Unit V Solid State Microwave Devices

Contents
Introduction, Principle of Operation, Construction, Characteristics,
Parameters with analysis of Microwave Transistors, MOSFET, Varactor
Diode, Parametric Amplifier, PIN Diode, Tunnel Diode: Application as an
Amplifier, Oscillator, Schottky Barrier Diode, Transferred Electron
Devices: Gunn Diode, Avalanche Transit Time Devices: IMPATT Diode
and TRAPATT Diode.

References
 T1: Samuel Y. Liao, “Microwave Devices and Circuits ”, 3rd
edition, Pearson
 R1: David M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering", Fourth edition,
Wiley
 R4: M. Kulkarni, “Microwave and Radar engineering”, 3rd
edition, Umesh Publications
 Introduction
 Recent past years research activity carried out for development of
better, low noise, high freq, greater b/w, lesser switching time and
many other improvements in the performance characteristics.

 Several semiconductor devices are developed which are as follows:

1) BJT & FET
2) Transferred Electron Devices(TED)
e.g. Gunn diode, LSA diode.
3) Avalanche Transit Time Devices
e.g. IMPATT,TRAPATT, BARITT, Parametric Devices, Tunnel
diode, Varactor diode
4) Quantum Electronic Devices
e.g. MASERS, Semiconductor lasers & infrared devices.
13
 Contd…
 Solid State Devices (SSD) employ negative resistance
characteristics rather than velocity modulation for their
operation.

 Commonly utilized for several applications as follows:

1) Modern communication systems,
2) Radars
3) Navigation
4) Medical & Biological equipment
5) Other Industrial Electronic Products.

14
 Classification
Based on Electrical Behavior Based on Construction

 Non-linear resistance type  Point contact diode

e.g. Varistors (variable resistances)  Schottky barrier diode
 Non-linear reactance type  Metal oxide semiconductor
e.g. Varactors (variable reactors) diode(MOS)
 Negative Resistance Type  Metal insulation devices
e.g. Tunnel diode, IMPATT diode, Gunn
diode
 Controllable impedance type

e.g. PIN diode

15
Contd…
 Microwave Transistors
 Similar to conventional tubes, transistors also suffer from high
freq limitations.
 IEC, LI, TT come into play at Microwave frequencies.
 The high freq response is limited by IEC which makes α & β of
transistor complex.
 Also the depletion layer width of transistor junctions which is
the function of bias makes the much more complex than in
tubes.
 LI have undesirable effect as in tubes but transistors being small
in size have smaller leads.
 Ideally IEC &LI effect must be kept minimum by proper choice
of geometry and packing of transistors.
 TT effect seems a bit lesser on account of smaller distances
electrons have to travel in a transistor.
17
1. The ion mobility,
2. Bias voltage,
3. Emitter delay time,
4. Base transit time,
5. Collector transit time
These parameters which
have to be controlled for
better performance.
n-p-n Silicon double diffused epitaxial transistor
•Silicon n-p-n transistors that can provide adequate powers at microwave
frequencies have been developed,
•Typically 5 W at a freq of 3 GHz with a gain of 5 dB.

• Heavily doped n emitters are diffused into the base.

• Contacts are provided by means of opening in the oxide & connections
are made in parallel.
• Surface geometry of such transistors can have inter digitated, overlay

or matrix forms. 18
•Small signal transistors employ
inter digitated surface geometry
while power transistors employ
all three surface geometries.

•Matrix geometry is sometimes

called mesh or emitter grid. It
has emitter that forms the grid,
the base filling the meshes of
this grid with p+ contact area in
the middle of each mesh.

Surface geometry of n-p-n microwave transistor (a)

•Inter digitated geometry Inter digitated (b) overlay (c) matrix
basically consists of a large
number of emitter stripes
alternating with base stripes.
Both of these are metalized. Interdigitaed structure is suitable for small
•The overlay geometry has large signal applications in the L,S,&C bands and
no of segmented emitters over overlay & matrix structures are useful as
laid through a no of wide metal power devices in the VHF &UHF regions.
stripes. 19
Operation  Performance Parameters
 High freq behavior is defined by cut off freq(fT),
•InitiallyEB & CB junctions max possible freq of oscillation fmax rather than α,
are reverse biased. β, cut off freq (fαb and fαe).
•The microwave signal is 
applied between E & B and
will forward bias this junction
during positive portion of the
signal.  emitter base junction charging time
 base transit time
 collector depletion layer transit time
•If pnp transistor is considered,  collector depletion layer charging time
the holes in the p region  For microwave transistors cut off freq
diffuse and drift through the
thin base region to the
collector and accelerate to the
negative terminal of the bias  Base which is kept extremely narrow
voltage between collector and  is current gain b/w freq which is the freq at which
base terminals. falls to unity i.e. The highest freq at which current gain may be
obtained.

