Chapter 5 EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY

1. Recall Memory: This is when you try to remember something without any hints, like
trying to think of a friend's phone number from scratch. It is harder because you are
pulling up the memory on your own.

2. Recognition Memory: This is when you recognize something with the help of hints
or cues, like seeing your friend’s phone number in a list and realizing it is theirs. It's
usually easier than recall memory because you have something to jog your memory.

3. Misinformation Effect: This happens when your memory of something changes

because someone gave you wrong information. For example, if someone suggests
you saw a red car at a party, you might start "remembering" a red car even if there
wasn’t one.

4. Cognitive Interview: This is a unique way of asking questions to help people

remember details more accurately, used a lot by police. They ask questions that
help people picture the event again without adding latest ideas or hints.

5. Memory Conformity: This is when people's memories start matching up after

talking about a shared experience. For example, after talking with friends about a
movie, you might all start "remembering" certain scenes in the same way, even if it
wasn’t exactly like that.

6. Lineup Identification: This is when police present a group of people (or photos) to a
witness and ask them to pick out the person they remember from the crime.

7. Photo Array: This involves showing a series of photos (often in groups of 6-8) to a
witness to see if they can recognize the person who committed the crime.

8. Similarity-to-Suspect: In this method, the lineup is created with people or photos

that resemble the suspect in certain ways (like height, build, or hair color) to make it
fairer and avoid bias.

9. Video Lineup: Instead of live people or photos, a witness watches videos of

different people, one of whom might be the suspect, to identify the criminal.
10. Match-to-Description: This method ensures that the people in the lineup look
similar to the suspect’s description given by the witness rather than looking exactly
like the suspect.

11. Showup: A quick identification where a single suspect is shown to the witness,
often soon after the crime, to confirm if they’re the same person seen at the scene.

12. Simultaneous Lineup: In this approach, all people or photos are shown to the
witness at the same time, letting them compare and choose the person they
recognize.

13. Walk-by: This is when the police take the witness to a public place to see if they
recognize the suspect casually walking by without knowing they’re under suspicion.

14. Sequential Lineup: Instead of seeing everyone at once, the witness is shown one
person (or photo) at a time, making a decision on each one before moving to the
next.

15. Live Lineup: This is a lineup of real people, often done at a police station, where the
witness sees a group in person to identify the suspect.

16. Voice Identification: When a witness is asked to identify a suspect based on their
voice rather than their appearance, often using recordings or a live lineup where
individuals say the same phrase to help the witness remember the voice.

17. Source Misattribution Hypothesis: This idea suggests that people sometimes
remember details from an event correctly but mix up where or who the memory is
from. For example, a witness might recall a face seen on TV and mistakenly think it is
the face of someone from a crime scene.

18. Target-present Lineup: This type of lineup includes the actual suspect. The witness
is then asked to pick out the person they remember from the crime, hoping they’ll
identify the right person.

19. Misinformation Acceptance Hypothesis: This theory suggests that people may
accept incorrect information given to them after an event and remember it as part of
the original event. For example, if someone suggests that a red car was involved, the
witness might start to believe they remember a red car.
 20. Target-absent Lineup: This lineup does not include the actual suspect, often used
to see if the witness might mistakenly identify someone as the criminal when the
right person isn’t even there.

21. Estimator Variables: These are factors that can affect a witness's memory but are
not in the control of law enforcement, such as lighting at the crime scene, the
distance of the witness, or the presence of stress.

22. Weapon Focus: This occurs when a witness's attention is so focused on a weapon
(like a gun or knife) that they have trouble remembering other details, like the
appearance of the suspect holding it. The presence of a weapon can impact
memory of other important information.

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Concepts to know
1. Recall Memory vs. Recognition Memory in Eyewitness Performance

Recall memory involves retrieving information from memory without specific cues, like
describing a suspect’s features. It can be challenging, as witnesses rely heavily on memory
accuracy and are prone to errors.

Recognition memory, on the other hand, involves identifying a suspect from a lineup or
photo array. This can be easier than recall but may still be influenced by lineup
composition or suggestive questioning, affecting eyewitness accuracy.

2. Independent and Dependent Variables in Eyewitness Research

Independent Variables: Factors manipulated by researchers, such as lighting conditions,

stress levels, or lineup format (e.g., simultaneous vs. sequential lineups).

Dependent Variables: Outcomes measured in the study, like the accuracy of identification,
confidence level, or recall of details, which help find how different conditions affect
memory performance.

3. Validity of Procedures to Enhance Eyewitness Memory

Techniques like the Cognitive Interview aim to improve memory recall by helping witnesses
mentally recreate the event. However, the effectiveness varies, and some techniques can
lead to confabulation if suggestive questions are used. Validity depends on method
consistency and avoidance of leading questions, which can bias memory.
4. How Police Can Negatively Impact Eyewitness Memory

Police may unintentionally influence eyewitness memory through leading questions,

suggestive lineups, or post-event information. Such practices can cause witnesses to
incorporate misleading details, reducing memory accuracy and potentially leading to
wrongful identifications.

5. Theories of the Misinformation Effect

Source Misattribution Theory: Witnesses may confuse the origin of a memory, mistakenly
attributing information from an external source (like media) to the event itself.

Misinformation Acceptance Hypothesis: Suggests that witnesses may accept incorrect

information provided after the event, especially if they think it is credible, integrating it into
their memory.

6. Common Eyewitness Errors in Perpetrator Recall

Witnesses often misremember facial details (like hair color or facial features), especially
under stress or poor viewing conditions. Cross-racial identification can also increase
errors, as witnesses may struggle more to identify individuals of different racial
backgrounds accurately.

7. Best Practices for Lineup Identification

Sequential lineups (viewing suspects one at a time) and blind administration (where the
administrator does not know the suspect) are considered best practices. They help reduce
pressure on witnesses to pick someone and minimize unintentional cues from
administrators.

8. Impact of Target-Present and Target-Absent Lineups

In target-present lineups (where the actual suspect is present), witnesses have a higher
chance of making an accurate identification.

Target-absent lineups (where the suspect isn’t included) may lead witnesses to choose an
innocent person if they feel pressured to select someone, often increasing the risk of
wrongful identification.

9. Estimator Variables in Eyewitness Reports

Estimator variables, like lighting, stress level, or viewing duration, are factors that affect
memory but are outside police control. High-stress situations, for example, can impair
memory accuracy, while good lighting can enhance it.
10. Reasons for a Biased Lineup

A lineup might be biased if only one person matches the description, there is a clear
suspect among fillers, or if suggestions or pressure lead witnesses toward a specific
choice. Such factors undermine the fairness of the identification process.

11. Factors Increasing Witness Confidence

Repeated questioning, positive feedback, or confirmatory statements from police can

increase a witness’s confidence. However, confidence is not always a reliable indicator of
accuracy and may sometimes be artificially inflated.

12. Controversy Surrounding Eyewitness Expert Testimony

Expert testimony can be controversial because it questions the reliability of eyewitness

memory, which juries might assume to be accurate. Some argue it’s essential to educate
juries on memory limitations, while others worry it may undermine legitimate eyewitness
evidence.