SHREEYASH PRATISHTHAN’S

SHREEYASH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(POLYTECHNIC), CHH. SAMBHAJINAGAR

MICRO-PROJECT REPORT

NAME OF DEPARTMENT:-_COMPUTER ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC YEAR:- 2024-25
SEMESTER:-3RD
COURSE NAME:- CGR
COURSE CODE:-
MICRO-PROJECT TITLE:- FREE DATA COMMUNICATION
PREPARED BY:-
1) Sakshi Bhalerao EN. NO:- 24511510403
2) Gitanjali Gujar EN. NO:- 24511510405
3) Anil Dasharte EN. NO:- 24511510402

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:- Prof. R.V Patil

 MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION,
MUMBAI
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr./ Ms. Gitanjali Ganesh Gujar of 3rd Semester of Diploma in COMPUTER
ENGINERRING (CO) of Institute SHREEYASH COLLEGE OF ENGINEARRING & TECHNOLOGY
(POLYTECHNIC) has successfully completed Micro-Project Work in Course of HOSPITAL
MANAGEMENT for the academic year 2024-25 as prescribed in the K-Scheme Curriculum.

Date:-_______________________ Enrollment No:- EN.NO.24511510405

Place:-Chh.Sambhajinagar Exam Seat No.:- 432247

R.V.PATIL A.C.NAIK S.S.KHADAGLE

Signature Signature Signature
Guide HOD Principal

Seal of Institute
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our profound gratitude to our guide Prof.

R.V. PATIL who guided us endlessly in framing and completion of Micro-
Project. He / She guided us on all the main points in that Micro-Project. We are
indebted to his / her constant encouragement, cooperation and help. It was his /
her enthusiastic support that helped us in overcoming of various obstacles in the
Micro-Project.
We are also thankful to our Principal, HOD, Faculty Members
and classmates for extending their support and motivation in the completion of
this Micro-Project

1. Sakshi Bhalerao EN.NO:-24511510403

2. Gitanjali Gujar EN.NO:-24511510405
3. Anil Dasharte EN. NO:- 24511510402
DataCommunication

Module – I

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING:

Standards
Organizations for Data Communication, Layered Network Architecture,
Open Systems
Interconnection, Data Communication Circuits, Serial and parallel Data
Transmission, Data
Communication Networks, Alternate Protocol Suites.
SIGNALS, NOISE, MODULATION, AND DEMODULATION: Signal
Analysis,
Electrical Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio, Analog Modulation Systems,
Information
Capacity, Bits, Bit Rate, Baud, and M-ary Encoding, Digital Modulation.

Module – II

METALLIC CABLE TRANSMISSION MEDIA: Metallic Transmission Lines,

Transverse Electromagnetic Waves, Characteristics of Electromagnetic
Waves.
OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MEDIA : Advantages of Optical Fiber
Cables,
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables, Electromagnetic spectrum, Optical
Fiber
Communications System Block Diagram, Optical Fiber construction,
Propagation of Light
Through an Optical fiber Cable, Optical Fiber Modes and Classifications,
Optical Fiber
Comparison, Losses in Optical Fiber Cables, Light sources, Light Detectors,
Lasers.

Module – III

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION: Pulse Modulation, Pulse code Modulation,

Dynamic Range,
Signal Voltage–to-Quantization Noise Voltage Ratio, Linear Versus
Nonlinear PCM Codes,
Commanding, PCM Line Speed, Delta Modulation PCM and Differential
PCM.
MULTIPLEXING AND T CARRIERS: Time- Division Multiplexing, T1
Digital
Carrier System, Digital Line Encoding, T Carrier systems, Frequency-
Division Multiplexing,
Wavelength- Division Multiplexing, Synchronous Optical Network.

Module-IV:

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS: Electromagnetic Polarization,

Electromagnetic Radiation, Optical Properties of Radio Waves, Terrestrial
Propagation of
Electromagnetic Waves, Skip Distance, Free-Space Path Loss, Microwave
Communications
Systems, Satellite Communications Systems.

