Individual Behaviour in Organizational Behaviour

Definition: Individual behaviour refers to the way a person acts, reacts, or

interacts with others in a work environment. It is influenced by various internal
and external factors that shape how individuals perform their roles, make
decisions, and communicate within an organization.
Key Concepts Involved in Individual Behaviour:

1. Biographical Characteristics
Biographical characteristics include age, gender, and marital status. These
factors are often considered because they can affect employee behaviour in
various ways:
 Age: Older employees may bring experience and stability, while younger
employees may have more enthusiasm but less experience.
 Gender: Historically, certain biases and stereotypes have existed, though
modern workplaces focus on creating equitable opportunities.
 Tenure and Marital Status: Tenured employees might display higher levels
of loyalty and lower absenteeism, while marital status could affect work-
life balance and job satisfaction.
Example:
A younger employee might be more willing to take risks and try innovative
approaches, while an older employee might be more cautious and prefer tested
methods.

2. Values and Attitudes

Values:
These are deeply held beliefs that guide individuals in their decision-making.
They represent what people believe to be right or wrong and often affect
behaviour in situations requiring ethical judgment.
Attitudes:
Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or
events. A positive attitude in the workplace often correlates with better
performance and organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs), while negative
attitudes can lead to dissatisfaction and counterproductive work behaviours.
Example:
An employee who values teamwork may consistently collaborate well with
colleagues, while someone who values individual achievement might prefer
working independently.

3. Personality
Personality is a significant determinant of behaviour and includes stable traits
that influence how people respond to situations. The Big Five Personality Model is
widely used in OB to predict individual behaviour, focusing on:
 Openness to Experience
 Conscientiousness
 Extraversion
 Agreeableness
 Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)
Example:
An extroverted person is likely to thrive in a sales or client-facing role
due to their sociability, while an introverted individual may prefer roles
requiring focus and analysis, such as research or accounting.

4. Perception
Perception is how individuals organize and interpret their sensory input to make
sense of the world around them. Two employees may perceive the same event
differently due to factors like past experiences, expectations, and motives.
Factors Influencing Perception:
 Perceiver’s Characteristics: Attitudes, motives, experiences.
 Target’s Characteristics: Novelty, motion, sound, size, or
background.
 Context: The situation or environment where perception takes
place.
Example:
In a feedback session, an employee with a defensive attitude may
perceive constructive criticism as an attack, whereas another may see
it as an opportunity for growth.

5. Learning
Learning refers to how individuals acquire new knowledge, skills, and
behaviors through experience. In an organizational context, learning
can shape behavior over time, especially through reinforcement,
observation, and practice.
Learning Theories in OB:
 Classical Conditioning: Behavior is learned through association
(e.g., Pavlov’s dog experiment).
 Operant Conditioning: Behavior is learned through rewards and
punishments.
  Social Learning Theory: People learn by observing others and
modeling their behavior.
Example:
An employee might adopt a new skill after watching a colleague
successfully implement it, or they may avoid certain behaviors after
seeing others face negative consequences.

6. Motivation
Motivation is the internal force that drives individuals to take action
toward achieving personal and organizational goals. Several motivation
theories explain how individual behavior is influenced:
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Focuses on fulfilling physiological to
self-actualization needs.
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Differentiates between hygiene
factors (salary, job security) and motivators (recognition, growth
opportunities).
 McClelland’s Theory of Needs: Emphasizes the need for
achievement, affiliation, and power as drivers of behavior.
Example:
An employee driven by a strong need for achievement might
continuously set high performance goals and seek challenging tasks to
maintain motivation.

7. Emotions and Moods

Emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something, while
moods are more general, less intense, and not tied to specific events.
Both play a role in shaping individual behavior at work.
Impact of Emotions on Work:
 Positive emotions (e.g., joy, excitement) can lead to increased
creativity and job satisfaction.
 Negative emotions (e.g., anger, frustration) may result in
conflicts, decreased morale, or absenteeism.
Example:
An employee who starts the day in a good mood might be more
productive and engaged, while someone who comes to work stressed
may underperform and struggle to focus.

