ASSIGNMENT

Unit 5: Data analysis, Report and Decision making

1. Explain Data analysis process in detail.

Answer: Data Analysis Process is following

• Inference - the use of reasoning to reach a conclusion based on evidence;

• A public method or process - revealing their study design in some way;

• Comparison as a central process – identification of patterns or aspects that are similar or

different; and

• Striving to avoid errors, false conclusions and misleading inferences.

Step 1: Define Your Questions

In your organizational or business data analysis, you must begin with the right question(s). Questions
should be measurable, clear and concise. Design your questions to either qualify or disqualify potential
solutions to your specific problem or opportunity.

• How can we reduce production costs without sacrificing quality?

• What are some ways to increase sales opportunities with our current resources?

• Do customers see our brand positively?

For example, start with a clearly defined problem: A government contractor is experiencing rising costs
and is no longer able to submit competitive contract proposals. One of many questions to solve this
business problem might include: Can the company reduce its staff without compromising quality?

Step 2: Set Clear Measurement Priorities

This step breaks down into two sub-steps: A) Decide what to measure, and B) Decide how to measure it.

A) Decide What To Measure

Using the government contractor example, consider what kind of data you’d need to answer your key
question. In this case, you’d need to know the number and cost of current staff and the percentage of
time they spend on necessary business functions. In answering this question, you likely need to answer
many sub-questions (e.g., Are staff currently under-utilized? If so, what process improvements would
help?). Finally, in your decision on what to measure, be sure to include any reasonable objections any
stakeholders might have (e.g., If staff are reduced, how would the company respond to surges in
demand?).

B) Decide How To Measure It

Thinking about how you measure your data is just as important, especially before the data collection
phase, because your measuring process either backs up or discredits your analysis later on. Key
questions to ask for this step include:

● What is your time frame? (e.g., annual versus quarterly costs)

● What is your unit of measure? (e.g., USD versus Euro)

● What factors should be included? (e.g., just annual salary versus annual salary plus cost of staff
benefits)

Step 3: Collect Data

With your question clearly defined and your measurement priorities set, now it’s time to collect your data.
As you collect and organize your data, remember to keep these important points in mind:

● Before you collect new data, determine what information could be collected from existing databases
or sources on hand. Collect this data first.

● Determine a file storing and naming system ahead of time to help all tasked team members
collaborate. This process saves time and prevents team members from collecting the same
information twice.

● If you need to gather data via observation or interviews, then develop an interview template ahead of
time to ensure consistency and save time.

● Keep your collected data organized in a log with collection dates and add any source notes as you
go (including any data normalization performed). This practice validates your conclusions down the
road.

Step 4: Analyze Data

After you’ve collected the right data to answer your question from Step 1, it’s time for deeper data
analysis. Begin by manipulating your data in a number of different ways, such as plotting it out and
finding correlations or by creating a pivot table in Excel. A pivot table lets you sort and filter data by
different variables and lets you calculate the mean, maximum, minimum and standard deviation of your
data.

As you manipulate data, you may find you have the exact data you need, but more likely, you might need
to revise your original question or collect more data. Either way, this initial analysis of trends,
correlations, variations and outliers helps you FOCUS YOUR DATA ANALYSIS ON BETTER
ANSWERING YOUR QUESTION and any objections others might have.

During this step, data analysis tools and software are extremely helpful. Visio, Minitab and Stata are all
good software packages for advanced statistical data analysis. However, in most cases, nothing quite
compares to Microsoft Excel in terms of decision-making tools. If you need a review or a primer on all the
functions Excel accomplishes for your data analysis.

Step 5: Interpret Results

After analyzing your data and possibly conducting further research, it’s finally time to interpret your
results. As you interpret your analysis, keep in mind that you cannot ever prove a hypothesis true: rather,
you can only fail to reject the hypothesis. Meaning that no matter how much data you collect, chance
could always interfere with your results.

As you interpret the results of your data, ask yourself these key questions:

● Does the data answer your original question? How?

● Does the data help you defend against any objections? How?

● Are there any limitation on your conclusions, any angles you haven’t considered?

If your interpretation of the data holds up under all of these questions and considerations, then you likely
have come to a productive conclusion. The only remaining step is to use the results of your data analysis
process to decide your best course of action.

By following these five steps in your data analysis process, you make better decisions for your business
or government agency because your choices are backed by data that has been robustly collected and
analyzed. With practice, your data analysis gets faster and more accurate – meaning you make better,
more informed decisions to run your organization most effectively.
 2. Explain the basic objectives in data analysis.