•Pulsecurrent flows through load 20

connected in the collector circuit.
 Max freq of Oscillation
 Power Frequency Limitations
 Voltage Frequency Limitations
= Collector capacitance
 Current Frequency Limitations
= Base resistance

i.e.
Output impedance is higher than input
impedance, voltage gain exists and both
generation and oscillation are possible.
• High output power

(In lower bands of microwave region)

• High operating power efficiency

• Large operating b/w

•Lower signal distortion and noise level

•Disadvantage:-

•Problems of instability due to thermal

runway and breakdown.
21
 Performance Characteristics
 Output power:- 20W to 150mW from frequencies
1 to 8 GHz.
 Noise figure:-3.3dB to 14dB from frequencies
4 to 8 GHz.
 Power Gain:- 31 ± 1.5dB from 4to 6 GHz with avg
power output of 15mW.
 Voltage freq limitation:- 2 x 10 11 V/s for Si
1 x 10 11 V/s for Ge
 MOSFET
MOSFET

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

23
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFETS)

•They use metal semiconductor

schottky junction for the gate
contact & hence the name is
MOSFET.
•Unipolar Microwave transistors
have several advantages as used as
replacement of bipolar transistors
in radar application.
•They have higher efficiency, max
input impedance and lower noise
figures.
•JFET & IGFET are also suitable
for microwave amplification and
oscillation.

24
 BASIC STRUCTURE
• The ohmic contacts for source &drain
•GaAs MOSFET due to their are made on the top of epitaxial layer
higher mobility (6 times using Au-Ge, Au-Te or Au-Te-GE
larger than Si), alloys.
•smaller parasitic resistances, • In between another contact made up
larger transconductances & of metal Al semiconductor schottky
smaller transit time are junction is added called gate.
always preferred.
 MOSFET
 MOSFET = Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor = Schottky gate FET.

 The MOSFET consists of a conducting channel positioned

between a source and drain contact region.

 The carrier flow from source to drain is controlled by a

Schottky metal gate.

 The control of the channel is obtained by varying the

depletion layer width underneath the metal contact which
modulates the thickness of the conducting channel and
thereby the current.
 Contd…
 Advantage : Higher mobility of the carriers in the channel as compared
to the MOSFET.

 Disadvantage : Presence of the Schottky metal gate.

 It limits the forward bias voltage on the gate to the turn-on voltage of
the Schottky diode.

 This turn-on voltage is typically 0.7 V for GaAs Schottky diodes.

 The threshold voltage therefore must be lower than this turn-on
voltage.

 As a result it is more difficult to fabricate circuits containing a large

number of enhancement-mode MOSFET.
 Contd…
 GaAs MOSFETs are the active devices in microwave circuits.
 In fact, until the late 1980s, almost all microwave integrated
circuits used GaAs MOSFETs.
 GaAs is a primary material for MOSFETs.
 GaAs has high electron mobility.
 Generally,
 if f > 2 GHz: GaAs transistors are usually used.
 If f < 2 GHz: Si transistors are usually used.
 Although more complicated devices with better performance for
some applications have been introduced, the MOSFET is still
the dominant active device for power amplifiers and switching
circuits in the microwave spectrum.
 Basic Structure
 The base material on which the
transistor is fabricated is a GaAs
substrate.

 A buffer layer is epitaxially grown over

the GaAs substrate to isolate defects
in the substrate from the transistor.

 The channel or the conducting layer is

a thin, lightly doped (n) conducting
layer of semiconducting material
epitaxially grown over the buffer layer.

 Since the electron mobility is

approximately 20 times greater than
the hole mobility for GaAs, the
conducting channel is always n-type
Schematic and cross section of a MOSFET for microwave transistors.
 Basic operation of MOSFET

Schematic and I–V characteristics for an ungated MOSFET.

As the voltage is increased, the

current increases linearly with an
associated resistance that is the sum
of the two ohmic resistances, RS
and RD, and the channel resistance,
RDS.
 Contd…
 If the voltage is increased further, the applied electric field will
become greater than the electric field required for saturation of
electron velocity.
 Under large bias conditions, an alternative expression for ID is
useful; this expression relates the current directly to the channel
parameters:

Z: the width of the channel

b(x): the effective channel depth
q : the electron charge
n(x): the electron density
v(x): the electron velocity, which is related to the electric field across
the channel.
Note that if v(x) saturates, ID will also saturate.
This saturation current is called IDSS.
 Contd…
 Now consider the effect of  Since the current flowing
the gate electrode placed over through the channel is
the channel but without any equivalent to a current flow
gate bias, VG = 0. through a distributed resistor,
there is a larger voltage drop
 A depletion region formed across the drain end of the
under the gate electrode channel than at the source
reduces the effective channel end.
depth, b(x), and therefore
increases the resistance to  This results in the depletion
current flow under the gate. region depth being greater on
the drain side of the channel.
 The depletion region depth is
dependent on the voltage
drop across the Schottky
junction.
 Contd…
 The nonuniform channel depth has two effects on the
device operation.
 First, there is an accumulation of electrons on the source
side and a depletion of electrons on the drain side of the
depletion region.

 This dipole of charge creates a feedback capacitance

between the drain and the channel; this capacitance is
typically called CDC.

 The second effect is that the electric field due to the dipole
adds to the applied electric field causing the saturation
conditions to occur at a lower VD.
 Contd…
 By applying a bias to the gate junction, the depletion depth
and therefore the resistance of the current flow between the
source, drain & the saturation current can be controlled.
 If a large enough negative gate bias is applied, the depletion
region depth will equal the channel depth, or the channel
will be pinched off.
 This gate bias is called the pinch-off voltage (Vp)
a- height of the channel in m
N- electron concentration of
electrons/cu.m
 Under pinch-off conditions, the drain current drops to a very
small value.
 Therefore, the transistor can act as a voltage-controlled resistor
or a switch.
 Contd…
 MOSFET may be used to increase the power level of a
microwave signal, or that they provide gain.