8. Individual Decision Making

How individuals make decisions in organizations is a critical element of
behavior. People’s decision-making processes can be influenced by
personal biases, experiences, risk tolerance, and the availability of
information.
Types of Decision-Making Biases:
 Overconfidence Bias: Overestimating one’s abilities or knowledge.
 Anchoring Bias: Relying too heavily on initial information.
 Confirmation Bias: Seeking out information that supports existing
beliefs.
 Escalation of Commitment: Continuing a failing course of action
due to prior investments.
Example:
An overconfident manager might make quick decisions without
considering alternative viewpoints, potentially leading to poor
outcomes for the team.

Summary of Concepts:
1. Biographical Characteristics: Age, gender, and tenure affect work
behavior.
2. Values and Attitudes: Core beliefs and attitudes shape behavior
and interactions.
3. Personality: Stable traits influence an individual's response to
situations.
4. Perception: How people interpret information varies and affects
their behavior.
5. Learning: Behavior is shaped by experiences, rewards, and
observation.
6. Motivation: Internal drives guide individuals toward achieving
goals.
7. Emotions and Moods: These affect decision-making, productivity,
and engagement.
8. Decision Making: How individuals process information and make
choices.
By understanding these concepts, you can gain insights into the
behavior of individuals within an organization and design policies,
incentives, and management practices that align with these behavioral
patterns.
Personality in Organizational Behavior
Definition:
Personality is the combination of stable physical and mental
characteristics that give individuals their identity. It includes the way a
person thinks, feels, and behaves consistently across different
situations.
Key Concepts of Personality
1. Personality Traits:
These are consistent characteristics and behaviors that
individuals exhibit. A trait is considered a stable, enduring aspect
of a person’s personality. Examples include extroversion,
agreeableness, or conscientiousness.
2. Personality Development:
Personality evolves over time and can be influenced by genetics
(nature) and the environment (nurture). Family, upbringing,
culture, and personal experiences all play roles in shaping
personality.
Major Models of Personality
1. Big Five Personality Model (OCEAN)
The Big Five Personality Traits are widely accepted in organizational
behavior as they offer a comprehensive framework for understanding
personality differences.
 Openness to Experience: Describes the extent to which a person
is imaginative, curious, and open-minded. High openness leads to
creativity and willingness to take risks, while low openness is
linked to traditional thinking and risk aversion.
Impact on Decision-Making: Individuals high in openness are more likely
to consider novel solutions and take innovative approaches.
  Conscientiousness: Refers to being responsible, organized, and
dependable. Individuals high in conscientiousness are goal-
oriented and diligent.
Impact on Decision-Making: Conscientious individuals are more likely to
make decisions based on careful planning and detailed analysis,
avoiding impulsive actions.
 Extraversion: Describes the degree to which a person is sociable,
outgoing, and assertive. Extroverts gain energy from interacting
with others, while introverts prefer solitude and reflection.
Impact on Decision-Making: Extroverts tend to make decisions that
involve social interaction and collaboration, while introverts may prefer
to work independently and focus on internal thought processes.
 Agreeableness: Refers to being cooperative, kind, and
compassionate. Highly agreeable individuals are often good team
players and prefer harmony.
Impact on Decision-Making: Agreeable individuals might prioritize the
needs of others and prefer consensus, sometimes compromising their
own preferences to maintain harmony.
 Neuroticism (Emotional Stability): Measures how well individuals
handle stress and emotional situations. Low emotional stability
(high neuroticism) leads to mood swings, anxiety, and emotional
reactions, while emotionally stable individuals remain calm under
pressure.
Impact on Decision-Making: Emotionally stable individuals make
decisions calmly, while those high in neuroticism may struggle with
stressful decisions and react impulsively.

2. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The MBTI is one of the most popular personality frameworks used in
organizations. It assesses personality based on four dichotomies,
resulting in 16 possible personality types.
1. Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I):
How a person draws energy – from external stimuli (people,
activities) or internal reflection.
o Extraverted (E): Outgoing, action-oriented.

o Introverted (I): Reflective, thoughtful.

2. Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N):

How a person perceives information – through tangible facts or
abstract ideas.
o Sensing (S): Focused on concrete details.

o Intuitive (N): Focused on possibilities and the big picture.