Module-V:

DATA COMMUNICATION CODES, ERROR CONTROL, AND DATA FORMAT:

Data Communication Character Codes, Bar Codes, Error Control, Error
Detection and
Correction, Character Synchronization.
DATA COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT: Digital Service Unit and
Channel Service
Unit, Voice-Band Data Communication Modems, Bell Systems- Compatible
Voice- Band
Modems, Voice-Band Modern Block Diagram, Voice- Band Modem
Classifications,
Asynchronous Voice-Band Modems, Synchronous Voice-Band Modems,
Modem
Synchronization, 56K Modems, Modem Control: The AT Command Set,
Cable Modems .
DataCommunication
BOOKS:
1. Introduction to Data Communication and Networking, Wayne Tomasi,
Pearson
Education.
2. Data Communication and Networking, Behrouz A Forouzan, Fourth
Edition.TMH.
3. Data and Computer communications, 8/e, William Stallings, PHI.
4. Computer Communications and Networking Technologies, Gallow,
Second
Edition Thomson .
5. Computer Networking and Internet, Fred Halsll, Lingana Gouda
Kulkarni, Fifth
Edition, Pearson Education

DataCommunication

PART – A

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING:

Standards Organizations for Data Communications
Layered Network Architecture
Open Systems Interconnection
Data Communications Circuits
Serial and parallel Data Transmission
Data Communications Circuit Arrangements
Data Communications Networks
Alternate Protocol Suites.

PART – B

SIGNALS, NOISE, MODULATION, AND DEMODULATION:

Signal Analysis
Electrical Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Analog Modulation Systems
Information Capacity
Bits, Bit Rate, Baud
M-ary Encoding, Digital Modulation
Module – I
DataCommunication

Introduction to Data Communications:

In Data Communication, data generally are defined as information that is stored in digital form.
Data Communication is the process of transferring digital information between two or more points.
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between
individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes
place over distance.
Information is defined as the knowledge or intelligence. Data Communication can be
summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of digital information. For Data
Communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made
up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
The effectiveness of a Data Communication system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing
any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay;
such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of
data being transmitted.
A Data Communication system has five components:
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a necessity
in data communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to
talk to each other in a different language without know the other language.
DATA:
Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information.
There may be different forms in which data may be represented. Some of the
forms of data used in
communications are as follows:
1. Text:
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system: ASCII, Unicode
2. Numbers:
Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system: ASCII, Unicode
3. Images:
An image is worth a thousand word is a very famous saying. In computers
images are digitally
stored.
A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a
picture or image is a
matrix of pixel elements.
The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of
image (black n
white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits to represent
the value of a
pixel.
• The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called
resolution) and the bit
pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel.
Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each pixel can be
represented by
a value either 0 or 1, so an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would
require only 100
bits in memory to be stored.
On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent
every pixel
value (00 - black, 01 – dark gray, 10– light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10
x 10 pixel image would
now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.
Commonly used Image formats: jpg, png, bmp, etc
4. Audio: Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and
broadcasted.
Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
Example: What we hear on the radio is a source of data or information.
5. Video: Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie.
DataCommunication

ANSIIEEEITU-T
ISO
Standards Organizations for Data Communication:
An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form
the standards
organizations and are responsible for developing, coordinating and
maintaining the standards. The
intent is that all Data Communication equipment manufacturers and users
comply with these
standards. The primary standards organizations for Data Communication are:
Fig. 1 Standards Organisations for Data & Network Communication

1. International Standard Organization (ISO)

ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of

subjects. ISO was
started in 1946.The ISO creates the sets of rules and standards for graphics
and document exchange
and provides models for equipment and system compatibility, quality and
reduced costs. It is
comprised mainly of members from the standards committee of various
governments throughout the
world. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work
of the other standards
EI
DataCommunication

organizations. The member body of the ISO from the United States is the
American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).

2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector

(ITU-T)

ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International

Telecommunications Union
based in Geneva, Switzerland. It was formerly called as CCITT (Committee
Consultant for
International Telephony and Telegraphy). It develops the recommended sets
of rules and standards
for telephone and data communications. ITU-T membership consists of
government authorities and
representatives from many countries and it is the present standards
organization for the United
Nations. It has developed three sets of specifications mentioned below:
(a) The V series for modem interfacing and data transmission over telephone
lines
(b) The X series for data transmission over public digital networks, Email and
directory services.
(c) The I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its
extension
is Broadband ISDN.
The ITU-T is separated into 14 study groups.

