher the
saturation, the higher the intensity or purity of the color.

Some Definition of Color Concept

Tint: A tint is a color plus white. The addition of white makes the color paler and less saturate.
(Another word for 'tint' is 'pastel'). In English color terminology, the only tint that comes with its
own name is pink (a tint of red). All other tints are just called 'light blue', 'light green'

Shade: A shade is a color plus black. Dark blue, in other words, is blue that has been darkened by
adding black.

Tone: A tone is a color plus grey (i.e. white as well as black). When you add white & black to a
color, it will look 'toned down', i.e. less brilliant and saturate.
Color temperature

When creatives speak about color temperature, it refers to the perceived warmth or coolness of
colors. It's often categorized into two groups:

• Warm colors (reds, oranges, yellows) that evoke feelings of warmth, energy, and positivity

• Cool colors (blues, greens, purples) that often elicit feelings of calmness, relaxation, and
serenity

In technical terms, color temperature is measured in Kelvin (K). In photography and lighting,
higher color temperatures (over 5000K) are cool (blue or green) colors, while lower color
temperatures (under 3000K) refer to warm (red and yellow) colors.

Hue vs color: which one to use?

Hue refers to the dominant color family (red, blue, green, etc.), and color is the general term that
encompasses hue, chroma, and value. Hues are the pure forms of primary, secondary, and tertiary
colors. But you can use the term 'color' to refer to all of these plus neutral pigments, color tints,
gray tones, shade mixtures, and everything in between.
Color vision Theory:
The trichromatic theory of color vision, also known as Young-Helmholtz theory, is a fundamental
concept in understanding how humans perceive color. Proposed independently by Thomas Young
in 1802 and later expanded upon by Hermann von Helmholtz in the mid-19th century, this theory
suggests that the human visual system is primarily sensitive to three different colors: red, green,
and blue. These three colors are often referred to as the primary colors of light.

3 Different Cone Receptors are involved.

• Short-wavelength cone receptors (S-cones)

• Medium-wavelength cone receptors (M-cones)

• Long-wavelength cone receptors (L-cones)

1. Photoreceptors: The human retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells that are
responsible for detecting light and initiating the process of vision - rods and cones. Cones
are the photoreceptors responsible for color vision and are concentrated mainly in the
central region of the retina known as the fovea.

2. Types of Cones: Within the cones, there are three types of photopigments, each sensitive
to different wavelengths of light. These photopigments are sensitive to short (blue) S,
medium (green) M, and long (red) wavelengths L of light. Each type of cone is most
sensitive to a specific range of wavelengths, but they can also respond to a certain extent
to other wavelengths.
 3. Color Perception: According to the trichromatic theory, the perception of color arises from
the relative levels of stimulation of these three types of cones in response to different
wavelengths of light. When light enters the eye and stimulates the cones, the brain
processes the relative levels of activation of the three cone types to determine the color of
the light.

4. Color Mixing: The trichromatic theory explains how humans perceive a wide range of
colors by combining different levels of stimulation of the three cone types. For example,
when red and green light are mixed, the brain perceives the color yellow because both the
red-sensitive and green-sensitive cones are being stimulated.

5. Opponent Process Theory: While the trichromatic theory explains how cones detect
different wavelengths of light, it doesn't fully explain certain color phenomena, such as
afterimages and color contrasts. To address these phenomena, the opponent process theory
was proposed.

Opponent processes theory:

Ewald Hering, the father of the opponent processes theory made some very interesting
observations that could not be accounted for by the trichromatic theory. For example, he noted that
there are certain pairs of colors one never sees together at the same place and at the same time.

To put it another way, one does not see reddish greens or yellowish blues. We do see yellowish
greens, bluish reds, yellowish reds etc.
Hering also observed that there was a distinct pattern to the color of the after images we see. For
example, if one looks at a unique red patch for about a minute and then switches the gaze to a
homogeneous white area they will see a greenish patch in the white area.

Hering hypothesized that trichromatic signals from the cones fed into subsequent neural stages and
exhibited two major opponent classes of processing.

1. Spectrally opponent processes which were red vs. green and yellow vs. blue.

2. Spectrally non-opponent processes which was black vs. white.

This opponent process model lay relatively dormant for many years until a pair of visual scientists
working at Eastman Kodak at the time, conceived of a method for quantitatively measuring the
opponent processes responses. Leo Hurvich and Dorothea Jameson invented the hue cancellation
method to psychophysically evaluate the opponent processing nature of color vision.