Answer:

In data analysis we have three objectives: getting a feel for the data, testing the goodness of data, and
testing the hypotheses developed for the research. The feel for the data will give preliminary ideas of
how good the scales are, how well the coding and entering of data have been done, and so on. Suppose
an item tapped on a 7-point scale has been improperly coded and/or entered as 8; this will be highlighted
by the maximum values on the descriptive statistics and the error can berectified. The second objective
—testing the goodness of data—can be accomplished by submitting the data for factor analysis,
obtaining the Cronbach‘s alpha or the split-half reliability

of the measures, and so on. The third objective—hypotheses testing—is achieved by choosing the
appropriate menus of the software programs, to test each of the hypotheses using the relevant statistical
test. The results of these tests will determine whether or not the hypotheses are substantiated. We will
now discuss data analysis with respect to each of these three objectives in detail.

 Assessment and improvement of the quality of the data.

 Compare the target population with the population being studied (sampling population).
 Forecast the possible areas where faults can occur (such as degree of non-response, amount of
denials, the comparison groups or the reduction or decrease in number).
 Assessment of the measures of frequency (such as mean, median, mode, etc.) and their amount.
Assessing, i.e. how much strong relationship exists among the variables.
 Measurement of the degree of ambiguity.
 Observe and control the influences of other associated characteristics.
 Making inferences and taking decisions.
 To acquire insights regarding the relationships which are being observed or not attended.

3. Explain the integral part of a research report.

Answer:
The Title Page

The title of the report should succinctly indicate what the study is all about. Examples of some good
report titles are: 1. A Study of Customer Satisfaction with the Pizza Hut at Sunshine City, Illinois 2.
Factors Influencing the Burnout of Nurses in Monroe Hospital 3. Antecedents and Consequences of
White-Collar Employees ‘Resistance to Mechanization in Service Industries 4. Factors Affecting the
Upward Mobility of Women in Accounting Firms 5. A Study of Portfolio Balancing and Risk Management
in Investment Firms The first two projects will relate to applied research, whereas the last three will be in
the realm of basic research. In addition to the title of the project, the title page will indicate the name of
the sponsor of the study, the names of the researchers and their affiliations, and the date of the final
report.

Table of Contents The table of contents with page references usually lists the important headings and
subheadings in the report. A separate list of tables and figures should also be listed in the table of
contents.

The Research Proposal and the Authorization Letter A copy of the letter of authorization from the
sponsor of the study approving the investigation and detailing its scope will be attached at the beginning
of the report along with the research proposal. The authorization makes clear to the reader that the goals
of the study have had the full blessings of the organization.

The Executive Summary or Synopsis The executive summary (or synopsis) is a brief account of the
research study that provides an overview, and highlights the following important information related to it:
the problem statement, sampling design, data collection methods used results of data analysis, findings,
and ecommendations, with suggestions frothier implementation. The executive summary (or synopsis)
will be brief—usually three pages or less in length.

4. Explain the written report and its purpose.

Answer:
According to Mary Munter and Lynn Hamilton, authors of “Guide to Managerial Communication,” report
writing is “the process of selecting, organizing, interpreting, and communicating information to meet a
specific objective.”

According to Oxford English Dictionary a report is defined as “an account given on a particular matter,
especially in the form of an official document, after thorough investigation or consideration by an
appointed person or body”. Example “the chairman’s annual report”.

The Written Report and Its Purpose: Reports could aim at different purposes and hence the form of the
written report would vary according to the situation. It is important to identify the purpose of the report, so
that it can be tailored accordingly. If the purpose is simply to offer details on some specific areas of
interest requested by a manager, the report can be very narrowly focused and provide the desired
information to the manager in a brief format,. If, on the other hand, the report is intended to ―sell an idea
to management, then it has to be more detailed and convincing as to how the proposed idea is an
improvement and should be adopted. Here the emphasis would be directed on presenting all the relevant
information backed by the necessary data, to persuade the reader to ―buy into the idea. An example of
the purpose of such airport and its contents can be seen in. A different form of report will be prescribed in
some cases, where a manager asks for several alternative solutions or recommendations to rectify a
problem in a given situation. Here the researcher provides the requested information and the manager
chooses from among the alternatives and makes the final decision. In this case, a more detailed report
surveying past studies, the methodology used for the present study, different perspectives generated
from interviews and current data analyses, and alternative solutions based on the conclusions drawn
there from will have to be provided. How each alternative helps to improve the problem situation would
also have to be discussed. The advantage and disadvantages of each of the pro- posed solutions,
together with a cost-benefit analysis in terms of dollars and/or other resources, will also have to be
presented to help the manager make the decision. A situation would warrant this kind of a report. Such
are port can also be found in Report 3 of the Appendix to this chapter. Yet another type of report might
require the researcher to identify the problem and provide the final solution as well. That is, the
researcher might be called in to study a situation, determine the nature of the problem, and offer a report
of the findings and recommendations. Such a report has to be very comprehensive, following the format
of a full-fledged study, as detailed later in this chapter. A fifth kind of research report is the very scholarly
publication presenting the findings of a basic study that one usually finds published in academic journals.