 Because the drain current can be made to vary greatly by

introducing small variations in the gate potential, the
MOSFET can be modeled as a voltage-controlled current
source.

 The transconductance (gm) the MOSFET is defined as

 Contd…
 Using short-channel approximations, it can be shown that the
transconductance may be written as

 where IS is the maximum current that can flow if the channel were
fully undepleted under saturated velocity conditions.
 Since IS is proportional to the channel depth, a, and VP is
proportional to the square of the channel depth, gm is inversely
proportional to the channel depth.
 In addition, note that for large IS and gm, the parasitic resistances RS
and RD must be minimized.
 Contd…
 The most commonly used figures of merit for microwave transistors
are the gain bandwidth product.
 The frequency where the unilateral power gain of the device is equal
to one, ft. is the max freq of oscillation, fmax.

 If short gate length approximations are made, ft can be related to the

transit time of the electrons through the channel,
 τ : transit time in seconds
 L : Gate length
 Vs: Saturation drift velocity

 Since vsat is approximately 6 x1010 mm/s for GaAs with doping levels
typically used in the channel, the gate length must be less than 1 mm
for ft to be greater than 10 GHz.
 Contd…
 The parameter fmax may be approximated by

where RG is the gate resistance.

 From the above two expressions for ft and fmax, it is apparent that the
gate length should be made as small as possible.

 Both the limits of fabrication and the need to keep the electric field
under the channel less than the critical field strength required for
avalanche breakdown set the lower limit on L at approximately 0.1
mm.
 Contd…
 For the gate to have effective control of the
channel current, the gate length L must be larger
than the channel depth, a, or L/a > 1.

 This requires a channel depth on the order of

0.05 to 0.3 mm for most GaAs MOSFETs.

 The small channel depth requires that the carrier

concentration in the channel be as high as
possible to maintain a high current.
GaAs MOSFET cross section

Self – aligned GaAs MOSFET cross section

 MOSFET - Summary

 The operation is very similar to that of a JFET.

 The p-n junction gate is replaced by a Schottky barrier, and
the lower contact and p-n junction are eliminated because
the lightly doped p-type substrate is replaced by a semi-
insulating substrate.
 Advantages
 The higher transit frequency of the MOSFET makes it
particularly of interest for microwave circuits.

 While the advantage of the MOSFET provides a superior

microwave amplifier or circuit, the limitation by the diode
turn-on is easily tolerated.

 Typically depletion-mode devices are used since they

provide a larger current and larger transconductance and
the circuits contain only a few transistors, so that threshold
control is not a limiting factor.

 The buried channel also yields a better noise performance

as trapping and release of carriers into and from surface
states and defects is eliminated.
 Applications
 The use of GaAs rather than Si MOSFETs
provides two more significant advantages:
 First of all the room temperature mobility is more
than 5 times larger, while the saturation velocity is
about twice that in silicon.
 Second it is possible to fabricate semi-insulating (SI)
GaAs substrates which eliminates the problem of
absorbing microwave power in the substrate due to
free carrier absorption.
 Applications
 As front end low noise amplifier of microwave
receivers in both radar and communications.
 As power amplifiers for output stage of
microwave links.
 As driver amplifiers for high power transmitters.
 As output amplifiers in broadband generators.
 As power oscillators.
 High frequency devices, cellular phones, satellite
receivers, radar, microwave devices.
VARACTOR DIODE
 Introduction

 A microwave solid-state device.

 Also called a parametric diode,
tuning diodes or varicap diodes.
 A nonlinear device
 Provides a voltage-dependent
variable capacitance.
 VARACTOR DIODE
A specialized diode that changes its level of capacitance depending on the level of reverse
bias applied to the diode. Also known as a varicap diode.
Features
The varactor , or variable capacitance diode is a junction diode.

1. It has the useful property that its junction capacitance is easily varied
electronically by changing reverse bias on the diode.

2. It is also used for frequency modulation of oscillators.

3. The resistive cutoff frequency is often used as figure of merit

4. The capacitance is naturally inversely proportional to the width of this

layer and thus be varied with changes in the bias

47
 Types Of Varactor Diode

 A hyper abrupt type :

When the changeover p-n junction is abrupt then it is called
abrupt type. When change is very abrupt, they are called hyper
abrupt type. They are used in oscillators to sweep for different
frequencies.

 Gallium-Arsenide varactor diode :

The semiconductor material used is gallium arsenide. They are
used for frequencies from 18 GHz up to and beyond 600 GHz.
 Important Criteria

 Capacitance : Capacitance of the device.

Capacitance from a few picoFarads to hundreds
of picoFarads is provided.

 Capacitance Range : Range of capacitance

produced when voltage is varied.

 Voltage Range : The minimum and maximum

voltage that can be applied to the device.
 Contd…
 Bias current : The bias is always reverse. This means
that the varactor diode does not conduct electricity. If
the bias is turned positive then the device will start
conducting.

 Other criteria to be considered include : reverse and

breakdown voltage, leakage current, junction
temperature.

 Voltage and other transients must be avoided.

Transients can occur if the DC voltage is put off.
 Characteristics

 Low-noise characteristic : produce much less

noise than most conventional amplifiers.
 Low cost
 High reliability
 Light weight
 Small size

 Notice the nonlinear increase in capacitance

as the reverse voltage is decreased.
 Operation
 It has a p-n junction of semi-
conducting material and is always
reverse biased.

