Unit -2 Environmental

UNIT-5-Environmental Pollution
Pollution and Control
Environmental pollution or simply pollution refers to undesirable changes occurring in the
physical, chemical, and biological composition of natural environment consisting of air,
water, and soil. Pollution also means the presence of harmful pollutants in an environment
that makes this environment unhealthy to live in.
According to National Academy of Science, USA (1966), pollution is defined as, “An
undesirable change in physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water, air, and soil
that may harmfully affect human, animal, and plant life, industrial progress, living conditions
and cultural assets.
Pollution is also viewed as ‘an unfavourable alteration’ in the sustaining and carrying capacity
of the natural environment wholly or largely by the by products of human activities. Natural
environment has an inbuilt capacity to replenish the losses or reduction in its constituents to
restore it as sustainable and healthy as required.
Ever expanding population and evolution of man into modern homo sapiens have led to rapid
urbanization, industrialization and unprecedented rise in human habitations. All these human
endeavors have, in turn, virtually perpetuated deforestation, loss of habitats for flora and
fauna, depletion of natural resources at a large scale over the last couple of centuries, which
have told upon the inherent resilience of the natural environment. As a result, natural
environment continues to be undesirably polluted.
Pollutants
A pollutant is defined as any form of energy or matter or action that causes imbalance or
disequilibrium in the required composition of natural objects such as air, water, etc. A
pollutant creates damage by interfering directly or indirectly with the biogeochemical process
of an organism.
Pollutants may be −
• Natural Pollutants − Natural pollutants are caused by natural forces such as volcanic
eruption and forest fire.
• Man-made Pollutants − These refer to the release of excess amount of gases or matter
by human activities. For instance, increase in the number of automobiles adds excess
carbon monoxide to the atmosphere causing harmful effect on vegetation and human
health.
Classification of Pollution
Different types of pollution are classified based on the part of the environment which they
affect or result caused by a particular pollution. Each type of pollution has its own distinctive
cause and consequences.
The major types of pollution are as follows.

• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Noise pollution
• Soil or land pollution
• Thermal pollution
Every day, every moment, we breathe polluted air and may become a victim of air pollution.
It is estimated that an average adult exchanges 15 kg of air a day, in comparison to about 1.5
kg of the food consumed and 2.5 kg of water intake. It is obvious that the quantum of pollutants
that enter our body through respiration would be manifold in comparison to those taken in
through polluted water or contaminated food.
(I) Air Pollution
Air pollution is one of the most widespread forms of pollution all over the world. Wind is the
main agent of air pollution. It gathers and moves pollutants from one area to another,
sometimes reducing the concentration of pollutants in one location, while increasing it in
another.

Classification of air pollutants

The air pollutants can be classified in many ways as shown below:-

(i)According to origin: The air pollutants are classified into:

Primary pollutants:

The pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources produced by natural events

( eg: dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (eg: emissions from vehicles,
industries etc.) are called primary pollutants. Eg: smoke, dust, oxides of sulphur & nitrogen,
hydrocarbons and particulate matter etc.

Secondary pollutants:
The pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions between primary
pollutants and atmospheric constituents are known as secondary pollutants. Eg. Sulphur
trioxide, ozone, ketones, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc.

(ii)According to state of matter: The pollutants are classified into:-

Gaseous air pollutants:

These pollutants exist in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. They are carbon
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur oxides etc.

Particulate air pollutants:

These are not gaseous substances. They are suspended droplets, solid particles or mixtures of
the two.

(iii) According to sources: Pollutants originate from

Natural sources:

These include volcanic eruptions, deflation of sand and dust, forest or wild fires of natural
vegetation, sulphur springs, natural geysers, organic and inorganic decays, vegetative decays,
marsh gases, cosmic dust, pollen grains of flowers, photochemical reactions, soil debris etc.

Man-made sources:

These include human activities such as industries, factories, urban centres, aircraft, nuclear
experiments, automobiles, agriculture, domestic burning of wood and burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation, mining, waste treatment plants and power plants.

ch is injurious to health, of human, animal or plant life or which interferes with the
comfortable enjoyment of life and prosperity” is known as air pollution.
Causes of Air Pollution
Apart from the natural causes of pollutants, as stated above, human interaction and resource
utilization is perhaps adding more pollutants to the atmosphere.
• Industrialization − Industries big or small require steam to run. The steam is produced
by burning fossil fuels such as coal, coke, and furnace oil. These fuels while burning
release toxic gases in large amount into the atmosphere.
• Automobiles − To meet the demands of exploding human population, the number of
automobiles is increasing at a great space. The automobile exhausts are responsible
for about sixty percent of air pollution. Released carbon monoxide from the
automobiles pollutes the air and harms trees and other natural vegetation. It also has
ill-effects on human health.
• Chlorofluorocarbons − Scientists are now alarmed regarding the increased
concentration of chemical substances together called chlorofluorocarbon in the
atmosphere. These substances are responsible for creating holes in the ozone layer
 causing unwanted imbalance in the heat budget. These are produced by modern
gadgets such as air conditioners, refrigerators, dyers, etc.
• Burning of garbage: Burning of garbage pollutes the atmosphere by emitting such
gases as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter such
as dust, smoke etc.

The open burning of refuse & municipal incinerates are also responsible for air
pollution. Biomass burning like fires produce nitrogen dioxide into the atmosphere.
Nitrogen dioxide is readily soluble in water and forms nitric acid, which falls out in the
rain.

• Brick kilns: Brick kilns use biomass or coal to burn bricks. Biomass and coal releases
huge amount of carbon oxides and smoke and dust.

Airborne pollutants from other sources include insecticides, herbicides, radioactive

fallout and dust from fertilizers, mining operations and livestock feedlots.

The adverse effects of air pollution appear in the form of poor quality of air, acidic
precipitation (rain, snow and hail) and deposition, and other health hazards.
The main pollutants of air are carbon dioxide (CO2), carbonic acid (H 2SO2), water (H2O), nitric
acid (HNO3O), and sulphuric acid (H2SO4).