Report writing refers to the process of creating a document that represents information in a clear and
concise manner. Reports can be written for various purposes, such as providing updates on a project,
analyzing data or presenting findings, or making recommendations.
Effective report writing requires careful planning, research, analysis, and organization of information. A
well-structured report should be accurate, and objective, and contain a clear introduction, body, and
conclusion. It should also be written in a professional and accessible style, with appropriate use of
headings, subheadings, tables, graphs, and other visual aids.

Overall, report writing is an important skill for professionals in many fields, as it helps to communicate
information and insights in a clear and concise manner.

5. Explain how to make oral presentation effective for a research report.

Answer:

Usually organizations (and instructors in classes) require about a 20-minute oral presentation of the
research project, followed by a question and answer session. The oral presentation calls for considerable
planning. Imagine a study that spanned over several months having to be presented in 20 minutes to a
live audience! Those who have not read the report at all, or at best only superficially, have to be
convinced that the recommendations made therein would indeed prove to be beneficial to the
organization. All this will have to be effectively accomplished in the matter of a few minutes. The
challenge exists to present the important aspects of the study so as to hold the interest of the audience,
while still providing statistical and quantitative information, which may drive many in it to ennui. Different
stimuli (overheads, slides, charts, pictorial and tabular depiction, etc.) Have to be creatively provided to
the audience to consistently sustain their interest throughout the presentation. To make all this possible,
time and effort have to be expended in planning, organizing, and rehearsing the presentation. Slides,
overheads, charts, graphs, handouts—all in large, bold print, and preferably in multicolor—help the
presenter to sustain the interest of the audience. They also help the presenter discuss and explain the
research project coherently, without reading from prepared notes. Factors irrelevant to the written report,
such as dress, mannerisms, gestures, voice modulation, and the like, take on added importance in oral
presentations. Speaking audibly, clearly, without distracting mannerisms, and at the right speed for the
audience to comprehend is vital for holding their attention. Varying the length of the sentences,
establishing eye contact, tone variations, voice modulation, and the rate off low of information make all
the difference to audience receptivity. Use of 3 × 5 cards for orderly presentation helps smooth
transitions during the presentation. Thus, the contents of the presentation and the style of delivery should
both be planned in detail.
Deciding on the Content

Because a lot of material has to be covered in perhaps a 20-minute presentation, it becomes necessary
to decide on the points to be focused on and the importance to be given to each. Remembering that the
listener absorbs only a small proportion of all that he or she has heard, it is important to determine what
the presenter would like the listener to walk away with, and then organize the presentation accordingly.
Obviously, the problem investigated, the results found, the conclusions drawn, the recommendations
made, and the ways in which they can be implemented are of vital interest to organizational members,
and need to be emphasized during the presentation. The design aspects of the study, details of the
sample, data collection methods, details of data analysis, and the like, can be mentioned in passing to be
picked up at the question and answer session by the interested members. However, depending on the
type of audience, it may become necessary to put more stress on the data analytic aspects. For
example, if the presentation is made to a group of statisticians in the company, or in a research methods
class, the data analyses and results will receive more time than if the project is presented to a group of
managers whose main interest lies in the solution of the problem and implementation of the
recommendations. Thus, the time and attention devoted to the various components of the study will
require adjustment, depend- in on the audience.