 The depletion zone depends on

the applied voltage and this
makes the capacitance vary with
the applied voltage.
 Operation
 Voltage variable capacitance of reverse biased junction.
 They have nonlinearity of capacitance which is just fast enough to
follow microwaves.
 Losses in the nonlinear element is almost negligible.
 The junction capacitance depends on the applied voltage and junction
design.
 In some cases a junction with fixed reverse bias may be used as a
capacitance of a fixed value.
 With a reverse bias, the junction is depleted by mobile carriers
resulting in capacitance.
 Width of the depletion region increases with reverse bias &
capacitance decreases as reverse bias increases.
 Avalanche region is never used as it is likely to destroy the device.

53
 Current Vs Voltage Characteristics
Varactor Diode equivalent Circuit
I
+ Forward
Current

= = _ 0
Saturated +V
reverse
WWWW current
_

Cj Avalanche Current

c0
Junction Capacitance Vs voltage
- 0 +V

54
Construction  Diffused junction MESA are
widely used as capable of
handling large powers and large
reverse breakdown voltage and
have low noise.

 Freq limit of SI diodes is up to

25GHz.

 Varactors made up of GaAs(over

90GHz) & better functioning at
lowest temperatures.

 Manufacturing techniques are

easier for Si.

Electrical eq. ckt for varactor diode

55
•Variation in Cj is most important
characteristic.

•There are parasitic resistances, capacitances

& conductances associated with every
practical encapsulated diode.

•The diode encapsulation contains electrical

leads attached to wafer and low loss ceramic
cases as a mechanical support to a wafer.

•The parasitics should be kept as low as

possible.
•For many applications there should be a
large capacitance variation and small value of
minimum capacitance & series resistance.
 Applications

 FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS - used in

applications where it’s difficult to generate
microwave signals.
 Producing relatively high power outputs at
frequencies up to 100GHz.
 Does not have gain ; in fact, it produces a signal
power loss,
 Output can be as high as 80% of the input.
 PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIERS. –
 Named for the time-varying parameter, or value of capacitance or reactance,
associated with the operation.
 TUNING - Since the frequency can be made to vary they are used as electronic
tuning devices in tuners for television, mobiles.
 Amplification Mechanism
 Types
 Parametric Up converter, Parametric Down Converter, Negative Resistance Para amp,
Degenerate Para Amp, Broadband Para amp, Cooled para amp

 Other Applications

 PLL, AM radio

 Voltage Controlled Oscillators

 Harmonic Generation

 Electronic tuning devices in tuners for television, mobiles, parametric amplification,

voltage-variable tuning, frequency multipliers, etc.
 PIN DIODE
•PIN diode acts as a low freq rectifier that
could rectify more power than an
ordinary p-n junction diode.

•Up to about 100MHz operation is

similar to an ordinary p-n junction diode
acts like a variable resistance.

•Under zero & reverse bias, the diode has

When diode is mounted across a 50 Ω coaxial
a very high impedance at microwave freq line, it will not load the line under back bias. It
and very low impedance for small reflects most of the power under forward bias
forward currents i.e. due to mismatch & loading.

To improve power handling capability several

•with bias variation on PIN diode, its
diodes can be used in parallel .
resistance changes nearly 5-10KΩ
under negative bias to 5 Ω under positive The shunt depletion capacitance limits the
bias i.e. it behaves as a switch. upper freq operation.

59
 Equivalent circuit of PIN diode

Construction of PIN diode

Resistance variation with bias

60
Operation of PIN diode

 Zero Bias: The diffusion of the holes

&electrons across the junction causes space
charge (density) region of thickness inversely
proportional to impurity concentration. An
ideal I layer has no depletion region i.e. p layer
& n layer has fixed negative and positive
charge resp.
 Reverse Bias: The space charge regions in
the p & n layers will become thicker. The
reverse resistance will be very high & almost
constant.
 Forward Bias: Carriers will be injected into
the I layer & p & n space charge regions will
become thinner. Due to this carrier
concentration in the I layer is raised above
equilibrium levels & resistivity drops as FB
increased and low resistance is offered.

61
 Specifications
1. Diodes are available with resistive cutoff of 700GHz.
2. Operating frequency do not exceed 1 tenth of above cutoff.
3. Individual diodes may handle up to 200KW peak.
4. Several diodes may be combined to handle as much as 1MW
peak.
5. Actually switching times vary approximately 40ns for high-
power limiters to as little as 1ns at lower powers.

APPLICATIONS
1. PIN diode as an Amplitude Modulator
2. PIN diode as a Switch
3. PIN diode as a Limiter
4. PIN diode as Phase Shifter
62
 PIN diode as an Modulator

• The diode is kept at low reverse  Hence the amount of carrier power
bias and in series with low reflected back and hence the amount
frequency modulating signal. of carrier passed beyond diode circuit
towards the output varies as the input
• The modulating signal amplitude value of modulating signal.
is kept smaller than RF carrier
signal.

•The modulating signal changes

the RF resistance of the diode so
that varying amount of mismatch
results.

63
 PIN diode as a Switch

•It can be used either in series or  When diode is forward biased, it offers
in shunt. a short circuit.

•When the diode is reverse biased,  Hence energy is fully reflected back
switch is off or open and when it and no power flows to the load. Hence
is forward biased it is closed. switch is open.

•The bias is changed by suitable  If reverse biased then diode is open.

control systems. Hence load receives power i.e. switch
is closed.