Due in large measure to the efforts of Hurvich and Jameson the opponent processes theory attained
a central position shared with the the trichromatic theory. One very fortuitous scientific event to
that also took place in the 1950s was the discovery of electrophysiological responses that emulated
opponent processing. Consequently, with the quantitative data provided by the psychophysics and
direct neurophysiological responses provided by electrophysiology opponent processing is no
longer questioned. (RGCs- Retinal Ganglion Cell)
The Munsell Color System

1. Hue:

• Hue refers to the type of color, such as red, yellow, green, blue, etc.
 • Munsell divided the color wheel into 100 equal steps. Commonly, ten principal hues
(Red, Yellow-Red, Yellow, Green-Yellow, Green, Blue-Green, Blue, Purple-Blue,
Purple, and Red-Purple) are used, each divided into 10 sub-hues.

2. Value:

• Value describes the lightness or darkness of a color.

• It is represented on a scale from 0 (black) to 10 (white), with intermediate values

representing various shades of gray.

3. Chroma:

• Chroma measures the purity or intensity of a color.

• The scale starts at 0 (neutral gray) and increases as the color becomes more
saturated. There is no fixed upper limit to the chroma scale; it varies depending on
the hue and value.

Munsell Notation

A specific color in the Munsell system is denoted by its hue, value, and chroma. For example, a
color might be described as "5R 4/14," where:

• "5R" indicates the hue (red, in this case).

• "4" indicates the value (how light or dark the color is).

• "14" indicates the chroma (the saturation or intensity of the color).

Components:

1. Hue: The basic color or shade, such as red, blue, green, etc.

2. Whiteness: The amount of white in the color.

3. Blackness: The amount of black in the color.

4. Full Color: The pure, undiluted color without any white or black added.

Principles of the System

1. Color Wheel: Ostwald's color system is based on a color wheel consisting of 24 hues,
arranged in a circle. These hues are the purest and most saturated colors.

2. Tints and Shades: Each hue can be mixed with varying amounts of white to create tints
and with black to create shades. The system categorizes these mixtures systematically.
3. Double Cones: Ostwald represented colors in a double-cone model. The top cone
represents the addition of white to the hues (tints), and the bottom cone represents the
addition of black (shades). The base of the cone where the hues are the most saturated is
the equator of the model.

4. Color Notation: Colors are described using a notation that indicates their hue, whiteness,
and blackness. For example, a notation might include a specific hue number, followed by
numbers indicating the levels of white and black.

5. Complementary Colors: The system also identifies complementary colors, which are
located directly opposite each other on the color wheel. These colors, when mixed, produce
a neutral gray.

• e.g: Light blue = Hue 8 - 50% W - 0% B

CIE= “Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage”
CIE 1931 Color Space

The CIE 1931 color space is one of the most important and widely used color spaces. It is based
on the trichromatic theory of color vision, which assumes that the human eye has three types of
color receptors sensitive to red, green, and blue light. This color space includes:

1. CIE 1931 RGB Color Space: An additive color space based on the red, green, and blue
primaries.

2. CIE 1931 XYZ Color Space: A linear transformation of the RGB color space that is
designed to be more perceptually uniform. The Y component corresponds to the luminance,
while X and Z are chromaticity components.

Chromaticity Diagram

The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram is a two-dimensional representation of color. It shows the
chromaticity of colors, with the x-axis representing the X component and the y-axis representing
the Y component (or chromaticity coordinates x and y). This diagram helps visualize color
relationships and gamut.
Non-Spectral Color
Colors that cannot be represented by a single wavelength of light, such as purples and magentas,
which result from mixing multiple wavelengths.
Dominant Wavelength
The wavelength of monochromatic light that most closely matches a given color when mixed with
white light.

Color Mixing
Combining different colors of light (additive mixing) or pigments (subtractive mixing) to create
new colors.
Complementary Colors
Pairs of colors that combine to produce a neutral color (grey, white, or black). On the CIE
chromaticity diagram, they lie on opposite sides.

Color Gamut
The complete range of colors that can be reproduced by a particular device or system, represented
as a region on the CIE chromaticity diagram.
Methods of Investigating the Perception of Color

The perception of color is a multifaceted phenomenon that integrates physical, physiological, and
psychological processes, requiring a multidisciplinary exploration involving optics, neuroscience,
psychology, and linguistics. Various methods employed to investigate color perception include
psychophysical methods, neuroimaging techniques, genetic studies, computational models, and
behavioral studies, each contributing unique insights.

Psychophysical methods are fundamental in exploring the relationship between physical stimuli
and the sensations they produce. For example, in color matching experiments, subjects might be
asked to adjust the intensity of red, green, and blue lights to match a reference yellow light. This
method, forming the basis of the CIE 1931 color space, helps establish how the eye responds to
different wavelengths. Another psychophysical method is color discrimination, where subjects
determine if pairs of colors are the same or different, such as distinguishing between two shades
of blue. This measures the just noticeable difference (JND) in color perception, essential in quality
control for industries like textiles, leather and printing. Hue scaling, where subjects rate colors on
a scale based on perceived hue, helps map out the perceptual color space. For instance, subjects
might rate various shades of green, aiding in understanding how people categorize and differentiate
hues.