 3. Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F):
How decisions are made – based on logic and objective criteria or
on personal values and emotional considerations.
o Thinking (T): Objective and analytical.

o Feeling (F): Subjective and relationship-driven.

4. Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P):

How people deal with the outside world – by structuring their
environment or remaining flexible.
o Judging (J): Organized and decisive.

o Perceiving (P): Adaptable and open to new information.

Impact on Decision-Making:
 Introverted Thinking Types (IT): Analyze situations thoroughly
before making decisions.
 Extraverted Feeling Types (EF): Prioritize the impact on people
and relationships in decision-making.
 Sensing Judging Types (SJ): Focus on facts and structured
decision-making.
 Intuitive Perceiving Types (NP): Take creative approaches and are
open to revising their decisions.

3. Locus of Control
Locus of Control is the degree to which individuals believe they control
their own fate.
 Internal Locus of Control: Individuals with an internal locus believe they
can influence events and outcomes through their actions. They are more
proactive and tend to take responsibility for their decisions.
Impact on Decision-Making: These individuals are more likely to take initiative
and assume control over their decisions, leading to a sense of empowerment.
 External Locus of Control: Those with an external locus believe that
external forces (such as luck, fate, or powerful others) have control over
what happens. They may be more reactive in decision-making, waiting
for things to happen rather than taking the lead.
Impact on Decision-Making: These individuals may avoid making significant
decisions or rely on others to shape outcomes.

4. Type A and Type B Personalities

This theory classifies individuals based on their behavior patterns:
  Type A: Competitive, driven, impatient, and highly ambitious.
Type A individuals are often in a hurry and constantly under
pressure.
Impact on Decision-Making: Type A personalities make decisions quickly,
often focusing on efficiency, competition, and achievement. However, they might
rush through critical decisions without thorough analysis.
 Type B: Relaxed, non-competitive, and more patient. Type B personalities
are less concerned with winning and more focused on enjoying the
process.
Impact on Decision-Making: Type B individuals are more reflective in their
decision-making process and may take time to weigh options carefully.

Indicators of Personality in the Workplace

1. Behavioral Patterns:
Consistent behaviors, such as punctuality, attention to detail, and
assertiveness, can signal different personality traits.
2. Communication Style:
The way individuals communicate can indicate personality traits. For
example, extroverts tend to be vocal in meetings, while introverts may
prefer to communicate through written formats.
3. Reaction to Stress:
People with high emotional stability handle stress with calm and reason,
while those high in neuroticism may become anxious or emotional under
pressure.
4. Problem-Solving Approach:
Some individuals take a systematic, detail-oriented approach (often linked
to conscientiousness), while others may use intuition and creativity
(associated with openness).

Personality’s Impact on Individual Decision-Making

1. Risk-Taking Behavior:
Personality influences how comfortable a person is with uncertainty and
risk. For example, individuals high in openness may take risks to pursue
innovative ideas, while those high in conscientiousness might prefer
calculated, safe decisions.
2. Time Management and Organization:
Conscientious individuals are more likely to make decisions that involve
planning and time management. They tend to be methodical and consider
long-term consequences before making a choice.
3. Handling Ambiguity:
Those high in neuroticism may struggle with ambiguous situations and
make rushed or emotionally driven decisions. On the other hand,
 individuals with higher emotional stability tend to cope well with ambiguity
and uncertainty, leading to more balanced decision-making.
4. Decision-Making Under Pressure:
Under stress, personality traits such as neuroticism and emotional stability
come into play. Emotionally stable individuals can remain calm and make
reasoned decisions, while those high in neuroticism may feel overwhelmed
and make impulsive or poorly thought-out choices.
5. Team vs. Independent Decisions:
Extroverts tend to involve others in their decision-making process, seeking
input and collaboration. In contrast, introverts might prefer independent
decision-making, relying on their internal reflections.
Perception in Organizational Behavior - K. Aswathappa

Definition of Perception:
Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions to give meaning to their environment. In the context of organizational behavior,
perception plays a significant role in determining how employees view and react to various
aspects of the workplace, including their jobs, colleagues, and superiors.