64
 PIN diode as a Limiter
•The power Pin Vs output power
Pout load is shown for PIN
diode.

•When the input power is

moderate, output follows input
power and for larger input , the
diode absorbs power and output
will be limited.

•The output will not vary much

with the input power.

65
PIN diode as a Phase Shifter
Schottky Barrier Diode

67
 Introduction

Sometimes referred to as the surface barrier diode, hot carrier diode

or even hot electron diode.
Used for its low turn-on voltage
 Fast recover time
Widely used for radio frequency, RF applications as a mixer or
detector diode.
Low junction capacitance in applications from power rectification to
RF signal applications, and logic.
68
 Structural Details
A metal–semiconductor junction is
formed between a metal and a
semiconductor, creating a schottky
barrier.
Typical metals used are
molybdenum, platinum, chromium
or tungsten.
Semiconductor : n-type silicon.
The metal side acts as the anode
and n-type semiconductor acts as the
cathode of the diode.
 This schottky barrier results in
both very fast switching and low
69
forward voltage drop.
Current components of Schottky diodes

p+ n

dominant
negligible

B

Ir-g
IR-G

negligible

dominant
Principle Operation of Schottky diodes
 Contd…
 Operation is due to the fact that the electrons in different material have
different potential energy.

 N type semiconductors have higher potential energy as compare to electrons

of metals.

 When these two are brought together in contact, there a flow of electron in
both direction across the metal-semiconductor interface when contact is first
made.

 A voltage is applied to the schottky diode such that the metal is positive with
respect to semiconductor.

 The voltage will oppose the built in potential and makes it easier to current
flow
 VI - CHARACTERISTICS

ID

Schottky
diode p-n
junction
diode

VD
p-n
junction Schottky
diode diode
 Schottky diode I-V characteristics
Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor (MS) diode
Historically, Schottky diodes are the oldest diodes
MS diode electrostatics and the general shape of the
MS diode I-V characteristics are similar to p+n
diodes, but the details of current flow are different.
Dominant currents in a p+n diode
 arise from recombination in the depletion layer under small
forward bias.
 arise from hole injection from p+ side under larger forward bias.
Dominant currents in a MS Schottky diodes
 Electron injection from the semiconductor to the metal.
 Contd…

 Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor (MS)

diode
 Historically, Schottky diodes are the oldest
diodes
 MS diode electrostatics and the general shape of
the MS diode I-V characteristics are similar to
p+n diodes, but the details of current flow are
different.

75
Comparison of Characteristics of Schottky Diode and PN Diode
Characteristic Schottky Diode PN Junction Diode

Forward current Due to diffusion currents, i.e.

Majority carrier transport.
mechanism minority carrier transport.

Results from majority carriers Results from the minority

that overcome the barrier. This carriers diffusing through the
Reverse current
is less temperature dependent depletion layer. It has a strong
than for standard PN junction. temperature dependence.

Comparatively large - around

Turn on voltage Small - around 0.2 V.
0.7 V.

Fast - as a result of the use of Limited by the recombination

Switching speed majority carriers because no time of the injected minority
recombination is required. carriers.

76
 Advantages
 Schottky diode turns on and off faster than ordinary P-N
junction diode the basic reason behind this is that schottky
diodes are based on majority carrier.

As there is no minority carrier there is no worry about depletion

layer.

 It has much less voltage overshoot

 Very high frequency range

 Low cost

 Simple

 Reliable noise figures of 4 to 5dB.

77
 Applications

Low-voltage or high-current power supplies

AC-to-DC converters

Balanced mixer in CW Radar systems

 Microwave detectors

78
TUNNEL DIODE

79
 TUNNEL DIODE
 The tunnel diode ,or Esaki Diode is a thin-junction diode
which, under low forward bias condition exhibits negative
resistance.
 It has extremely heavy doping on both sides of the junction &
an abrupt transition from p-side to n-side.
 The tunneling effect is majority carrier effect & is very fast.
 It is invented in the late 1950 and useful for oscillation or
amplification purposes.
 Because of thin junction and short transit time it is useful for
microwave applications in fast switching circuits.

80
 i
A
2mA
ΛΛΛΛΛ
Rs=6Ω

=
ΛΛΛΛΛ

Cj=0.6pF
-R=-75Ω
0.2mA B

50mA 300mA v
Ls=0.1nH
Ordinary
diode

-i
Equivalent circuit
V-I Characteristics for Ge Tunnel Diode 83
•The tunnel effect controls the current at very low
values of forward bias where the normal and
injection current is very small.
•The mechanism of tunneling is purely a quantum
mechanical phenomenon.
•An electron on one side of the barrier will have
certain probability of leaking through the barrier if
barrier is very thin.
•If both p & n type materials are heavily doped, the
depletion region becomes very narrow.
•Another effect of heavy doping is to widen the
donor level in the n material & acceptor level in the
P material resp.
•The fermi level also moves up into the conduction
band in case of n material & moves down into the
valence band in case of p material.
•Resuling energy band diagram of heavily doped
unbiased p-n junction is shown in fig(a).
Fig. (a)

84
•Under unbiased condition, there is just the
same probability of electrons going from
states in the conduction band on the n side to
the states in the valence band on the p side, as
in the opposite direction.

•Net tunneling on the thin barrier is then zero

as shown in fig(b).