Effects of air pollution on living organisms

Exposure to carbon dioxide / carbon monoxide for several hours can cause collapse, coma and
even death. It also causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea. Carbon monoxide in
heavy traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision; in large doses, can cause death.

Sulphur dioxide irritates the respiratory tissues; causes bronchitis.

Nitrogen dioxide can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma and increase the susceptibility to
respiratory infections like influenza.

Suspended particles aggravate respiratory tract, leading to bronchitis and asthma. Prolonged
exposure can cause cancer.

Many volatile organic compounds (eg: benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates (eg:
lead and cadmium) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or cancer.

Repeated inhalation of ozone causes coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and irritation of the
eye, nose and throat.

Depletion in ozone layer due to CFCs. Depletion of ozone layer has serious effects on human
health like sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer. Plant and animal planktons
are damaged by UV radiation. In zoo plankton, the breeding period is shortened by changes
in radiation.
Damage to vegetation by air pollution is of many kinds. Sulphur dioxide may damage field
crops such as alfalfa and trees such as pines, especially during the growing season.

Effects of air pollution on plants

Chronic exposure of leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating that helps
prevent excessive water loss and leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost.

Such exposure interferes with photosynthesis and plant growth, reduces nutrient uptake and
causes the leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether.

At higher concentration of sulphur dioxide, most of the flower buds become stiff and hard;
eventually fall off from the plants, as they are unable to flower.

Prolonged exposure to high levels of pollutants from iron smelters, coal-burning power plants
and industrial units, as well as from vehicles, can damage trees and other plants.

Effects of air pollution on materials

Air pollutants break down the exterior paint on cars and houses.

Air pollution is also a major cause of acid rain. Acid rain means the presence of excessive
acids in rain water. Burning of coal, fuel wood or petroleum produces sulphur and nitrogen.
These react with oxygen and are converted into their respective oxides- sulphur dioxides and
nitrogen dioxides which are soluble in water. During a rain there oxides react with large
quantities of water vapour of the atmosphere to form acids like sulphuric acid, sulphurous
acid, nitric acid and nitrous acid. These acids when they precipitate together with rain or snow
create acid rain. Acid rains increase acidity in the soil and destroy forests and crops. It corrodes
buildings, monuments, statues etc.

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution control is an onerous task as there are large number of pollutants involved in air
pollution. Some of these are even difficult to detect. However, there can be some basic
approaches to control air pollution. They are as follows.
Preventive Approach
It is well said that prevention is better than cure. We can prevent pollutants of air from being
produced by various ways. For instance, by changing raw materials used in industry or the
ingredient of fuel from conventional to non-conventional sources of energy; by maintenance
of vehicles and roads and efficient transport system; by reduction in garbage burning and
shifting cultivation areas; afforestation, etc.
Dispersal Approach
We can prevent air pollution by raising the heights of smokestacks in industries so as to release
the pollutants high into the atmosphere.
Collection Approach
Air pollution can be controlled by designing the equipment and machinery to trap pollutants
before they escape into the atmosphere. To meet the standards, automobile engines have been
re-designed and new cars have been equipped with devices such as the catalytic converter,
which changes the pollutants into harmless substances. Because of these new devices, air
pollution from car exhaust has also been reduced.
Legislation Approach
There have been many initiatives in different countries for making laws, setting standards and
norms to check air pollution and ensure quality air. All the highly industrialized countries of
the world have certain legislations to prevent and control air pollution. As pollutants of air are
carried by the wind from one country to another for thousands of miles, there should be global
initiatives agreed upon by all countries to save the earth from the menace of air pollution.

PARTICULATE CONTROL DEVICES

The removal of particulate matter from gas stream is an essential step for air pollution control.
Following are the five important particulate collection devices are discussed below.
Gravity Settling Chamber: Gravity settling chamber is the simplest type of equipment used
for the collection of particulate matter. It requires manual cleaning at regular interval. It
consists of a long chamber through which the contaminated gas passes slowly, allowing time
for the particulate matter to settle under the force of gravity. They are used to remove large
particles (greater than 50μm). They offer low-pressure drop and requires little
maintenance but their efficiencies are quite low for fine particles. They are widely used for
the removal of large solid particulates. These devices are normally used as pre-cleaners prior
to passing the gas through high efficiency collection devices. They are, sometimes used as
first step in dust control in the process industries, particularly for smelters and metallurgical
processes.

Fabric Filter Fabric: Filters consists of yarns made from stranded fiber of a natural spun
staple or a synthetic continuous monofilament. They are usually formed in cylindrical tubes
and hung in multiple rows to provide large surface area for gas passage known as baghouse.
A baghouse is a house full of bags. The bags are usually made of cotton, wool, synthetic, or
glass fibres, and there may be hundreds of bags within one structure. The fabric filtration is a
well-known and practiced method for separating dry particles from a stream of gases (usually
air or combustion gases). The dusty gas flows into and through the fabric, leaving the dust on
the inside of the bag, while the cleaned gas exits through the bag to the other side
and then out the baghouse. There are many different types of fabrics, different sizes
of bags, different ways of flowing the gases through the bags, and different ways of
cleaning the bags within the baghouse. The extended operation of a baghouse requires that
the bags should be cleaned regularly .

Cyclone (Centrifugal) Separators: Cyclone separators or cyclones are devices that employ
a centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas stream to separate particles from the
carrier gas. Entrance of flow into cyclone can be axial or tangential through inlet section,
which can be in different shapes for each cyclone. Their simple design, low maintenance
costs, and adaptability to a wide range of operating conditions such as sizes and flow rates
make cyclones one of the most widely used particle removal devices. Small cyclones are
used to collect particles in the field of air pollution control for ambient sampling, while
large cyclones are used to remove particles from industrial gas streams. Cyclones are
particularly well suited for high temperature and pressure conditions because of their
rugged design and flexible component materials. They are used widely for control of
gas-borne particulates in such industrial operations as cement manufacture, feed and
grain processing, food and beverage processing, paper and textile industries and wood
working industries.

Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP): The Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or electro-filtration

is the most effective and widely used devices for controlling particulate emissions at
different installations ranging from power plant, cement factories, pulp and paper mills
to oil refineries. They can also be used for air cleaning in public buildings, theatres,
railway, cars, etc. Particles are electrically charged and attracted to collector surfaces.
The process of electrostatic precipitation involves the following:
1. The ionization of contaminated particles laden air flowing between electrodes
2. The migration and collection of the particles on oppositely charged plates
3. Knocking out particles off the plates and into hoppers
4. The removal of the material from the hoppers.
The air flows freely through the ESP, but the particles are left behind on the plates. The
collected material is periodically knocked off or washed off the plates, and is collected in the
bottom. The ESP is unique among air pollution control devices in that the forces of collection
act only on the particles and not on the entire air stream. This phenomenon typically results
in high collection efficiency with a very low air pressure drop [9, 10]. Electrostatic
Precipitators can be either single-stage or two-stage in design. ESP can also be classified,
as dry precipitators and wet precipitators, depending upon the mode of operation is a dry
process or a wet one.

Wet Collectors (Scrubbers): In air pollution control technology, the term scrubber
means a device for collecting fine particles on liquid drops. Wet scrubbers are devices,
which utilizes a liquid to assist in the removal of particulates from the carrier gas
stream. Mostly, water is used as the scrubbing liquid. In a wet collector, the dust is
agglomerated with water and then separated from the gas together with the water. Wet
scrubbers involve four major steps in collecting particles. The first of these is transport.
The particles must be moved to the vicinity of the water droplets that are usually 10 to
1000 times larger. The step is collision. The particle must collide with the droplet. The third
step is adhesion. Last step is precipitation, or removal of the droplet containing the dust
particle. There are different types of wet scrubbers such as spray towers, venturi-scrubbers,
cyclone scrubbers, packed scrubbers and mechanical scrubbers.

(II) Water Pollution

Introduction

Water pollution is a major problem in global context. It accounts for deaths of more than 14000
people daily. Comprising over 70% of the earth’s surface water is the most precious natural
resource that exists on our planet.

Definition

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies caused by human bodies which can be
harmful top organisms and plants that live in these water bodies. Excess of any material or
heat i.e. harmful to humans or animals or aquatic life. Quality or composition of water changes
directly or indirectly as a result of man’s activities such as it becomes unfit for any purpose.

Sources of water pollution

Point source pollution: When a source of pollution can be readily identified because it has a
definite source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point source. It
refers to contaminants that enter a water way through a discreet conveyance, such as pipe or
ditch.

E.g. municipal and industrial discharge pipes; pollutants are organics or metals

Non point source pollution: When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified such as
agricultural run off, acid rain etc., they are said to be non – point sources of pollution. It refers
to the diffuse contamination that doesn’t originate from a single discreet source. It is often a
cumulative effect of small amount of contaminants gathered from a large area.|

E.g. agricultural runoff, acid rain etc.; pollutants are sediment, pesticides or nitrates

Causes of water pollution

There are several classes of water pollutants

1. Disease – causing agents (Pathogens): When a source of pollution can be readily identified
because it has a definite source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a
point source. It refers to contaminants that enter a water way through a discreet conveyance,
such as pipe or ditch.

E.g. municipal and industrial discharge pipes; pollutants are organics or metals

2. Oxygen depleting wastes: Many wastes can be decomposed by aerobic bacteria. Large
pollution of bacteria use up oxygen present in water to degrade these wastes. The amount of
oxygen required to breakdown a certain amount of organic matter is called biological oxygen
demand (BOD).
The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of pollution. Too much of organic
matter in the water uses up all the available oxygen and due to this all the oxygen dependent
aquatic life would die. Due to which the anaerobic bacteria breaks down the wastes and
produces a foul odour and unpleasant taste.

3. Inorganic plant nutrients: These are water soluble nitrates and phosphates which cause
the excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants.

Excessive growth due to added nutrients is called “Eutrophication”. Eutrophication interferes

with the use of water by clogging up water intake pipes which changes the taste and odour. As
the organic matter decays, oxygen levels decrease and fish and other aquatic species die.

Ground water pollution

Ground water is easy to deplete and pollute. Some causes are:

1. Urban runoff of untreated or poorly treated waste water and garbage.

2. Industrial waste storage located above or near aquifers.

3. Agricultural practices such as the application of large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides
etc. in the rural sector.

4. Leaks from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and other hazardous substances.

5. Leach ate from land fills

6. poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks

7. Mining wastes

Health impact of water pollution

A large number of chemicals that either exist naturally in the land or are added due to human
activity dissolve in the water, thereby contaminating it and leading to various diseases.

1. Pesticides- the organophosphate and the carbonates present in pesticides affect and
damage the nervous system. Causing cancer, reproductive and endocrinal damage.
2. Lead: is hazardous to health as it accumulates in the body and affects the central
nervous system.
3. Fluoride: excess fluorides can cause yellowing of the teeth and damage to the spinal
cord and other crippling diseases.
4. Nitrates: drinking water that gets contaminated with nitrates can prove fatal
especially to infants that drink formula milk as it restricts the amount of oxygen that
reaches the brain causing the “Blue Baby syndrome”.
5. Petrochemical: benzene and other petrochemicals can cause cancer even at low
exposure level.
6. Chlorinated solvent: these are linked to reproductive disorders
7. Arsenic: it causes liver and nervous damage, vascular disease and also skin cancer.
 8. Other heavy metals: it causes damage to nervous system and kidney and other
metabolic disruptions.
9. Salt: makes fresh water unusable for drinking.

Preventive measures

Water borne epidemics and health hazards in the aquatic environment are mainly due to
improper management of water resources it has become the need of house as this would
ultimately lead to a cleaner and healthier environment.