According to Aswathappa, perception is not just about receiving information but about how
we interpret and make sense of it. This can vary significantly among individuals, which is
why different employees may respond differently to the same situation.

Key Concepts of Perception

1. The Perceptual Process:

Aswathappa outlines the perceptual process as a series of stages that individuals go through
when perceiving their environment. This process consists of the following steps:

1. Selection of Stimuli:
o Not all stimuli in the environment are perceived. People selectively attend to
certain stimuli based on interest, novelty, and relevance. This selection is
influenced by both external (e.g., intensity, size) and internal (e.g., motivation,
past experiences) factors.
o Example: An employee might pay more attention to feedback from a manager
if it directly relates to their career growth, while ignoring other unrelated
information.
2. Organization:
o Once the stimuli are selected, the brain organizes them into a coherent pattern.
This involves grouping information and filling in gaps based on prior
knowledge and experience.
o Example: An employee who has had a positive relationship with a previous
boss might assume that their new boss will also be supportive, even before any
interaction takes place.
3. Interpretation:
o Interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the organized stimuli.
This meaning can vary significantly depending on the individual's
background, expectations, and emotional state.
o Example: Two employees receiving the same feedback might interpret it
differently—one may see it as constructive criticism, while the other might
view it as harsh criticism.
4. Response:
o After interpreting the stimuli, individuals react or respond in some manner.
The response could be verbal or non-verbal, behavioral, or emotional.
 o Example: If an employee perceives a project deadline as unreasonable, they
may react by feeling stressed or may even approach their manager to request
an extension.

2. Perception and Individual Behavior:

Perception significantly affects how individuals behave in organizations. Employees’ actions

are often based more on how they perceive reality rather than on objective reality itself. This
means that an individual’s decisions and behavior are shaped by their unique interpretation of
events.

 Example: An employee who perceives a performance review as unfair may become

demotivated and reduce their work effort, even if the review was objectively
reasonable.

3. Factors Influencing Perception:

Aswathappa discusses various factors that influence perception, categorizing them into
internal and external factors.

A. Internal Factors:

1. Motivation:
o The level of an individual's motivation can influence their perception. People
tend to perceive things that are in line with their current needs and desires.
o Example: A highly motivated salesperson might perceive every potential
client as a great opportunity, whereas a demotivated colleague may not notice
the same leads.
2. Experience:
o Past experiences shape how people perceive new situations. Individuals tend
to use their previous experiences to interpret current events.
o Example: An employee who has been micromanaged in the past might
perceive any form of oversight from their manager as micromanagement, even
if it's not intended that way.
3. Personality:
o Personality traits, such as optimism or pessimism, can affect how a person
interprets events. Optimistic individuals may see opportunities in challenges,
while pessimists might focus on the risks.
o Example: An optimistic manager might view an economic downturn as an
opportunity for strategic innovation, whereas a pessimist may only see it as a
threat to the company.
4. Learning:
 o Learning affects perception because individuals tend to perceive what they
have learned to expect. Prior knowledge allows individuals to fill in gaps and
make assumptions.
o Example: An employee with extensive experience in project management
may quickly perceive inefficiencies in a new project, whereas a less
experienced employee may not notice these issues.

B. External Factors:

1. Intensity of Stimuli:
o Strong or intense stimuli are more likely to be noticed and perceived. This
could be in the form of loud sounds, bright colors, or strong odors.
o Example: In an organization, a loud and energetic team leader may be noticed
more than a quieter, introverted manager, even if both perform equally well.
2. Size:
o Larger objects are more likely to be noticed than smaller ones.
o Example: A big, well-designed presentation board might capture the attention
of a team during a meeting, while small details on handouts may go unnoticed.
3. Contrast:
o People tend to perceive things that stand out or are different from their
surroundings.
o Example: In a group of employees dressed in formal attire, someone dressed
casually is likely to be noticed more easily.
4. Motion:
o Moving objects are more likely to be noticed than stationary ones.
o Example: An employee walking around the office during a meeting is likely
to attract more attention than one who is seated.
5. Repetition:
o Stimuli that are repeated are more likely to be noticed and perceived.
o Example: A repeated message about a company policy change is more likely
to be remembered by employees than a single announcement.