3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States

and is
compromised of electronics, computer and communications engineers. It is
currently the world’s
largest professional society with over 400,000 members. It develops
communication and information
processing standards with the underlying goal of advancing theory, creativity,
and product quality in
any field related to electrical engineering.
 4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S
voting
representative for the ISO. ANSI is a completely private, non-profit
organization comprised of
equipment manufacturers and users of data processing equipment and
services. ANSI membership is
comprised of people form professional societies, industry associations,
governmental and regulatory
bodies, and consumer goods.

5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA)

EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends

industrial
standards. EIA activities include standards development, increasing public
awareness, and lobbying
and it is responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of
standards for data and
communications.

6. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information

technology
industry. It facilitates business development opportunities through market
development, trade
promotion, trade shows, and standards development. It represents
manufacturers of communications
and information technology products and also facilitates the convergence of
new communications
networks.

7. Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

DataCommunication

IAB earlier known as Internet Activities Board is a committee created by

ARPA (Advanced
Research Projects Agency) so as to analyze the activities of ARPANET
whose purpose is to
accelerate the advancement of technologies useful for U.S military. IAB is a
technical advisory group
of the Internet Society and its responsibilities are:

I. Oversees the architecture protocols and procedures used by the Internet.

II. Manages the processes used to create Internet Standards and also serves as
an appeal board
for complaints regarding improper execution of standardization process.
III. Responsible for administration of the various Internet assigned numbers
IV. Acts as a representative for Internet Society interest in liaison
relationships with other
organizations.
V. Acts as a source of advice and guidance to the board of trustees and
officers of Internet
Society concerning various aspects of internet and its technologies.

8. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

The IETF is a large international community of network designers, operators,

vendors and
researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and
smooth operation of the
Internet.

9. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)

The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future

Internet by creating
focused, long-term and small research groups working on topics related to
Internet protocols,
applications, architecture and technology.
Layered Network Architecture:
To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a
series of layers or
levels, each one build upon one below it. The basic idea of a layered
architecture is to divide the
design into small pieces. Each layer adds to the services provided by the
lower layers in such a
manner that the highest layer is provided a full set of services to manage
communications and run the
applications. The benefits of the layered models are modularity and clear
interfaces, i.e. open
architecture and comparability between the different providers' components.
A basic principle is to
ensure independence of layers by defining services provided by each layer to
the next higher layer
without defining how the services are to be performed. This permits changes
in a layer without
affecting other layers. The basic elements of a layered model are services,
protocols and interfaces. A
service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer. Protocol
is a set of rules that a
layer uses to exchange information with a peer entity. These rules concern
both the contents and the
order of the messages used. Between the layers service interfaces are defined.
The messages from
one layer to another are sent through those interfaces.
In a n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on conversation with
the layer n on
other machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation are
collectively known as the
layer-n protocol.
Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on
how
communication is to proceed. Five-layer architecture is shown below; the
entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. In other words, it
is the peers that
communicate using protocols.
DataCommunication

In reality, no data is transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n of another

machine.
Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below
it, until the
lowest layer is reached. Below layer-1 is the physical layer through which actual
communication
occurs.
With layered architectures, communications between two corresponding layers requires
a unit
of data called a protocol data unit (PDU). A PDU can be a header added at the beginning
of a
message or a trailer appended to the end of a message.
Data flows downward through the layers in the source system and upwards at the
destination
address. As data passes from one layer into another, headers and trailers are added and
removed from
the PDU. This process of adding or removing PDU information is called
encapsulation/decapsulation.
Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The interface defines which
primitives operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper layer adjacent to it.
A set of
layers and protocols is known as network architecture. A list of protocols used by a
certain system,
one protocol per layer, is called protocol stack.

CONCEPT OF LAYERED TASK:

The main objective of a computer network is to be able to transfer the data from sender
to
receiver. This task can be done by breaking it into small sub tasks, each of which are
well defined.
Each subtask will have its own process or processes to do and will take specific inputs
and give
specific outputs to the subtask before or after it. In more technical terms we can call
these sub tasks
as layers.
In general, every task or job can be done by dividing it into sub task or layers. Consider
the
example of sending a letter where the sender is in City A and receiver is in city B
DataCommunication

The process of sending letter is shown below:

Fig. 2: Concept of layer task: Sending a letter
The Fig. 2 shows Sender, Receiver & Carrier Hierarchy of layers;
The sender site, the activities take place in the following descending order:
Higher Layer: The sender writes the letter along with the sender and receivers address
and put it in
an envelope and drop it in the mailbox.
Middle Layer: The letter is picked up by the post man and delivered to the post office
Lower Layer: The letters at the post office are sorted and are ready to be transported
through a
carrier.
During transition the letter may be carried by truck, plane or ship or a combination of
transport
modes before it reaches the destination post office. At the Receiver site, the activities
take place in
the following ascending order:
Lower Layer: The carrier delivers the letter to the destination post office
Middle Layer: After sorting, the letter is delivered to the receivers mail box
Higher Layer: The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope and reads it.
Hierarchy of layers: The activities in the entire task are organized into three layers. Each
activity at
the sender or receiver side occurs in a particular order at the hierarchy.
The important and complex activities are organized into the Higher Layer and the
simpler
ones into middle and lower layer.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI):

International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop

architecture for computer communication and the OSI model is the result of this effort.
In 1984, the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an international
standard for
communications architecture. The term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two
systems which
conform to the reference model and associated standards. The OSI model describes how
information
or data makes its way from application programs (such as spreadsheets) through a
network medium
(such as wire) to another application program located on another network. The OSI
reference model
divides the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium
into SEVEN
smaller and more manageable problems. The seven layers are
DataCommunication

The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical - Layers 4, 3, 2,
and 1) are
concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network. The
upper four layers of the
OSI model (application, presentation and session - Layers 7, 6 and 5) are
orientated more toward
services to the applications. Data is encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves
down the layers before network transit.
As with any layered architecture, overhead information is added to a PDU in
the form of
headers and trailers. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on
other computers
DataCommunication
Physical Layer (The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next)
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI hierarchy and coordinates the functions
required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It also defines the procedures and functions
that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission occur. The physical layer
specifies the type of transmission medium and the transmission mode (simplex, half duplex or full
duplex) and the physical, electrical, functional and procedural standards for accessing Data
Communication networks.
Transmission media defined by the physical layer include metallic cable, optical fiber cable
or wireless radio-wave propagation. The physical layer also includes the carrier system used to
propagate the data signals between points in the network. The carrier systems are simply
communication systems that carry data through a system using either metallic or optical fiber cables
or wireless arrangements such as microwave, satellites and cellular radio systems.
Data-link Layer (the data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next)
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery.

DataCommunication
It makes the physical layer appear error free to the upper layer (network layer).The data link
layer packages data from the physical layer into groups called blocks, frames or packets. If frames
are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the
frame to define the physical address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver (destination
address) of the frame. The data-link layer provides flow-control, access-control, and error-control.
Network Layer (is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the destination
host)
The network layer provides details that enable data to be routed between devices in an
environment using multiple networks, sub-networks or both. This is responsible for addressing
messages and data so they are sent to the correct destination, and for translating logical addresses and
names (like a machine name FLAME) into physical addresses. This layer is also responsible for
finding a path through the network to the destination computer.

The network layer provides the upper layers of the hierarchy with independence from
the
data transmission and switching technologies used to interconnect systems. Networking
components
that operate at the network layer include routers and their software.
Transport Layer (is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another)
The transport layer controls and ensures the end-to-end integrity of the data message
propagated through the network between two devices, providing the reliable, transparent
transfer of
data between two endpoints.
Transport layer responsibilities include message routing, segmenting, error recovery and
two
types of basic services to an upper-layer protocol: connection oriented and
connectionless. The
transport layer is the highest layer in the OSI hierarchy in terms of communications and
may provide
data tracking, connection flow control, sequencing of data, error checking, and
application
addressing and identification
DataCommunication
Session Layer (responsible for dialog control and synchronization)
Session layer, sometimes called the dialog controller provides mechanism for controlling the
dialogue between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called
sessions) between applications.
Session layer protocols provide the logical connection entities at the application layer. These
applications include file transfer protocols and sending email. Session responsibilities include
network log-on and log-off procedures and user authentication. Session layer characteristics include
virtual connections between applications, entities, synchronization of data flow for recovery
purposes, creation of dialogue units and activity units, connection parameter negotiation, and
partitioning services into functional groups.
Presentation Layer (responsible for translation, compression, and encryption)
The presentation layer provides independence to the application processes by addressing any
code or syntax conversion necessary to present the data to the network in a common communications
format. It specifies how end-user applications should format the data.
The presentation layer translated between different data formats and protocols. Presentation
functions include data file formatting, encoding, encryption and decryption of data messages,
dialogue procedures, data Compression algorithms, synchronization, interruption, and termination.
Application Layer (responsible for providing services to the user)
The application layer is the highest layer in the hierarchy and is analogous to the general
manager of the network by providing access to the OSI environment. The applications layer provides
distributed information services and controls the sequence of activities within and application and
also the sequence of events between the computer application and the user of another application