In order to prevent the spread of water borne infectious diseases, people should take adequate
precautions. The city water supply should be properly checked and necessary steps taken to
disinfect it. Water pipes should be properly checked for leaks and cracks. at home the water
should be boiled ,filtered or other methods and necessary steps taken to ensure that it is free
from infection. Misuse of water sources for washing clothes, disposal of dead bodies etc.,
should be prevented.

Water Pollution Control

• Environmental Education − Individuals and the masses should be educated about the
significance of quality of water and its impact on the economy, the society, and
ecology.
• Sewage Treatment − The household water should be treated properly to make it
environmentally safe. Necessary steps should be taken to ensure that effective sewage
treatment process is put in place and contaminated water doesn’t get mixed with the
fresh water bodies.
• Accountability of Industrial Units − The industrial setups should make provisions
for treatment of waste materials and water, and for its safe drainage.
• Afforestation − Planting trees can reduce the water pollution to a large extent as they
check surface soil runoff by running water.
• Soil Conservation − Soil conservation add many inorganic substances in the surface
and underground water. Soil conservation is, therefore, a useful technique to reduce
water pollution.
• Reduced Use of Chemical Fertilizers − Chemical fertilizers add nitrates in water
bodies. Use of compost manures can help reduce the problem of eutrophication in the
water bodies.
• Financial Support − Governments should make provisions for adequate funds to the
civic bodies for water pollution control.
• Legislation and Implementation of Stringent Environmental Laws − The need of
the hour is that the government should legislate and implement strict environmental
laws for the protection of water bodies, treatment of waste water, etc. The violators of
such laws should be given exemplary punishment.

(III) Noise Pollution

Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and
restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to human
and animal life.
Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly
injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of noise)
tends to become a health and environmental hazard.

Sources of Noise Pollution

• Household appliances such as grinders, electric motor, washing machines

• Social gatherings such as marriages and other social parties
• Places of worship
• Commercial activities
• Construction activities
• Industrial activities
• Automobiles and transport system
• Power generators
• Agricultural equipment

Effect of pollution on health

• The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear and
this temporary or permanent hearing loss.
• The temporary hearing loss is called “temporary threshold shift” (TTS). People
suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak sounds.
• Permanent hearing loss, usually called “noise – induced permanent threshold shift”
(NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no recovery. It occurs
above 95 db.
• Below a sound level of 80db hearing loss does not occur.
• Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability, anxiety,
and stress.
• Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are significant health effect of noise.
• A noise interferes with normal auditory communication, it may mask auditory
warning signals and hence increase the rate of accidents especially in industries.
• It can also lead to lowered worker efficiency and productivity and higher accidents
rates at the job.

Causes of Noise pollution

1. Industrial causes

Everyone knows the feeling of waking up to the sound of a hammer drill. Not exactly the
serene start of your day you were hoping for. There’s a reason why workers in factories and
industry wear earplugs. Residents in areas neighboring industries or manufacturing facilities
report intense sound levels that can damage hearing ability. Industrial towns which are close
to residential areas have habitually caused discomfort and nuisance to the residents.
2. Poor urban planning

When you live in a poorly isolated house you know exactly how frustrating living with
neighbors can be. Crying babies, couples fighting, dogs barking… it’s as if nothing goes
unheard and it can seriously take its toll on your wellbeing.

3. Social events

When there’s an event, most people don’t really consider their environment. There’s lots of
chatting, laughter and maybe even signing. That’s all great fun – except when you’re not part
of the fun.

4. Transportation

Honking buses, heavy trucks, airplanes flying over and underground trains al produce intense
noise in urban settings. The high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person loses the
ability to hear properly.

5. Household utilities

Though you might not be fully aware of the buzzing of a fridge in the background or the
rumbling sound of a washing machine, it’s still there and can unconsciously mess with your
peace of mind. Especially when all those utilities are buzzing at the same time.

Since a cabin in the woods might not be for everyone, there aren’t many things you can do to
stop that noise pollution. To prevent yourself from going insane, it’s a good idea to protect
your ears. That way you take control of how loud the world enters your own world.

Noise pollution control

Noise emitted from a source can be controlled by applying any one or all of the following
techniques.

Noise control at source

Reducing of impact / impulse force: Impact noise is created by hammers, crushers hoppers,
resulting from impacts of rock and steel. It can be reduced by optimizing the impact distance
and covering either or both the impact surfaces by rubber or materials of such type.

Balancing of moving mass: Some noises are created by sudden inrush or discharge of air
e.g. leakage of compressed air through pipelines, ventilation fanes, and air compressors. This
type of noises is created due to discharge of high volume of air through restricted path. So
this noise can be reduced by using “mufflers” which are simple expansion chambers to slow
down the velocity of exhausting air. Mufflers can attenuate the noise level by 5-10 db (A).

Vibration isolation: Machine vibration is the source of one of the highest volume of noise.
Noise generated by the mechanical vibration of machine or its part can be reduced by
damping or isolation of the vibration. Rubber or cork between the moving parts of the
machine and the surrounding stationary structure.
Modified manufacturing design: Problem of noise emission can be tackled at the design
and manufacturing stage by making suitable adjustments in the design itself. Eg: enclosing
the engine parts within proper noise insulating material.

Noise control at path

If noise cannot be reduced to a desired level at the source, then it can be reduced in the path
in between the source and the receiver by using the following techniques.