Fig. (b)

85
Fig.(a) Fig.(b)

86
•As forward bias is applied the
energy levels on n side are raised
relative to those on p side.

•Consequently the electrons in the

conduction band on n side see
empty states just across the barrier
and tunneling takes place.

This tunneling current reads a

maximum value Ip at a forward
bias Vp of the order 0.1V as shown
in fig(c).

Fig. (c)

87
•As the forward bias is further increased, the
energy levels on n side are raised so high that
only part of the electron in the conduction
band see available energy levels across the
barrier as shown in fig(d).
•This phenomenon, the suppression of
tunneling is responsible for the negative
resistance part of the diode characteristics.
•At a bias of Vv, the tunneling is completely Fig. (d)
suppressed and the current Iv, is entirely
made up of the ordinary injection currents.
•Between the peak current Ip and the valley
current Iv, a negative dynamic resistance
r=dV/dI is obtained.
•Beyond Vv, the current rises again because of
the injection currents as in the ordinary p-n
junction, diode, reaching a value of Ip at a
voltage of VF. Fig. (e)
•In the fig (e),it may be noted that the energy
gaps Eg are equal. 88
Fig.(c) Fig.(d)

89
•Ifthe reverse bias voltage is applied, the height
of the barrier is increased above the open circuit
value E0 as shown in fig (f).

•There are still some energy states in the valence

band of the p side which lie at the same level as
allowed empty states in the conduction band of
the n side.

•Hence these electrons will tunnel through from

p side to n side, giving rise to reverse diode
current.

•Itmay be seen from the fig (f) that as the reverse

bias is increased, the diode current increases.
Hence tunnel diode behaves as a good conductor
when reverse biased. Fig. (f)

•Most commercial tunnel diodes are made up of

Ge or GaAs since high peak to valley current
ratio Ip/Iv is difficult to obtain with Si.
90
Fig.(e) Fig.(f)

91
 Specifications
 Power : 750 Watts
 Freq range :upto 100 GHz
 Tuing range : 1 to 4.3 GHz
 Stability : 1 in 105(with X band tunnel diode osc)
 APPLICATIONS
1. Used as amplifier called Tunnel Diode Amplifier like
parametric amplifier.
2. Tunnel diode amplifiers may be used throughout the
microwave range as moderate-to-low noise preamplifiers in
all kinds of receivers.
3. Tunnel diodes are used as mixers.
4. Being capable of active oscillations they may be used as self
excited mixers.
5. Being high speed devices Tunnel diodes are also used in high
speed switching and logic operations as flip flop and gated.
6. They are used as low-power oscillators up to 100GHz
because of their simplicity, frequency stability and immunity
to radiation.

93
Tunnel Diode Amplifier with Circulator
• Circulator is required to
separate the input from the
output.
• It is different from par amp in
that it does not require any
pump source.
• TWT amplifiers do not require
circulator.
• The low power handling
capacity of tunnel diode
amplifier limits its usage.
 It can act as a medium noise
amplifier.
 Tunnel Diode Oscillator Using Cavity
• Low cost oscillators with lesser power
handling capacity.

• Basic circuit consists of a suitably

biased tunnel diode connected across an
inductance of suitable value.

• Oscillator works at the resonant

frequency of the junction stray • The influence of diode capacitor on the
capacitance & the external inductance. operation frequency can be minimized by
• The negative resistance tunes out the weak coupling.
positive resistance of the circuit.
• Mechanical tuning is done by a tuning
• This operation is quite unstable as Cj plunger.
varies with temp & bias voltage i. e.
undamped resonant freq varies. • The diode is coupled to the cavity by a
• The variation can be avoided by using a probe.
high Q cavity or other microwave • Loop coupling is avoided as it gives
resonator to couple the diode. inductive coupling.
 The major advantage of Tunnel diode oscillator is that
microwave oscillations of modest power can be
obtained from very simple circuits.

 Wide range of tuning either mechanical or electrical is

possible.
 For low power applications they are fast replacing
reflex klystrons.

 Low noise figure.

 Low cost and simplicity in circuits tunnel diodes are still
used in competition with Bulk effect GaAs devices.
 Transferred Electron Devices(TED`s)
 Positive resistances absorb power (Passive Devices) and
negative resistances generate power(Active Devices).
 TED’s are bulk devices having no junction, or gates as
compared to microwave transistors which operate with either
junction or gates.
 Fabricated from compound semiconductors such as GaAs, InP
or CdTe as against Ge & Si of transistors.
 TED`s operate with hot electrons whose energy is very much
greater than the thermal energy.
 Transistors operate with warm electrons whose energy is not
much greater than their thermal energy (0.026eV at room
temp.)
 e.g. Gunn diode
98
 GUNN EFFECT AND DIODE
 What is it?
The Gunn diode is used as local oscillator covering the microwave frequency
range of 1 to 100GHz

 How it works?
By means of the transferred electron mechanism, it has the negative
resistance characteristic

 What’s the applications?

Local Oscillator and Avoid Collision Radar instead of Klystron etc..

 What’s the advantages?