DataCommunication

The application layer communicates directly with the user’s application program. User
application processes require application layer service elements to access the networking
environment. The service elements are of two types: CASEs (common application service elements)
satisfying particular needs of application processes like association control, concurrence and
recovery. The second type is SASE (specific application service elements) which include TCP/IP
stack, FTP, SNMP, Telnet and SMTP.
Data Communication Circuits:
The underlying purpose of a digital communications circuit is to provide a transmission path
between locations and to transfer digital information from one station (node, where computers or
other digital equipment are located) to another using electronic circuits. Data Communication circuits
utilize electronic communications equipment and facilities to interconnect digital computer
equipment. Communication facilities are physical means of interconnecting stations and are provided
to Data Communication users through public telephone networks (PTN), public data networks
(PDN), and a multitude of private Data Communication systems.
The following figure shows a simple two-station Data Communication circuit. The main
components are:
DataCommunication

Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are

mainframe computer,
personal computer, workstation etc. The source equipment provides a means
for humans to enter data
into system.
Transmitter: - A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a
way as to produce
electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of
transmission system. For
example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as
a personal computer and
transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the
telephone network.
Transmission medium: - The transmission medium carries the encoded
signals from the transmitter
to the receiver. Different types of transmission media include free-space radio
transmission (i.e. all
forms of wireless transmission) and physical facilities such as metallic and
optical fiber cables.
Receiver: - The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission medium and
converts it into a form
that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will
accept an analog signal
coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit
stream.
Destination: - Takes the incoming data from the receiver and can be any kind
of digital equipment
like the source
Serial and Parallel Data Transmission:
There are two methods of transmitting digital data namely parallel and serial
transmissions.
In parallel data transmission, all bits of the binary data are transmitted
simultaneously. For example,
to transmit an 8-bit binary number in parallel from one unit to another, eight
transmission lines are
required. Each bit requires its own separate data path. All bits of a word are
transmitted at the same
time. This method of transmission can move a significant amount of data in a
given period of time.
Its disadvantage is the large number of interconnecting cables between the
two units. For large binary
words, cabling becomes complex and expensive. This is particularly true if
the distance between the
two units is great. Long multiwire cables are not only expensive, but also
require special interfacing
to minimize noise and distortion problems. Serial data transmission is the
process of transmitting
binary words a bit at a time. Since the bits time-share the transmission
medium, only one
interconnecting lead is required.
While serial data transmission is much simpler and less expensive because of
the use of a
single interconnecting line, it is a very slow method of data transmission.
Serial data transmission is
useful in systems where high speed is not a requirement. Parallel
communication is used for short-
distance Data Communication and within a computer, and serial transmission
is used for long-
distance Data Communication.
Data Communication Circuit Arrangements:
A Data Communication circuit can be described in terms of circuit
configuration and
transmission mode.
Circuit Configurations
Data Communication networks can be generally categorized as either two
point or multipoint.
A two-point configuration involves only two locations or stations, whereas a
multipoint configuration
involves three or more stations.

DataCommunication

A two-point circuit involves the transfer of digital information between a

mainframe
computer and a personal computer, two mainframe computers or two Data
Communication networks.
A multi-point network is generally used to interconnect a single mainframe
computer (host) to many
personal computers or to interconnect many personal computers and capacity
of the channel is either
Spatially shared: Devices can use the link simultaneously or Timeshare:
Users take turns
Transmission Modes:
There are four modes of transmission for Data Communication circuits:
-
In simplex mode(SX), the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Commercial
radio broadcasting is an
example. Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only or one-
way-only lines.
In half-duplex(HDX) mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is used
in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction. Citizens band (CB)
radio is an example
where push to talk (PTT) is to be pressed or depressed while sending and
transmitting.
In full-duplex mode(FDX) (called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. The full-duplex mode
is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel
must be divided between the two directions.
DataCommunication