1. Orientation of Location: By moving the source away from the noise sensitive area,
the noise can be attenuated.
2. Enclosure

1. Housing the noisy machines in isolated buildings can reduce the noise.
2. A glass cabin may be provided for the operator of a noisy machine.
3. Thick walls and heavy materials are more effective. A 25 cm. Thick wall can
attenuate noise level by 45db (A).
4. Double walls separated by an air space can act as the most effective barrier.
Wider the air space, lesser will be the noise transmission.
5. An operator confirmed in a chamber lined with absorbent material will
experience some 5-10 db (A) less sound than in an ordinary chamber.
3. Silencers: These can be used to suppress the noise generated when air, gas or stream
flow in pipes or ducts, or are emitted into the atmosphere.
4. Pipe lagging: Screens and barriers: a masonry wall can be used as an alternative to
enclosure and can achieve attenuations of 10-20 db (A). Their effectiveness reduces
the increase in the distance of noise source from the screen.
5. Acoustic screens and barriers: A masonry wall can form a substantial barrier. Such
acoustic screens can reduce direct noise transmission by up to 15db (A). Their
effectiveness reduces the increase in the distance of noise source from the screen.
6. Absorption treatment: Where there is a high degree of reflection of sound
waves, introduction of an acoustically absorbent material, in the form of wall
treatment (wall first covered with a thick layer of mineral wool and then with a
polythene sheet), will reduce noise level by up to 10db (A) and will not reduce the
noise radiated directly by the source.
7. Damping: When large panels are radiating noise, a significant reduction can be
achieved by fitting damping pads.
8. Green belt: Location of green belt around residential areas can act as noise barriers.
They can reduce noise level by absorption by ground cover and tree foliage.

Nose Control at receiver

When it is not practical or economical to reduce noise level, ear protectors are used.
Ear protectors are capable of reducing the noise level at the ear by 10db. The most
commonly used ear protected devices or HDP are ear plugs and ear muffs.

• Ear plug fit directly into the ear canal and is made up of rubber, plastic or
wax-impregnated cotton.
• Ear muffs are plastic domes lined with foam that cover the ears and connected
by a spring band. These offer the greatest amount of noise attenuation and
easy to fit.
(IV)SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution refers to an undesirable decrease in the quality of soil, either by man-induced
sources or natural sources or by both.
Soil is vital not only for the growth of plants and growing food but also cultivating raw
materials for agro-based industries. Health soil is a significant prerequisite for human survival.
Causes of Soil Erosion

• Deforestation at large scale

• Over-grazing
• Mining
• Decrease in soil microorganisms
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers
• Excessive use of irrigation
• Lack of humus content
• Improper and unscientific rotation of crops
Soil pollution leads to many harmful consequences such as decrease in agricultural
production; reduced nitrogen fixation; reduction in biodiversity; silting of tanks, lakes and
reservoirs; diseases and deaths of consumers in the food chain due to use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, etc.
Soil Pollution Control
• Adoption of soil-friendly agricultural practices.
• Use of compost manures in place of chemical fertilizers; Use of bio-fertilizers and
natural pesticides help in minimizing the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
• Scientific rotation of crop to increase soil fertility.
• Proper disposal of industrial and urban solid and liquid wastes.
• Planting of trees to check soil erosion in slopes and mountainous regions.
• Controlled grazing.
• Reduction in the heaps of garbage and refuse.
• The principles of three R’s − Recycle, Reuse, and Reduce − help in minimizing
generation of solid waste.
• Formulation and effective implementation of stringent pollution control legislation.
• Improved sewage and sanitation system in urban areas.

(V)NUCLEAR HAZARDS

Radioactive (nuclear) pollution is a special form of physical pollution related to all major life-
supporting systems – air, water and soil. It is always convenient to discuss radioactive
pollution separately because its nature of contamination is different from other types of
pollution. Its effects are also of special kinds.

Sources of nuclear pollution

1. Source of energy of Sun and other stars is nuclear energy (nuclear fusion reaction taking
place in the core), therefore the cosmic rays emanating from sun and other stars are
primary source of nuclear hazards.
2. Use and testing of nuclear weapons leads unprecedented loss to life and property as was
the case in Second World War.
3. Natural emission of radiation from radioactive isotopes, such as Uranium present in
earth’s crust.
4. Mining, processing and extraction of radioactive ores.
5. Use of radioactive isotopes in nuclear reactors.
6. Problem associated disposal of nuclear waste from nuclear reactors.
7. Accidental leakages in nuclear power plants and other nuclear facilities.
8. Industrial applications include wastes from nuclear reactors
9. Research applications: radioactive fallouts during nuclear weapons testing.
10. Nuclear tests Conducted under the ground or under oceans which also release radiation.

Effects of nuclear hazards

• Effects of nuclear hazards are prolonged and can haunt civilizations for year and can
have adverse effect on generations to come.
• Exposure to nuclear radiations can affect genetic make-up by breaking the chemical
bonds that hold the DNA together. Thus the effect can be transferred to future
generations.
• Nuclear explosion and nuclear weapons can cause mass destruction to life and property
of a scale unprecedented in history of mankind.
• Nuclear hazards are transferred in food chains from bottom to top with transfer of
nuclear elements from prey to the predator.
• Continuous exposure to radiation can lead to cancer.

Nuclear hazard control

• Nuclear Power plants and research facilities should be set up after careful evaluation in
less inhabited areas.
• Nuclear Power Plants must be carefully designed to minimize risks of leakage.
• Strict vigilance bodies should be constituted and laws should be enforced to ensure
nuclear safety.
• Summits and conferences must be organized to facilitate the evolution and exchange of
new research and ideas in field of nuclear safety.
• Efficient nuclear waste disposal mechanism should be evolved.
• Preventive measures must be taken to minimize risks associated with occupation
connected to processing of nuclear material.
• Disarmament of nuclear weapons must be strongly advocated in International
Diplomacy
• Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in
nuclear plants.
 • Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-rays.
• Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should be
ensured.

Case study of Nuclear disaster

Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombing in World War-II(1945) & Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant Disaster (1986) and meltdown of nuclear reactors in Fukushima Nuclear Power
Plant in March 2011 are examples of nuclear disaster that can be cited from history that have
caused mass destruction to life and property.

Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Disaster disaster that occurred on April 26, 1986 in Ukraine.
The Chernobyl power plant reactor, designed to produce 1000 MW of electrical energy. It
resulted in the release of Sr-90, Ce-134, Ce-137, 1-131 etc. which polluted the whole region.
The explosion occurred due to faulty shutting down of the plant. Combustion of the graphite
rods inside the rector resulted in fire and the temperature of the reactor went up to 2000°C. The
radioactive debris, gases and plume drifted over the entire northern hemisphere affecting
mostly Sweden, Norway, Poland, and Denmark etc. More than 2000 people died in the disaster
and many children were affected with congenital abnormalities. The disaster damaged
agricultural crops, plants and caused cancer, lung, eye and blood disorders. Many European
countries like Denmark and Sweden had banned the import of milk and milk containing
products from the former USSR. This was because the milk was contaminated by 1-131, which
had entered the cows through grazing on pastures and plants, contaminated with the same.

(VI)SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Solid waste includes all discarded solid and semi-solid materials arising from various human
activities. Municipal solid waste (MSW), consist mainly of refuse and trash. It predominantly
includes food wastes, yard wastes, containers and product packaging, other miscellaneous
inorganic wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources.

Trash refers to the bulky waste such as TV, refrigeration goods, broken furniture, etc. Refuse
comprises of two components mainly garbage and rubbish. Garbage includes putrescible
waste such as vegetables, meats, food wastes and other readily degradable organic wastes.
Rubbish consists of the non-degradable material such as glass, rubber, metals, plastics, etc
and slowly degradable material such as paper products, textiles etc.

Types of Solid Waste

The types of solid waste may be divided into different types of waste and that depends upon
their source. Broadly the types of solid waste include:

1. House hold waste that is normally termed as Municipal Solid Waste.

 This type of waste mostly consists of household waste, sanitation waste, waste from
streets, demolition debris that arises during the construction and demolition of
buildings and other construction activities. With the increase in the urbanization,
municipal solid waste is forming the bulk part of solid waste. The growth of
metropolitan cities is even leading to an enormous amount of municipal solid waste.

2. Industrial waste which in majority of cases is termed as a Hazardous waste.

This type or kind of waste is a waste that is quite dangerous as they consist of toxic
substances that are of chemical nature. This type of waste is highly dangerous to
human, plants, animals and the overall environment. As improper disposal of the
industrial solid waste may lead to death, disease and sometimes an environmental
damage that may continue for generations. For example: any oil spill in the seas,
oceans or release of poison gases, chemicals in the air and improper disposal of
industrial effluents into the soil will lead to destruction of all living species in addition
to environmental damage.

3. Hospital waste or Biomedical waste that quiet infectious.

The other form of solid waste is the Hospital waste that is being generated day in day
out by various hospitals, clinics, research centers, pharmaceutical companies and
health care centers. This type of solid waste is most infectious and can spread diseases
and other types of viral and bacterial infections among humans and animals if not
managed properly in a scientific way. The hospital waste includes solid waste in the
form of disposable syringes, bandages, cotton swabs, body fluids, human excreta,
anatomical waste, bandages, expired medicines, and other types of chemical and
biological waste. Hospital waste is equally hazardous and dangerous as in case of
industrial waste if not disposed off or managed properly.

4. E-Waste

The term "e-waste" is loosely applied to consumer and business electronic equipment that is
near or at the end of its useful life. There is no clear definition for e-waste; for instance
whether or not items like microwave ovens and other similar "appliances" should be grouped
into the category has not been established.
Certain components of some electronic products contain materials that render them
hazardous, depending on their condition and density. For instance, California law currently
views nonfunctioning CRTs (cathode ray tubes) from televisions and monitors as hazardous.

Sources of Solid Waste

• Residential sources: Waste arising from day to day household activities is a important
constituent to the solid waste. Proportion from this source is increasing day by day with
rapid increase in population. Household waste includes variety of things such as food
wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, etc
• Industrial Waste: Solid waste resulting from industries typically includes construction
and demolition waste, rubbish, ashes and special waste.
 • Community Services: community services such as street cleaning, landscaping,
recreational activities, water and waste water treatment plants give rise to solid waste
such as wood, dirt, plastic and other general wastes.
• Agricultural activities: Agricultural activities generate spoiled food wastes,
agricultural wastes such as straw and sugarcane trash, hazardous wastes such as
pesticides and insecticides.
• Construction and demolition activities such as construction sites, road repair,
renovation sites, and demolition of buildings generate solid waste like wood, steel,
concrete, dirt, etc.
• Biomedical: This refers to hospitals and biomedical equipment and chemical
manufacturing firms. In hospitals there are different types of solid wastes produced.
Some of these solid wastes include syringes, bandages, used gloves, drugs, paper,
plastics, food wastes and chemicals. All these require proper disposal or else they will
cause a huge problem to the environment and the people in these facilities.
• Institutions such as schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers generate solid waste
like paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, etc.

Effects of Solid Waste Pollution

• Diseases such as diarrhea and dysentery are spread by carriers especially fly which
breed on garbage.
• Rubbish and trash can block the drains thus making breeding grounds for mosquitoes,
that spread diseases like malaria and dengue.
• Rotting garbage gives out foul smell that can render a locality inhospitable.
• Dumping places are usually also home to stray animals such as abandoned cows that
frequently block traffic on roads and occasionally lead to road accidents.
• Seeping of toxic chemicals from factories and garbage waste underground, can render
underground water unfit for human consumption.
• Accumulation of construction and demolition waste at places lessens the aesthetic
beauty of surroundings.
• Intake of solid non-biodegradable waste such as plastic by scavengers and stray animals
like pigs and abandoned cows can choke their windpipes and lead to death.