Neuroimaging techniques provide insights into the brain’s activity and structure as it processes
color information. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) can show that regions like V1,
V2, and V4 are activated when subjects view colors. For example, fMRI studies might show
increased activity in these areas when subjects look at red versus blue objects. Electro-
encephalography (EEG) records the brain’s electrical activity in response to color stimuli,
revealing the timing of these processes. For instance, EEG can track the brain’s immediate
response when a subject sees a sudden flash of color. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses
radioactive tracers to visualize metabolic processes, showing, for example, how the brain's energy
use changes when distinguishing between similar colors like lime green and forest green.

Genetic studies delve into the genetic basis of color vision. Gene identification, such as
sequencing the genomes of individuals with color vision deficiencies, can identify specific genes
responsible for color perception, like the OPN1LW gene, which affects red-green color vision.
Twin studies, comparing color perception between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic
(fraternal) twins, reveal the heritability of color vision traits. For instance, if identical twins both
have color blindness, this suggests a strong genetic component. Population genetics studies
examine the prevalence of color vision deficiencies in different ethnic groups. For example, red-
green color blindness is more common in Northern European populations, offering insights into
evolutionary adaptations.

Computational models simulate the mechanisms of color perception through algorithms and
simulations. Cone response models, simulating how retinal cones respond to different
wavelengths, can predict color perception at the retinal level. For example, these models help
design color correction algorithms for cameras and displays. Opponent process models simulate
how the brain processes color contrasts, explaining phenomena like afterimages—seeing a green
afterimage after staring at a red object. Computational neuroscience models simulate the entire
visual pathway, aiding in developing artificial vision systems. For instance, these models can be
used to create more realistic color experiences in virtual reality (VR) environments.

Behavioral studies examine how people perceive and interact with colors in various contexts.
Color naming studies might involve subjects naming different shades of blue, revealing how
language influences color perception. For instance, some cultures have multiple names for what
English speakers simply call “blue.” Color context effects explore how surrounding colors affect
the perception of a target color. For example, a gray square might appear slightly tinted if placed
on a red background. This context-dependent nature of color perception is crucial for design, art,
and visual ergonomics. Color preference surveys ask subjects about their favorite colors in
different contexts, such as choosing colors for a room. These studies explore the psychological
aspects of color perception, providing valuable insights for marketing and branding strategies.

Colorimeter

A colorimeter is a crucial tool in studying and applying color perception, providing precise and
objective color measurements. It ensures accurate and consistent color data, which is essential
for scientific research and industrial quality control. In fields like graphic design, photography,
and digital imaging, colorimeters are used to calibrate displays, printers, and other color-critical
devices, maintaining color fidelity. They help industries such as textiles, leather, plastics, and
coatings create precise color matches for their products. In psychophysical experiments,
colorimeters ensure accurate color presentation, leading to reliable data when investigating
color discrimination and matching. They also assess how individuals with color vision
deficiencies perceive colors, aiding in the development of diagnostic tools. Additionally,
colorimeters measure the color of light in different environments to understand how lighting
conditions affect color perception. In material science, they study the stability of colors in
materials under various conditions, improving the durability of colored products.
Hunter L,a,b

The Hunter L, a, b color space plays a significant role in the investigation and application of
color perception by providing a standardized and quantitative way to describe colors. This
color space, developed by Richard Hunter, quantifies colors based on three axes: L (lightness),
a (green to red), and b (blue to yellow). It is widely used in industries for quality control, ensuring
color consistency in products like textiles, leather, paints, and plastics. In scientific research, the
Hunter L, a, b color space aids in psychophysical experiments by offering an objective framework
to measure and compare colors perceived by subjects. This standardized color space also assists
in studying color vision deficiencies, allowing researchers to accurately characterize how
colors are perceived differently by individuals with such conditions. Additionally, it is crucial
for calibrating color measurement devices like colorimeters and spectrophotometers, ensuring that
these instruments provide consistent and accurate readings across various applications.
Metamerism

Metamerism plays a crucial role in the study and application of color perception by highlighting
the challenges of color consistency under varying lighting conditions. This phenomenon occurs
when two colors appear identical under one light source but different under another due to
their distinct spectral power distributions. Understanding metamerism is vital in industries such
as textiles, leather, printing, and paint manufacturing, where consistent color appearance is
essential. By studying metamerism, researchers and manufacturers can develop methods to
minimize its effects, ensuring that colors remain true to their intended appearance across different
lighting environments.
Color matching