4. Common Perceptual Errors in the Workplace:

Aswathappa highlights several perceptual errors that frequently occur in organizational

settings. These errors can lead to misunderstandings and biased judgments:

A. Selective Perception:

 Individuals interpret information based on their interests, background, and

experiences. This leads them to focus on certain aspects while ignoring others.
 Example: A manager might focus only on the positive aspects of a favored
employee's performance and ignore their mistakes.
B. Stereotyping:

 Stereotyping occurs when individuals make generalized judgments about others based
on their membership in a particular group (e.g., gender, race, age, profession).
 Example: Assuming that younger employees are always tech-savvy or that older
employees are resistant to change are examples of stereotyping in the workplace.

C. Halo Effect:

 The halo effect occurs when an individual's overall impression of a person is based
on one positive characteristic, which then overshadows other traits.
 Example: An employee who is particularly good at public speaking might be
perceived as being highly competent in all areas, even if they lack skills in other tasks.

D. Horn Effect:

 The horn effect is the opposite of the halo effect, where one negative characteristic
leads to an overall negative impression.
 Example: If an employee frequently misses deadlines, a manager might view them as
unproductive, even if they excel in other areas of their work.

E. Projection:

 Projection occurs when individuals attribute their own characteristics, motives, or

feelings onto others.
 Example: A highly ambitious employee may assume that their coworkers are equally
motivated by career advancement, even if they have different priorities.

F. Attribution Errors:

 Attribution involves explaining the causes of behavior. Fundamental attribution

error occurs when people overestimate personal factors and underestimate situational
factors in explaining others' behavior.
 Example: A manager might attribute an employee's poor performance to laziness
(internal factor) rather than considering possible external factors like inadequate
resources or high workload.

5. Implications of Perception in Organizations:

Aswathappa explains that perception plays a critical role in various organizational processes,
including:

1. Hiring and Selection:

o During interviews, hiring managers form perceptions about candidates based
on first impressions, body language, and verbal responses. Perceptual biases,
like the halo effect, can influence hiring decisions.
o Example: A candidate with a confident demeanor might be perceived as more
competent, even if their technical skills are lacking.
2. Performance Appraisal:
o Managers’ perceptions influence how they evaluate employee performance.
Perceptual errors such as selective perception and the horn effect can lead to
unfair evaluations.
o Example: A manager who has formed a negative impression of an employee
due to one past mistake may continue to view their performance unfavorably,
even if they improve.
3. Motivation:
o Employees’ perception of fairness and justice in the workplace impacts their
motivation. If they perceive that rewards are distributed fairly, they are more
likely to be motivated.
o Example: If an employee perceives that promotions are based on merit rather
than favoritism, they will be more motivated to perform well.
4. Conflict Resolution:
o Misperceptions can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts between
employees. Understanding perceptual differences is essential for effective
conflict resolution.
o Example: Two team members may have different perceptions of the same
project deadline, which can create tension. Clear communication can help
resolve the issue.
1. Definition of Motivation

 Motivation refers to the internal forces that drive an individual to engage in goal-
directed behavior. It involves the processes that initiate, sustain, and regulate actions
toward achieving objectives.
 It is the psychological feature that stimulates a person to act toward a desired goal and
elicits, controls, and sustains certain behaviors.

2. Importance of Motivation in OB

 Employee Performance: Motivation directly influences productivity and work

performance.
 Job Satisfaction: Motivated employees are more satisfied with their jobs, leading to
lower turnover and absenteeism.
 Organizational Success: High levels of motivation contribute to the overall success
of the organization by fostering innovation and dedication.

3. Theories of Motivation

A. Content Theories

These theories focus on what motivates individuals.

(i) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

 Overview: Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. As one
need is satisfied, the individual moves to the next level.
1. Physiological Needs: Basic needs like food, water, and shelter.
2. Safety Needs: Protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social Needs: Affection, belonging, and friendship.
4. Esteem Needs: Self-respect, recognition, and achievement.
5. Self-Actualization Needs: Personal growth, fulfillment, and achieving
potential.
 Example: A junior employee may initially focus on earning a stable income
(physiological needs) but later seek recognition for their achievements (esteem needs)
as they progress in their career.