Low noise, High frequency operation and Medium RF Power

99
 Construction of Gunn diode

Fig 1: Encapsulation Fig 2: Constructional details

100
  Gunn effect was discovered by J.B Gunn in
IBM : 1963
“Above some critical voltage, corresponding to an electric field
of 2000~4000 V/cm, the current in every spectrum (GaAs)
became a fluctuating function of time”
High-field domain

Cathode -
+ Anode

Metal-coated contact

Schematic diagram for n-type GaAs diode

101
 Contd...
 The current waveform was produced by applying a voltage pulse
of 59V and 10ns duration Oscillation frequency was 4.5GHz
 The period of oscillation is equal to the transit time of electrons
through the device
0.222ns ≈ 4.5GHz

5ns

10ns

Current fluctuation of N-type GaAs reported by Gunn 102

JE characteristic of a Gunn diode

103
Gunn Diode
 Operating modes of Gunn diode
 Gunn Oscillation mode
 Stable amplifier mode

 Limited Space charge accumulation mode(LSA)

 Modes depend upon material parameters &operating

conditions.
 Gunn mode is divided into

a) Transit time mode

b) Quenched mode
c) Delayed mode

106
Domain Formation

107
Transit Time Domain

108
Gunn diode modes

109
 Applications
 As an low and medium power oscillator in microwave receivers
and instruments.

 In parametric amplifiers as pump source.

 Have advantage over IMPATT diodes having much lower noise

and hence used in pump oscillator.

 The high power Gunn oscillators (250-2000mw) are used as

power output oscillators and are frequency modulated in a wide
variety of low power transmitter applications.

 These includes police radar, CW Doppler radar, burglar alarms

and aircraft rate-of-climb indicators.

110
•It normally consists of a resonant cavity,
Gunn Oscillator
an arrangement for coupling diode to the
cavity, a circuit for biasing a diode and a
mechanism to couple RF power the diode
and a mechanism to couple RF power
from the cavity to the external circuit
/load.
•A co-axial or a rectangular cavity are
commonly used.
•Gunn diode is mounted at one end of the
cavity & is in continuation with the central
conductor of the coaxial line.
•The output is taken using a inductive or
capacitive coupled probe.
•The length of the cavity determines the
freq of oscillation.
•It can be easily fabricated but low Q of
coaxial resonator & oscillations at Fig :Gunn oscillator using coaxial cavity
harmonics of the desired freq are the
disadvantages.
111
• It is more popular.

•Itconsists of a waveguide section

separated from the output
waveguide by an iris.

•Gunn diode is mounted in a post

across the narrow dimension in the
centre of the waveguide.

•The diode post acts as a large

inductive suceptance &iris is also
inductive.

Fig : Gunn oscillator using waveguide cavity

•Hence the resonant freq is lower
than that for which the length l is

•Dielectric tuning rod is used to

adjust the freq mechanically. 112
 GUNN DIODE BASED MICROWAVE BENCH
GUNN DIODE
 Avalance Transit Time Devices

 The process of having a delay between voltage and

current, in avalanche together with transit time,
through the material is said to be Negative resistance.
The devices that helps to make a diode exhibit this
property are called as Avalanche transit time
devices.
 E.g. IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT diodes.
 IMPATT

IMpact Avalanche and Transit Time Diode

TRAPATT

TRApped Plasma Avalanche triggered Transit Diode

116
 IMPATT Diode
 When the p-n junction diode is reverse-biased, then current does
not flow.

 However when the reverse voltage exceeds a certain value, the

junction breaks down and current flows with only slight increase
of voltage. This breakdown is caused by avalanche multiplication
of electrons and holes in the space charge region of the junction.

 The p-n junction in the avalanche breakdown condition exhibits

negative resistance characteristics in the microwave frequency
range.
 Contd…
 Since the negative resistance is based upon avalanche
multiplication and transit-time effect of carriers, the
device has been called the IMPATT (Impact Avalanche
Transit-Time) Diode.
 The original suggestion for a microwave device
employing transit-time effect was made by W. T. Read
and involved an n+-p-i-p+ structure such as that
shown in figure. This device operates by injecting
carriers into the drift region and is called an IMPATT
diode
.

Construction
 IMPATT diode are made of silicon as it is cheaper and easier
to fabricate using epitaxial groth. below figure is showing a
typical Impatt diode.The gold alloy contact is used as it has low
ohmic and thermal resistance
Equivalent Circuit For IMPATT Diode:
 Classification
 Device structure is based on the doping profile. The three basic
types of Impatt diodes are:-

1)Single drift region (SDR) –

The SDR diode consists of a single avalanche zone and a single drift zone
with p+nn+ structure.
2)Double drift region (DDR)
A DDR diode has a p+pnn+ structure that consist of two drift layers, one
for electrons and other for holes on either side of the central avalanche zone.
3) Double avalanche region (DAR)
The DAR diode has a p+nipn+ structure that consist of one drift zone
sandwiched between two avalanche zones. The electrons and holes from the
two junctions travel across the central i-region in opposite directions and
deliver power.
 Principle of Operation
 In IMPATT diode extremely high
voltage gradient is
applied(400kv/cm)which a normal
which a normal pn junction can't
withstand.

Such a high potential graidient, back-

biasing the diode cause a flow of
minority carrier across the junction.