In full/full duplex (F/FDX) mode, transmission is possible in both directions

at the same time but not
between the same two stations (i.e. station 1 transmitting to station 2, while
receiving from station 3).
F/FDX is possible only on multipoint circuits. Postal system can be given as
a person can be sending
a letter to one address and receive a letter from another address at the same
time.
Data Communication Networks:
Any group of computers connected together can be called a Data
Communication network,
and the process of sharing resources between computers over a Data
Communication network is
called networking. The most important considerations of a Data
Communication network are
performance, transmission rate, reliability and security.
Network Components, Functions, and Features
The major components of a network are end stations, applications and a
network that will
support traffic between the end stations. Computer networks all share
common devices, functions,
and features, including servers, clients, transmission media, shared data,
shared printers and other
peripherals, hardware and software resources, network interface card (NIC),
local operating system
(LOS) and the network operating system (NOS).
Servers: Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs and the
network operating system.
Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network
and different kinds of
servers are present. Examples include file servers, print servers, mail servers,
communication servers
etc.
Clients: Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared
network resources. Client
computers are basically the customers (users) of the network, as they request
and receive service
from the servers.
Shared Data: Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients, such as
data files, printer
access programs, and e-mail.
Shared Printers and other peripherals: these are hardware resources provided
to the users of the
network by servers. Resources provided include data files, printers, software,
or any other items used
by the clients on the network.
Network interface card: Every computer in the network has a special
expansion card called network
interface card (NIS), which prepares and sends data, receives data, and
controls data flow between
the computer and the network. While transmitting, NIC passes frames of data
on to the physical layer
and on the receiver side, the NIC processes bits received from the physical
layer and processes the
message based on its contents.
Local operating system: A local operating system allows personal computers
to access files, print to
a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are
located on the computer.
Examples are MS-DOS, PC-DOS, UNIX, Macintosh, OS/2, Windows 95, 98,
XP and Linux.
Network operating system: the NOS is a program that runs on computers and
servers that allows the
computers to communicate over a network. The NOS provides services to
clients such as log-in
features, password authentication, printer access, network administration
functions and data file
sharing.
DataCommunication

Network Models:
Computer networks can be represented with two basic network models: peer-
to-peer
client/server and dedicated client/server. The client/server method specifies
the way in which two
computers can communicate with software over a network.
Peer-to-peer client/server network:

Here, all the computers share their resources, such as hard drives, printers and
so on with all
the other computers on the network. Individual resources like disk drives,
CD-ROM drives, and even
printers are transformed into shared, collective resources that are accessible
from every PC. Unlike
client-server networks, where network information is stored on a centralized
file server PC and made
available to tens, hundreds, or thousands client PCs, the information stored
across peer-to-peer
networks is uniquely decentralized. Because peer-to-peer PCs have their own
hard disk drives that
are accessible by all computers, each PC acts as both a client (information
requestor) and a server
(information provider). The peer-to-peer network is an appropriate choice
when there are fewer than
10 users on the network, security is not an issue and all the users are located
in the same general area.
The advantages of peer-to-peer over client-server NOSs include:

:No need for a network administrator

:Network is fast/inexpensive to setup & maintain

:Each PC can make backup copies of its data to other PCs for security.

:Easiest type of network to build, peer-to-peer is perfect for both home and office use
DataCommunication

Dedicated client/server network:

Here, one computer is designated as server and the rest of the computers are clients.
Dedicated Server Architecture can improve the efficiency of client server systems by
using one
server for each application that exists within an organization. The designated servers
store all the
networks shared files and applications programs and function only as servers and are not
used as a
client or workstation. Client computers can access the servers and have shared files
transferred to
them over the transmission medium. In some client/server networks, client computers
submit jobs to
one of the servers and once they process the jobs, the results are sent back to the client
computer.
In general, the dedicated client/server model is preferable to the peer-to-peer
client/server
model for general purpose data networks.
Network Topologies:
In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how the
computers, cables, and other components within a Data Communication network are
interconnected,
both physically and logically. The physical topology describes how the network is
actually laid out,
and the logical topology describes how the data actually flow through the network. Two
most basic
topologies are point-to-point and multipoint. A point-to-point topology usually connects
two
mainframe computers for high-speed digital information. A multipoint topology
connects three or
more stations through a single transmission medium and some examples are star, bus,
ring, mesh and
hybrid.
Star topology:
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected
directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network passes
through the
hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or
concentrator
manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data
flow
DataCommunication
Bus topology: Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, (the
backbone) functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an
interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a
broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually
accepts and processes the message. The bus topology is the simplest and most common method of
interconnecting computers. The two ends of the transmission line never touch to form a complete
loop. A bus topology is also known as multi drop or linear bus or a horizontal bus.
Ring topology:
In a ring network (sometimes called a loop), every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either
"clockwise" or "counter clockwise"). All the stations are interconnected in tandem (series) to form a
closed loop or circle. Transmissions are unidirectional and must propagate through all the stations in
the loop. Each computer acts like a repeater and the ring topology is similar to bus or star topologies.
Mesh topology:
The mesh topology incorporates a unique network design in which each computer on the network
connects to every other, creating a point-to-point connection between every device on the network.
Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible
paths from source to destination. mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called
a full mesh. A disadvantage is that, a mesh network with n nodes must have n(n-1)/2 links and each
node must have n-1 I/O ports (links).

DataCommunication

Hybrid topology: This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is simply combining
two or
more of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. Main aim is
being able to
share the advantages of different topologies.
Network Classifications:
One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope
or
scale. Common examples of area network types are:
Local Area Network - Wireless Local Area Network
WAN - Wide Area Network - Metropolitan Area Network
SAN – Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or
sometimes
Small Area Network.
CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area
Network
PAN - Personal Area Network
DAN - Desk Area Network
DataCommunication
Local area network: A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and
devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or
closely positioned group of buildings. LANs use a network operating system to provide two-way
communications at bit rates in the range of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. In addition to operating in a
limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or
organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token
Ring.
Advantages of LAN:
Share Resources efficiency
Individual workstation might survive network failure if it doesn’t rely upon others
component evolution independent of system evolution
Support heterogeneous hardware/software
Access to other LANs and WANs
Higher transfer rate with low error rates
Metropolitan area network:
A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks
of buildings to entire cities. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. A MAN might be a
single network like the cable television network or it usually interconnects a number of local area
networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and
provides up-link services to wide area networks and the Internet. MANs typically operate at speeds
of 1.5 Mbps to 10 Mbps and range from five miles to a few hundred miles in length. Examples of
MANs are FDDI (fiber distributed data interface) and ATM (asynchronous transfer mode)

DataCommunication
Wide area network: Wide area networks are the oldest type of Data Communication network that
provide relatively slow-speed, long-distance transmission of data, voice and video information over
relatively large and widely dispersed geographical areas, such as country or entire continent. WANs
interconnect routers in different locations. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways.
Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under
collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM,
Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.
Global area network: A GAN provides connections between countries around the entire globe.
Internet is a good example and is essentially a network comprised of other networks that interconnect
virtually every country in the world. GANs operate from 1.5 Mbps to 100 Gbps and cover thousands
of miles.
Campus Area Network: A network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a
university or local business campus.
Storage Area Network: connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre
Channel.
System Area Network: - Links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a
cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.
Building backbone: - It is a network connection that normally carries traffic between departmental
LANs within a single company. It consists of a switch or router to provide connectivity to other
networks such as campus backbones, enterprise backbones, MANs, WANs etc
Camus backbone: - It is a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in
various buildings on campus. It normally uses optical fiber cables for the transmission media between
buildings and operates at relatively high transmission rates.
Enterprise networks: - It includes some or all of the above networks and components connected in a
cohesive and manageable fashion.
Alternate Protocol Suites:
The protocols other than OSI that are in wide spread used are TCP?IP and the Cisco three-
layer hierarchical model.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model because it
wanted a network that could survive any conditions, even a nuclear war. Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) {commonly known as internet suite} model is a set of
communication protocols that allow communication across multiple diverse networks. TCP/IP is a
hierarchical protocol comprised of either three or four layers. The three-layer version of TCP/IP
contains the network, transport and application layers. Four layer version specifies the host to
network layer.