Color matching plays a pivotal role in the study and application of color perception by ensuring
that colors are consistently reproduced across different materials and lighting conditions. It
involves adjusting the proportions of primary colors to achieve a target color, a process
fundamental in industries like textiles, leather, printing, and paint manufacturing. Accurate color
matching ensures that products meet quality standards and customer expectations. In scientific
research, color matching experiments help understand how people perceive color differences and
similarities, providing insights into the human visual system and aiding in the development of
color management technologies.
Color appearance phenomena

High fidelity digital printing plays a crucial role in high fidelity color transmission and
reproduction, enabling accurate color reproduction of originals that traditional printing processes,
limited by paper and ink, cannot achieve. In color printing, color differences arise from paper,
ink, and viewing conditions, affecting not only colorimetric differences but also color
appearance phenomena. The leading factor influencing perceived color vision is these different
color appearance phenomena. Evaluating reproduction quality involves visually assessing
perceived color relations under various viewing conditions. High fidelity printing aims to
achieve the same color appearance, not just colorimetric or color density consistency. This paper
studies common color appearance phenomena to describe color appearance models qualitatively
and quantitatively, facilitating accurate color reproduction.

Viewing Conditions

Achieving high fidelity color reproduction is a central field in color science. Perception varies
when the same color is viewed under different conditions, including lighting, medium,
background, surround, and the observer. The relationships between these viewing conditions
are illustrated in Fig. 1.

• Area 1: Color pixel stimulus (object color sample), typically viewed in a 2° area.

• Area 2: Core area adjacent to Area 1, known as the neighborhood area.

• Area 3: Background area stretching from Area 2 to the 10° viewing angle.

• Area 4: Surround area, usually outside the background.

The interaction between the object color stimulus and its neighborhood area is crucial in prepress
color image processing, especially in spatial color gamut mapping.

Color Appearance Phenomena

Color appearance phenomena refer to the perceived color changes with varying viewing
conditions. Even under consistent viewing conditions, perceived color can differ due to
neighborhood pixel influence. This phenomenon is crucial for accurate color reproduction.

Simultaneous Contrast/Induction

Simultaneous contrast or induction is a common phenomenon in prepress image processing and

color display on monitors. It demonstrates that perception of two identical color patches can vary
based on their background (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3).
For instance, a color patch appears lighter on a dark background and darker on a white
background. This contrast effect follows the opponent color theory, where colors induce their
complementary colors (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5).

Crispening Phenomenon

Crispening refers to the increased color difference perception between similar color patches
under the same background. This effect is more pronounced when the object color is similar to
the background (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7).

Color Difference Spreading

When the spatial distribution frequency of color samples increases or their size diminishes,
simultaneous contrast disappears, and spreading occurs. This effect mixes the color stimulus
with its surrounding viewing condition (Fig. 8).
Bezold-Brucke Effect

This effect describes how perceived color tone shifts with changes in lightness. The
relationship between perceived energy and color vision is nonlinear, making color appearance
dynamic under varying monochromatic light conditions (Fig. 9).

Hunt Effect

Hunt effect indicates that colorfulness increases with luminance, highlighting the impact of
absolute lightness on color appearance. This phenomenon is significant in cross-media color
reproduction but is often overlooked in foundational colorimetry.
Stevens Effect

Steven’s effect describes how relative lightness increases with the luminance of the adaptive field,
resulting in higher contrast as dark tones become darker and light tones become lighter. This
effect shows that higher illumination enhances the overall contrast in our visual perception. (Fig.
10).

Discounting-the-Illuminant

This phenomenon refers to observers' cognitive ability to perceive object colors consistently
despite changes in illumination. Discounting-the-illuminant is the ability of our eyes to perceive
the true color of an object despite changes in lighting conditions. It is crucial for creating color
appearance models for both reflective materials (like paper) and self-luminous displays (like
monitors).
Abney Effect

The Abney effect describes how the hue of a color changes when its purity is altered by adding
white light. Abney effect involves hue changes with colorimetric purity. Mixing
monochromatic light with white light changes its color tone, demonstrating the nonlinear
relationship between constant color tone and wavelength. For example, if you add white light to a
pure red light, the red may start to appear more orange or pink. This means that as the color
becomes less saturated (more pastel), its perceived hue shifts. (Fig. 11).
Other Phenomena

Other color appearance phenomena include:

• Helmholtz-Kohlrausch Effect: Perception of increased colorfulness with increased

brightness.

• Helson-Judd Effect: Influence of the surrounding environment on color perception.

• Brtleson-Breneman Effect: Perception of color constancy despite varying illumination.