(ii) Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

 Overview: This theory divides job factors into two categories:

1. Hygiene Factors: These include company policies, supervision, salary, and
working conditions. These factors do not lead to higher motivation but their
absence can cause dissatisfaction.
2. Motivators: These include achievement, recognition, responsibility, and the
work itself. These factors lead to higher satisfaction and motivation.
 Example: An employee may not be motivated by a salary increase alone (hygiene
factor), but recognition for completing a project successfully (motivator) may boost
their motivation.

(iii) McClelland’s Theory of Needs

 Overview: McClelland identified three primary needs that drive behavior:

1. Need for Achievement (nAch): The desire to excel and achieve.
2. Need for Affiliation (nAff): The desire for interpersonal relationships and a
sense of belonging.
3. Need for Power (nPow): The desire to control others and influence behavior.
 Example: A manager driven by the need for power may seek leadership roles to have
authority over decisions, while an employee with a high need for affiliation may focus
on teamwork and collaboration.

B. Process Theories

These theories focus on how motivation occurs.

(i) Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

 Overview: Vroom’s theory is based on the idea that motivation depends on the
expectation that effort will lead to desired outcomes. It is built on three components:
1. Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to performance.
2. Instrumentality: Belief that performance will lead to rewards.
3. Valence: The value placed on the rewards.
 Example: An employee may work hard on a project (effort) if they believe their
performance will be evaluated positively (expectancy) and result in a promotion
(instrumentality) that they value (valence).

(ii) Adam’s Equity Theory

 Overview: Equity theory suggests that individuals are motivated by a sense of

fairness in their interactions and relationships. Employees compare their input-output
ratio with that of others.
o Inputs: Effort, experience, and qualifications.
o Outputs: Salary, recognition, and rewards.
 Example: An employee who discovers that a coworker with similar qualifications is
earning more for the same work may feel demotivated due to perceived inequity.

(iii) Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

 Overview: This theory asserts that individuals are motivated by setting specific,
challenging, and attainable goals. Clear goals, along with appropriate feedback,
increase performance.
1. Goal Specificity: Clear and specific goals lead to higher performance.
2. Goal Difficulty: Challenging goals lead to better performance than easy goals.
3. Goal Commitment: The individual must commit to achieving the goal.
4. Feedback: Timely and relevant feedback is essential for goal accomplishment.
 Example: A sales representative with a clear sales target (specific and challenging
goal) is more likely to be motivated to meet or exceed that target than one with a
vague goal like "increase sales."

C. Reinforcement Theory

 Overview: This theory suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences. It

emphasizes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and
extinction as ways to shape behavior.
1. Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding desirable behavior to encourage its
repetition.
2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing unpleasant conditions when the desired
behavior is performed.
3. Punishment: Applying negative consequences to discourage undesirable
behavior.
4. Extinction: Ignoring or not reinforcing undesirable behavior to reduce its
occurrence.
 Example: A manager may use positive reinforcement by offering praise or bonuses
for high performance, or use punishment by reducing privileges for employees who
fail to meet standards.

4. Application of Motivation Theories in Organizations

 Job Design: Incorporating job enrichment (increased responsibility and opportunities

for growth) and job rotation can help address the need for motivation, as seen in
Herzberg’s motivators.
 Performance Appraisal: Providing regular feedback (Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory)
and fair compensation (Equity Theory) are crucial in maintaining employee
motivation.
 Incentive Programs: Organizations can use both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, such
as bonuses, recognition programs, and career development opportunities, to align with
expectancy theory.

5. Examples of Motivation in Practice

 Google’s Workplace Culture: Google emphasizes intrinsic motivation through job

autonomy and providing opportunities for innovation, aligned with McClelland’s need
for achievement and Herzberg’s motivators.
 Amazon’s Goal-Setting: Amazon uses specific, measurable targets for its employees,
applying Locke’s goal-setting principles, which helps drive performance and
motivation.

By using a combination of these theories, managers can effectively motivate employees,

leading to improved organizational performance and employee satisfaction.