The ac current is approxi 180 degree

out of phase with the applied voltage
this gives rise to negative conduction
and oscillation is resonant circuit.
Operation of IMPATT Diode
Voltage and Current Vs Time:
 Specifications
 Operating frequency - The range of frequencies over which the
diode is designed to operate.
 Operating voltage - The operating voltage.
 Operating current - The operating current.
 PD - This is the maximum permissible power dissipation (PD) per
output (in W) of the diode at specified ambient temperature.
Power dissipation is the power dissipated by the diode while in
the ON state.
 Tj - Junction operating temperature (Tj) is the range of
temperatures over which the diode is designed to operate.
 Specifications
 Frequency : 1 to 300 GHz
 Max output power for single diode: 5W in X
band & 0.5 W at 30 GHz.
 Several diodes combined : 40W at X band
 Pulsed powers: 4kW
 Theorotical η=30% (<30% in practice) & 15%
for Si , 23% for GaAs
 Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages

1. Operate at frequencies between about 3 and 100 GHz or more.

2. High power capability.

 Disadvantages
1. It is very noisy because avalanche is a noisy process.
2. Noise fig for the IMPATT diode is 30db are not as good as
klystron/gunn diode/twt amp.
3. Tuning range is not as good as gunn diodes.
 Applications
 These diodes make excellent microwave generators for many
applications like:-
1. Parametric amplifier
2. Parametric up converter
3. Parametric down converter
4. Negative resistance parametric amplifier.

 High Q IMPATT are used in Intrusion alarm network, police

radar and low power microwave transmitters.

 Low Q IMPATT are used in FM telecommunication transmitters

and CW Dopplar radar transmitter.
1.
 TRAPATT Diode
 Derived from the Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit
mode device.

 It is a p-n junction diode characterized by the formation of a

trapped space charge plasma within the junction region.

 It was first reported by Prager in 1967.

 It is a high efficiency microwave generator.

 The TRAPATT diode is typically represented by a current pulse

generator and the diode’s depletion-layer capacitance.
Construction of TRAPATT Diode:

 It is derived from IMPATT Diode.

 Silicon or Gallium Arsenide is used for fabricating

TRAPATT Diode.

 TRAPATT Diode can be constructed either by p+ -n-n+

or n+-p-p+.
 Comparison With TEDS

 Transferred electron devices generate relatively low-power

microwave radio signals.

 There are no p-n junction in TEDs so frequency is a function of

load and natural frequency of device.

 In TRAPATT diode there is ability to switch very high currents

with less than rise and fall times (transition times).
 Specifications

 CW Power : 1-3 W between 8 GHz to 0.5 GHz

 Pulse power : 1.2 kW at 1.1 GHz
 Operating voltage : 60-150 V
 Efficiency : 15 to 40% (8GHz) (0.5GHz)
 Noise Figure : >30 dB
 Frequency range : 3 to 50 GHz
 Construction
 Typically silicon with N type
depletion region width=2.5 to
12.5 micro m
 p+ region = 2.5 to 7.5 micro
m
 Diode’s diameter range=50 to
750 micro m
Principle Of Operation
A high field avalanche zone propagates through the diode and fills
the depletion layer with a dense plasma of electrons and holes that
become trapped in the low field region behind the zone.

The basic operation of the oscillator is a semiconductor p-n

junction diode reversed biased to current densities well in excess of
those encountered in normal avalanche operation.
 Operation
At point A electric field is uniform throughout the
sample but less than avalanche breakdown.

Diode charge like a linear capacitor when

magnitude of electric field increases above the
breakdown voltage.

Then sufficient no. of charge carriers is generated,

the particle current(Ip) exceed S the external
current (Ie) and the electric field is depressed
throughout the depletion region, causing the
voltage to decreases B to C a dense plasma of
electron and hole is generated.

At point C to D some of the electrons and holes

drift out of the end s of the depletion layer the field
is further depressed and traps the remaining plasma
Along time is required to remove the plasma as
shown in graph from D to E.
 Contd…..
 At point E the plasma is removed, but residual charge of electron in one end of
the depletion region and residual charge of holes in other ends.

 At point F all the charges that was generated has been removed. The point F to
G the diode charges like capacitor.

 At point G diode current goes to zero for half a period and voltage remains
constant Vs until the current comes back on and the cycle repeats.

 The TRAPATT mode can operate at low frequencies since discharge time of
plasma can be considerably greater than the nominal transit time of the diode at
high field.

 The TRAPATT mode is known as transit-time mode in the real sense that the
time delay of carriers in transit(i.e. the time between injection and collection) is
utilized to obtain a current phase shift favorable for oscillation.

 RF power is delivered by the diode to an external load when the diode is placed in a
proper circuit with the load.
TRAPATT Diode Waveform:

AB – Charging of junction capacitance

BC – Electron and hole plasma formation by
depressed field
DE – Plasma extraction
EF – Residual extraction
FG – Charging of diode
GA – Constant voltage after full charging
 Analysis Of TRAPPAT Diode:

1. The current density is given by,

2. Electric field is given by,

Where,
Where,

3. Avalanche zone velocity is given by,

 Salient Features Of TRAPPAT Diode

1. It is a high efficiency diode oscillator .

2. Its oscillations depend on delay in current caused by avalanche

process.

3. The diode diameter is about 50 mm for CW operations and is

about 750 mm at lower frequency for high peak power
application.

4. It can be operated over a range of 400MHz to 12GHz.

5. Its has an efficiency of 20% - 40%.

 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages

1.More suitable for pulsed operation

2.15 to 40% efficiency is obtained

3.It can operate between 3 to 50GHz

Disadvantages

1.More suitable for pulsed operation

2.15 to 40% efficiency is obtained

3.It can operate between 3 to 50GHz

 Applications

1. Low power Doppler radars or local oscillators for radars

2. Landing system

3. Radio altimeter

4. S-band pulsed transmitters for phased array radar system