DataCommunication

The designers of TCP/IP felt that the higher level protocols should include
the session and
presentation layer details. They simply created an application layer that
handles high-level
protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control. The TCP/IP
combines all
application-related issues into one layer, and assures this data is properly
packaged for the next layer.
The TCP/IP transport layer deals with the quality-of-service issues of
reliability, flow
control, and error correction. One of its protocols, the transmission control
protocol (TCP), provides
excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-flowing, low-error
network communications. TCP
is a connection-oriented protocol. The other protocol is User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) which is a
connection less protocol.
Common TCP/IP Proto
DataCommunication
The purpose of the Internet layer is to send source packets from any network on the
internetwork and have them arrive at the destination independent of the path and networks they took
to get there. The specific protocol that governs this layer is called the Internet protocol (IP). Best
path determination and packet switching occur at this layer.
The network access layer also called the host-to-network layer is concerned with all of the
issues of physically delivering data packets using frames or cells.
TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP model
gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, typically networks aren't built on the OSI
protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a guide.
Cisco Three Layer Model:
Cisco has defined a hierarchical model known as the hierarchical internetworking model. This
model simplifies the task of building a reliable, scalable, and less expensive hierarchical internetwork
because rather than focusing on packet construction; it focuses on the three functional areas, or
layers, of your network.
Core layer: This layer is considered the backbone of the network and includes the high-end switches
and high-speed cables such as fiber cables. This layer of the network does not route traffic at the
LAN. In addition, no packet manipulation is done by devices in this layer. Rather, this layer is
concerned with speed and ensures reliable delivery of packets.
Distribution layer: This layer includes LAN-based routers and layer 3 switches. This layer ensures
that packets are properly routed between subnets and VLANs in your enterprise. This layer is also
called the Workgroup layer. It also provides policy-based network connectivity, including:
Packet filtering (firewalling): Processes packets and regulates the transmission of packets
based on its source and destination information to create network borders
QoS: The router or layer 3 switches can read packets and prioritize delivery, based on
policies set
Access Layer Aggregation Point: The layer serves the aggregation point for the desktop
layer switches
Control Broadcast and Multicast: The layer serves as the boundary for broadcast and
multicast domains
Application Gateways: The layer allows you to create protocol gateways to and from
different network architectures.
The distribution layer also performs queuing and provides packet manipulation of the
network traffic.
DataCommunication

Access layer: This layer includes hubs and switches. This layer is also called
the desktop layer
because it focuses on connecting client nodes, such as workstations to the
network. This layer ensures
that packets are delivered to end user computers. At the access layer, you can:
Enable MAC address filtering: It is possible to program a switch to allow
only certain to
access the connected LANs.
Create separate collision domains: A switch can create separate collision
domains for each
connected node to improve performance.
Share bandwidth: You can allow the same network connection to handle all
data.
Handle switch bandwidth: You can move data from one network to another to
perform load
balancing.
The benefits of the Cisco hierarchical model includes:
High Performance: You can design high performance networks, where only
certain layers
are susceptible to congestion.
Efficient management & troubleshooting: Allows you to efficiently organize
network
management and isolate causes of network trouble.
Policy creation: You can easily create policies and specify filters and rules.
Scalability: You can grow the network easily by dividing your network into
functional areas.
Behavior prediction: When planning or managing a network, the model
allows you
determine what will happen to the network when new stresses are placed on
it.
DataCommunication

Access layer: This layer includes hubs and switches. This layer is also called
the desktop layer
because it focuses on connecting client nodes, such as workstations to the
network. This layer ensures
that packets are delivered to end user computers. At the access layer, you can:
Enable MAC address filtering: It is possible to program a switch to allow
only certain to
access the connected LANs.
Create separate collision domains: A switch can create separate collision
domains for each
connected node to improve performance.
Share bandwidth: You can allow the same network connection to handle all
data.
Handle switch bandwidth: You can move data from one network to another to
perform load
balancing.
The benefits of the Cisco hierarchical model includes:
High Performance: You can design high performance networks, where only
certain layers
are susceptible to congestion.
Efficient management & troubleshooting: Allows you to efficiently organize
network
management and isolate causes of network trouble.
Policy creation: You can easily create policies and specify filters and rules.
Scalability: You can grow the network easily by dividing your network into
functional areas.
Behavior prediction: When planning or managing a network, the model
allows you
determine what will happen to the network when new stresses are placed on it
Name of Teacher:-Prof.R.V.Patil
Dated Signature:-