Visual Aids

Graphs, charts, and tables help to drive home the points one wishes to make much faster and more
effectively, true to the adage that a picture is worth a thou- sand words. Visual aids provide a captivating
sensory stimulus that sustains the attention of the audience. Modern PowerPoint technology makes it
possible for color graphics to be produced on personal computers and projected onto the screen. Slides,
transparencies, flip charts, the chalkboard, and handout materials also help the audience to easily follow
the points of the speaker‘s focus. The selection of specific visual modes of presentation will depend,
among other things, on the size of the room, the availability of a good screen for projection, and the cost
constraints of developing sophisticated visuals. All visuals should be produced with an eye uneasy
visibility from the far end of the presentation hall. Large, easily readable visuals that are properly labeled
in big size bold letters help the audience to focus on the presentation. Visuals that present sideby-side
comparisons of the existing and would-be state of affairs via graphs or pie charts drive home the points
made much more forcefully than elaborate and laborious verbal explanations. Integrated multimedia
presentations using PowerPoint, videotapes, videodiscs, CD-ROM, and other visuals are quite common
in this technological age. Digital whiteboards facilitate digital storage of intricate diagrams that can be
used in conjunction with electronic projective systems to serve as electronic flipcharts, as was described
earlier. When planning a presentation using Power Point or integrated multimedia, it is important to
ensure before the presentation starts that the related equipment is properly hooked up and tested so that
the presentation can go smoothly without interruptions.
The Presenter

An effective presentation is also a function of how ―unstressed the presenter is. The speaker should
establish eye contact with the audience, speak audibly and understandably, and be sensitive to the
nonverbal reactions of the Audience. Strict adherence to the time frame and concentration on the points
of interest to the audience are critical aspects of presentation. The display of extreme nervousness
throughout the presentation, stumbling for words, fumbling with the notes or audiovisuals, speaking
inaudibly and/or with distracting mannerisms, straying away from the main focus of the study, and
exceeding the time limit all detract from effectiveness. One should also not minimize the importance of
the impression created on the audience by dress, posture, bearing, and the confidence with which one
carries oneself. Such simple things as covering the material son the visuals until they need to be
exhibited, and voice modulation, help to focus the attention of the audience on the discussion.

The Presentation

The opening remarks set the stage for riveting the attention of the audience. Certain aspects such as the
problem investigated, the findings, the conclusions drawn, the recommendations made and their
implementation are, as previously mentioned, important aspects of the presentation. The speaker should
drive home these points at least three times—once in the beginning, again when each of these areas is
covered, and finally, while summarizing and bringing the presentation to a conclusion. Handling
Questions Concentrated and continuous research on the research topic over a considerable period of
time indisputably makes the presenter more knowledgeable about the project than anyone else in the
audience. Hence, it is not difficult to handle questions from the members with confidence and poise. It is
important to be non-defensive when questions are posed that seemingly find fault with some aspect of
the research. Openness to suggestions also helps, as the audience might at times come up with some
excellent ideas or recommendations the researcher might not have thought of. Such ideas must always
be acknowledged graciously. If a question or a suggestion from a member in the audience happens to be
flawed, it is best addressed in a nonjudgmental fashion. The question and answer session, when
handled well, leaves the audience with a sense of involvement and satisfaction. Questioning should be
encouraged and responded to with care. This interactive question and answer session offer an exciting
experience both to the audience and to the presenter. As may be readily seen, a 20-minute presentation
and a short question and answer session thereafter do call for substantial planning, anticipation of
audience concerns, psychological preparedness, and good impression management skills. Reporting
has to be done in an honest and straightforward manner. It is unethical to fail to report findings that are
unpalatable to the sponsors or that reflect poorly on management. As suggested earlier, it is possible to
be tactful in presenting such findings without withholding or distorting information to please the sponsors.
Internal researchers, in particular, will have to find ways of presenting unpopular information in a tactful
manner. It is also important to state the limitations of the study—and practically every study has some
limitation—so that the audience is not misled.

Oral Presentation Tips

An oral presentation is more than just reading a paper or set of slides to an audience. How you deliver
your presentation is at least as important in effectively communicating your message as what you say.
Use these guidelines to learn simple tools that help you prepare and present an effective presentation,
and design PowerPoint slides that support and enhance your talk.

Preparing an Effective Presentation

An effective presentation is more than just standing up and giving information. A presenter must consider
how best to communicate the information to the audience. Use these tips to create a presentation that is
both informative and interesting:

Organize your thoughts. Start with an outline and develop good transitions between sections. Emphasize
the real-world significance of your research.

Have a strong opening. Why should the audience listen to you? One good way to get their attention is to
start with a question, whether or not you expect an answer.

Define terms early. If you are using terms that may be new to the audience, introduce them early in your
presentation. Once an audience gets lost in unfamiliar terminology, it is extremely difficult to get them
back on track.

Finish with a bang. Find one or two sentences that sum up the importance of your research. How is the
world better off as a result of what you have done?