Management of Solid Waste

• Best way to manage the problems associated with solid waste is by to reduce wastage
itself. With higher standards of living especially in urban areas there is tendency to
declare goods outdated and obsolete. This leads to solid waste. Thus, the problem can
be checked by promoting efficient utilization and reuse.
• Recycling the trash and refuse greatly reduces the non-biodegradable component of
solid waste. Items made up of plastic, glass, paper, metal, etc. can be recycled to form
other products, thus saving raw materials and also reducing solid waste.
• Disposing off the solid waste with techniques such as land filling, incineration,
pulverization, etc.
Need for Reducing, Reusing and Recycling of Waste

Waste management is necessary because if it is not done the waste may lead to environmental
and health problems harmful for mankind. Our planet is going to be filled with waste soon if
we don't manage our garbage and trash properly.
 • It cuts back on global warming.
• It makes us more energy-efficient. It often takes a great deal more energy to create
something from scratch than to recycle it.
• It keeps our landfills from overflowing. We’re fast running out of space for landfills—
especially near cities. Seaside cities have been dumping trash into their oceans for
decades to circumvent the problem
• It improves the quality of our groundwater.
• It reduces air pollution. Many factories that produce plastics, metals, and paper products
release toxins into the air. Recycle these materials, and there will be less need for
companies to manufacture new materials—saving on the amount of pollution dumped
into our atmosphere.
• It creates jobs. From manufacturing to processing, from collection to invention—it’s
no secret that recycling is a growth industry, earning billions of dollars annually.
• It adds to property value. It’s obvious that a landfill near your home can decrease your
property values significantly. Recycling reduces the amount of land needed for
landfills. This reduces the number of houses near landfills, keeping property values up
and homeowners happy.

Methods of Solid Waste Disposal

• Land Filling: This is simple and economical method that requires no skilled labour.
Method involves dumping the solid waste collected into a low lying area usually at the
outskirts of the settlement in layers. The layers are usually 1.5 to 2 meters thick are
covered with a thin layer of good earth, before filling another layer of solid waste over
it. The layer of solid waste is thus sandwiched between thin layers of good earth. Over
time, solid waste breaks and is stabilized. After the site reaches certain height, it can be
developed as parks by landscaping and planting trees.
• Incineration: In this method, solid waste is burned in specially designed furnaces.
Combustible waste is separated from non-combustible and fed into the furnace.
Temperature conditions in furnace are carefully adjusted to burn all organic matter and
oxidize all foul smell. If moisture content of solid content is high, some auxiliary fuel
such as coal or wood can be added to support burning. Since, this method involves high
temperature; all pathogens and pest are destroyed, though, smoke coming from furnace
causes air pollution.
• Pulverization: In this method, collected solid waste is powdered by grinding machines,
thereby changing its volume and physical characteristics. This pulverized solid waste
is further disposed-off by land filling. This is costly technique.
• Composting: This method involves digesting organic matter by anaerobic process,
converting it into organic manure and other stable compounds. It solves twin purpose
of solid waste disposal and providing manure for farms. Composting by trenching, open
window composting and mechanical composting are three widely used composting
techniques.
• Pyrolysis: This is method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes are
chemically decomposed by heat without presence of oxygen. This usually occurs under
pressure and at temperatures of up to 430 degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed
into gasses, solid residue and small quantities of liquid.
• Disposal into the sea: This method involves dumping the solid waste at sea floor. It can
only be applied in coastal areas with strong currents. It is cheap method but tides can
bring back some portion of solid waste dumped back to beaches.
 Case study

(1)Ganga action plan

Initiatives to Clean Ganga

▪ Ganga is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through India and Bangladesh. It is
the longest river in India and is a lifeline to millions of people who live along its course.

▪ Causes of Ganga Pollution: The main causes of water pollution in the river Ganga are:

o Industrial waste (dumping of various harmful & untreated industrial waste into the
river),
o Human waste (human activities such as bathing, washing clothes, etc.),
o Religious waste (religious bath, cremation near the ghats, idol immersion, etc.)
Initiatives to Prevent Ganga Pollution

• An action plan, popularly known as “Ganga Action Plan” (GAP) for immediate
reduction of pollution load on the river Ganga was prepared by Department of
Environment (now Ministry of Environment & Forests) in December 1984 on the
basis of a survey on Ganga basin carried out by the Central Pollution Control Board in
1984.
• To oversee the implementation of the GAP and lay down policies and programmes,
Government of India constituted the Central Ganga Authority (CGA) under the
chairmanship of the Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in February 1985.
• It was later renamed as the National River Conservation Authority (NRCA) in
September 1995,. The Cabinet approved GAP in April 1985 as a 100 per cent centrally
sponsored scheme.
• The GAP was thus launched in June 1985 with the establishment of the Ganga Project
Directorate (GPD), renamed as the NRCD (National River Conservation Directorate)
in June 1994, as a wing ofthe Department of Environment, to execute the projects under
the guidance and supervision of the CGA. The state agencies like Public Health
 Engineering Department, Water and Sewage Boards, Pollution Control Boards,
Development Authorities, Local Bodies etc. were responsible for actual
implementation of the scheme.
• More than two decades after Rajiv Gandhi conceptualised the Ganga Action Plan
(GAP), Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on November 3, 2008 decided to declare
Ganga a ‘National River’ to achieve the objectives of the clean-up operation.
• It was also decided to set up a Ganga River Basin Authority(NRBA), was formed by
the Central Government of India in the year 2009 under Section-3 of the Environment
Protection Act, 1986. It is chaired by the Prime Minister of India, which will be
entrusted with the responsibility of planning, implementing and monitoring projects
regarding the river.
• The authority, headed by the Prime Minister, would comprise of chief ministers of
states through which the Ganga zows.
• Unlike the original Ganga Action Plan, which primarily focused on municipal sewage
treatment, November 2008 decisions were aimed at broadbasing the river management
efforts, integrating pollution control with measures for sustainable use
of water and zood management.
• The Dophins found in Ganga are rare species. Union government has declared them as
the national aquatic animal on October 5, 2009. This decision was taken in the yrst
meeting of the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) chaired by Prime
Minister Manmohan Singh on Monday October5, 2009.
• In 2010, ‘Government clean-up campaign’ was started to ensure that by 2020 no
untreated municipal sewage or industrial runoff enters river.
• In 2014, ‘Namami Gange Programme’ was launched as an Integrated Conservation
Mission, to accomplish the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution,
conservation, and rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
• The program is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga
(NMCG), and its state counterpart organization viz., State Program Management
Groups (SPMGs).
• It is the flagship programme of the Union Government with a budget outlay of Rs.
20,000 crore.
• The main pillars of the programme are:

1. Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure & Industrial Effluent Monitoring,

2. River-Front Development & River-Surface Cleaning,
3. Bio-Diversity & Afforestation,
4. Public Awareness.
• Ganga Manthan- It was a national conference that was held in 2014 to discuss
issues and possible solutions for cleaning the river. The event was organized by
the National Mission for Clean Ganga.
• In 2014, Clean Ganga Fund was also formed for cleaning up of the
Ganga, setting up of waste treatment plants, conservation of biotic diversity of the
river, and development of public amenities (activities such as Ghat redevelopment,
and Research and Development and innovative projects). This fund will also be used
to finance National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG).
• In 2017, the National Green Tribunal banned the disposal of any waste in the
Ganga.
 National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

▪ It is the implementation wing of the National Council for Rejuvenation, Protection, and
Management of River Ganga also known as National Ganga Council (set in 2016; which
replaced the NRGBA).
▪ NMCG was established in the year 2011 as a registered society.
▪ It has a two-tier management structure and comprises of Governing Council and
Executive Committee.
▪ The aims and objectives of NMCG are:

o To ensure effective control of pollution and rejuvenation of the river Ganga by adopting
a river basin approach to promote inter-sectoral coordination for comprehensive
planning and management.
To maintain minimum ecological flows in the river Ganga with the aim of ensuring water
quality and environmentally sustainable development

(II) Plastic Waste Management Rules 2018

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has notified the Plastic Waste
Management (Amendment) Rules 2018.
What is the amendment about?

• In 2016, Union government implemented the Plastic Waste Management Rules and
Solid Waste Management Rules.
• But the rules faced various challenges.
• Based on representations received from various stakeholders, MoEF&CC had
constituted a committee to resolve such issues.
• The amendments are based on recommendations submitted to the Ministry.
What are the highlights?

• The phasing out of Multi-layered Plastic (MLP) is now applicable only to MLP that are
“non-recyclable or non-energy recoverable or have no alternate use”.
• MLP is most widely used in food packing Industries.
• The amended Rules prescribe a central registration system for the registration of the
producer/importer/brand owner.
• The system will be evolved by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
• National registry has been prescribed for producers with presence in more than two
states.
• A state-level registration has been prescribed for smaller producers/brand owners
operating within one or two states.
• Any mechanism for the registration should be automated.
• It should take into account ease of doing business for producers, recyclers and
manufacturers.

What are the shortfalls?

• Dilution - Many significant provisions of the earlier plastic waste management policy,
2016 have been discarded or diluted now.
• The Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules 2018 has omitted the explicit
pricing of carry bags mentioned in 2016 rule.
• MLP - Multi-layered plastics are supposed to be phased out.
• But these have been given a fresh lease of life by easing the norms concerned.
• Only MLP that are “non-recyclable or non-energy recoverable or have no alternate use”
are to be phased out.
• This leaves hardly any category of multi-layered plastics to be phased out.
• Any product can be claimed to have some alternate use to escape the bar.
• Producers - The new norms seem to have been crafted with an eye on ease of doing
business.
• This seems to be happening at the cost of the environment and public health due to
plastic use.
• “Extended producer responsibility” bound plastic producers, importers and brand
owners.
• They are required to ensure environmentally sound management of their products till
the end of their useful life.
• The new policy is soft on “extended producer responsibility”.

What are the concerns with plastic toxicity in India?

• India is reckoned to generate over 25,000 tonnes of plastic waste every day.
• The residues can stain the environment and natural resources for hundreds of years.
• Plastic toxicity is known for its enduring adverse effects on territorial and aquatic life.
• In food, it can alter human hormones to cause major life-threatening diseases.
• Plastic materials, especially bags and bottles strewn on roads, have been noticed to
cause flooding by blocking drains.
• They also kill stray cattle by choking.

What is the way forward?

• Plastics are not totally dispensable as their use seems desirable in certain situations.
• In fields like agriculture and automobiles, packaging, information technology and
biomedical industries, they are relevant.
• But their non-degradability and emission of toxic gases on combustion and incineration
are growing concerns.
• It is thus imperative to manage plastic debris appropriately.
• It would be advisable to reassess the new set of rules and switch back to the 2016 plastic
waste management norms.

(III)Bhopal Gas Tragedy

Bhopal gas tragedy accounts for most infamous incidents of industrial pollutions. On
December 3 1984, more than 40 tons of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pesticide
plant in Bhopal, India, immediately killing at least 3,800 people and causing significant
morbidity and premature death for many thousands more. At around 1.00 AM, December
3, loud rumbling reverberated around the plant as a safety valve gave away, sending a
plume of MIC gas into the early morning air. Within hours, air was full of toxic contents.
Gas circulated through the blood streams of victims, carrying toxins and causing damage
to the eyes, lungs, kidneys, liver, intestines, muscles, brain, reproductive and immune
systems.

Soon Bhopal was full of corpse of humans and animals. Immediate loss was around 3800
human lives, with death toll increasing to 10000 in that week. As a result of aftermath,
region has reported 15000 to 20000 premature deaths. These numbers can be assumed to
be understated. In l985 the Indian Government sued Union Carbide for 3.3 billion dollars
and in l989, case settled for a mere $470 million. This money, later deposited with RBI,
has now swelled up to Rs 1,503 crore. UCC got away by paying a compensation of mere
$470 million, although actual compensation was accounted to less than $10 billion as
calculated by some agencies.

UCC ceased its operations at Bhopal plant, but did not take responsibility to clean the
mess either. The plant continues to leak several toxic chemicals and heavy metals that
have percolated into underground water. Reports suggest that underground water of the
region still contain heavy metals even after around three decades. When it rains,
especially in the monsoon season, rainwater washes these chemicals into puddles, streams
and eventually into the ground water.

Despite the horror of “that night” and the chemical terror that its survivors have endured,
the people of Bhopal continue their struggle for justice, for corporate accountability, and
for their basic human right to an environment free of chemical poisons.