Design PowerPoint slides to introduce important information. Consider doing a presentation without
PowerPoint. Then consider which points you cannot make without slides. Create only those slides that
are necessary to improve your communication with the audience.

Time yourself. Do not wait until the last minute to time your presentation. You only have 15 minutes to
speak, so you want to know, as soon as possible, if you are close to that limit.

Create effective notes for yourself. Have notes that you can read. Do not write out your entire talk; use
an outline or other brief reminders of what you want to say. Make sure the text is large enough that you
can read it from a distance.

Practice, practice, practice. The more you practice your presentation, the more comfortable you will be in
front of an audience. Practice in front of a friend or two and ask for their feedback. Record yourself and
listen to it critically. Make it better and do it again.

PowerPoint Tips

Microsoft PowerPoint is a tremendous tool for presentations. It is also a tool that is sometimes not used
effectively. If you are using PowerPoint, use these tips to enhance your presentation:

Use a large font. As a general rule, avoid text smaller than 24 point.

Use a clean typeface. Sans serif typefaces, such as Arial, are generally easier to read on a screen than
serif typefaces, such as Times New Roman.

Use bullet points, not complete sentences. The text on your slide provides an outline to what you are
saying. If the entire text of your presentation is on your slides, there is no reason for the audience to
listen to you. A common standard is the 6/7 rule: no more than six bulleted items per slide and no more
than seven words per item.

Use contrasting colors. Use a dark text on a light background or a light text on a dark background. Avoid
combinations of colors that look similar. Avoid red/green combinations, as this is the most common form
of color blindness.

Use special effects sparingly. Using animations, cool transition effects, sounds and other special effects
is an effective way to make sure the audience notices your slides. Unfortunately, that means that they
are not listening to what you are saying. Use special effects only when they are necessary to make a
point.

Presenting Effectively

When you start your presentation, the audience will be interested in what you say. Use these tips to help
keep them interested throughout your presentation:

Be excited. You are talking about something exciting. If you remember to be excited, your audience will
feel it and automatically become more interested.

Speak with confidence. When you are speaking, you are the authority on your topic, but do not pretend
that you know everything. If you do not know the answer to a question, admit it. Consider deferring the
question to your mentor or offer to look into the matter further.

Make eye contact with the audience. Your purpose is to communicate with your audience, and people
listen more if they feel you are talking directly to them. As you speak, let your eyes settle on one person
for several seconds before moving on to somebody else. You do not have to make eye contact with
everybody, but make sure you connect with all areas of the audience equally.

Avoid reading from the screen. First, if you are reading from the screen, you are not making eye contact
with your audience. Second, if you put it on your slide, it is because you wanted them to read it, not you.

Blank the screen when a slide is unnecessary. A slide that is not related to what you are speaking about
can distract the audience. Pressing the letter B or the period key displays a black screen, which lets the
audience concentrate solely on your words. Press the same key to restore the display.

Use a pointer only when necessary. If you are using a laser pointer, remember to keep it off unless you
need to highlight something on the screen.

Explain your equations and graphs. When you display equations, explain them fully. Point out all
constants and dependent and independent variables. With graphs, tell how they support your point.
Explain the x- and y-axes and show how the graph progresses from left to right.

Pause. Pauses bring audible structure to your presentation. They emphasize important information,
make transitions obvious, and give the audience time to catch up between points and to read new slides.
Pauses always feel much longer to speakers than to listeners. Practice counting silently to three (slowly)
between points.

Avoid filler words. Um, like, you know, and many others. To an audience, these are indications that you
do not know what to say; you sound uncomfortable, so they start to feel uncomfortable as well. Speak
slowly enough that you can collect your thoughts before moving ahead. If you really do not know what to
say, pause silently until you do.

Relax. It is hard to relax when you are nervous, but your audience will be much more comfortable if you
are too.

Breathe. It is fine to be nervous. In fact, you should be all good presenters are nervous every time they
are in front of an audience. The most effective way to keep your nerves in check aside from a lot of
practice before hand is to remember to breathe deeply throughout your presentation.

Acknowledge the people who supported your research. Be sure to thank the people who made your
research possible, including your mentor, research team, collaborators, and other sources of funding and
support.

Sharing your work can help you expand your network of contacts who share your research interests. For
undergraduate researcher who intend to complete a graduate degree, presenting can be an invaluable
experience. We recommend discussing your interest in sharing your research with your faculty advisor.
They can help match your interests with the appropriate venue.