ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS:

Arithmetic operations is a branch of mathematics that involves the study of numbers, operation of
numbers that are useful in all the other branches of mathematics. It basically comprises operations
such as Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division.

These basic mathematical operations (+, -, ×, and ÷) we use in our everyday life. Whether we
need to calculate the annual budget or distribute something equally to a number of people, for
every such aspect of our life, we use arithmetic operations.

BASIC ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS:

The four basic arithmetic operations in Mathematics, for all real numbers, are:

 Addition (Finding the Sum; ‘+’)

 Subtraction (Finding the difference; ‘-’)
 Multiplication (Finding the product; ‘×’ )
 Division (Finding the quotient; ‘÷’)
Let us discuss all these four basic arithmetic operations with rules and examples in detail.

ADDITION (DEFINITION):

The addition is a mathematical process of adding things together. The addition process is denoted
by ‘+’ sign. It involves combining two or more numbers into a single term. In addition process,
the order does not matter. It means that the addition process is commutative. It can involve any
type of number whether it be a real or complex number, fraction, or decimals.
EXAMPLE: 4.13 + 3.87 = 8

The addition of more than two numbers, values or terms is also known as a summation of terms
and can involve n number of values.

ADDITION RULES:
The following are the addition rules for integers:

 Addition of two positive integers is a positive integer

 Addition of two negative integers is a negative integer
 While adding positive and negative integers, subtract the integers and use the sign of the
largest integer number.
BASIC ARITHMETIC PROPERTIES:
The basic arithmetic properties for real numbers are:

 Commutative property
 Associative property
 Distributive property
PROPERTIES:

Commutative Property: a + b = b + a (The order of addition does not change the sum.)

Associative Property: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (The grouping of numbers does not affect the

sum)

Zero Property: a + 0 = a (Adding zero to a number does not change its value.)
Inverse Property: a + (−a) = 0 (A number plus its negative equals zero.)

SUBTRACTION (DEFINITION)
The subtraction operation gives the difference between two numbers. Subtraction is denoted
by ‘-‘ sign. It is almost similar to addition but is the conjugate of the second term. It is the
inverse process of addition. The addition of the term with the negative term is known as
subtraction. This process is mostly used to find how many are left when some things are taken
away.

EXAMPLE: 15 – 7

SUBTRACTION RULES:
The following are the subtraction rules for integers:

 If both the signs of the integers are positive, the answer will be the positive integer if the
first integers is greater and the answer will be negative integer if the second integer is
greater.
 If both the signs of the integers are negative, the answer will be the negative integer if the
first integers is greater and the answer will be positive integer if the second integer is
greater.
 If the signs of the integers are different, the answer will be the positive integer if the first
integers is positive and second integer is negative, and the answer will be negative integer
if the first integer is negative and larger than the second positive integer.
PROPERTIES:

Not Commutative: a – b ≠ b – a (Order matters in subtraction.)

Not Associative: (a − b) – c ≠ a − (b − c) (Grouping affects the outcome.)

Zero Property: a – 0 = a (Subtracting zero does not change the value.)

MULTIPLICATION (DEFINITION):

Multiplication is known as repeated addition. It is denoted by ‘×’ or ‘*’. It also combines with two
or more values to result in a single value. The multiplication process involves multiplicand,
multiplier. The result of the multiplication of multiplicand and the multiplier is called the product
EXAMPLE: 2 × 3 = 6

Here, “2” is the multiplier, “3” is the multiplicand, and the result “6” is called the product.

The product of two numbers says ‘a’ and ‘b’ results in a single value term ‘ab’ where a and b are
the factors of the final value obtained.

MULTIPLICATION RULES:
The following are the multiplication rules for the integers.

 The product of two positive integers is a positive integer

 The product of two negative integers is a positive integer
 The product of positive and negative integer is a negative integer.

PROPERTIES:

Commutative Property: a × b = b × a (The order of multiplication does not change the product.)
Associative Property: (a × b) × c = a × (b × c) (The grouping of numbers does not affect the
product.)

Distributive Property: a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c (Multiplying a number by a sum is the same

as multiplying it by each addend and then adding the products.)

Identity Property: a × 1 = a (Multiplying by one does not change the value.)

Zero Property: a×0=0 (Any number multiplied by zero is zero.)

DIVISION (DEFINITION):

The division is usually denoted by ‘÷‘ and is the inverse of multiplication. It constitutes two terms
dividend and divisor, where the dividend is divided by the divisor to give a single term value. When
the dividend is greater than the divisor, the result obtained is greater than 1, or else it would be less
than 1.
EXAMPLE: 4 ÷ 2 = 2

Here, “4” is the dividend, “2” is the divisor, and the result “2” is called the quotient.

DIVISION RULES:
The following are the division rules for integers:

 The division of two positive integers is a positive integer

 The division of two negative numbers is a positive integer
 The division of integers with different signs results in the negative integer.

PROPERTIES:

Not Commutative: a ÷ b ≠ b ÷ a (Order matters in division.)

Not Associative: (a ÷ b) ÷ c ≠ a ÷ (b ÷ c) (Grouping affects the outcome.)

Identity Property: a ÷ 1 = a (Dividing by one does not change the value.)

Division by Zero: Division by zero is undefined. For any number a: a ÷ 0 is undefined.

CONCLUSION:

These four basic arithmetic operations form the foundation of mathematics and are essential for
various applications, from simple calculations to complex problem-solving. Understanding their
properties and how to perform them is crucial for developing numerical skills.

MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS:
The basic mathematical operations are the four arithmetic operations that we have already learned
in the above sections.

Addition and subtraction are inverse operations of each other. It means if the addition of two
numbers gives the third number, then subtraction of an added number from the third number will
result in the original number.

EXAMPLE: 4 + 7 = 11

Now, if we subtract 7 from 11, we get; 11 – 7 = 4

Thus, we got the original number.

Similarly, multiplication and division are also inverse operations.

EXAMPLE: 4 x 5 = 20 Then, 20/5 = 4

Thus, we can see, these mathematical operations are related to each other. Also, these operations
are the simplest form of mathematical calculations, which can be easily understood by everyone.

GENERAL RULES:

ORDER OF OPERATIONS:

When performing multiple operations, follow the order of operations (often remembered by the
acronym PEMDAS):

o P: Parentheses
o E: Exponents
o D Division (from left to right)
o M: Multiplication (from left to right)
o A: Addition and (from left to right)
o S: Subtraction (from left to right)

These rules and properties form the basis for performing calculations accurately and efficiently.

ADDITION OF BINARY NUMBERS:

Adding binary numbers is similar to adding decimal numbers but is based on base 2 instead of
base 10. Here’s a step-by-step guide to binary addition, including the rules and an example.

BINARY ADDITION RULES:

1. 0+0=0
2. 0+1=1
3. 1+0=1
4. 1 + 1 = 10 (which is 0 and carry over 1)
5. 1 + 1 + 1 = 11 (which is 1 and carry over 1)

STEPS FOR BINARY ADDITION:

1. Align the numbers: Write the binary numbers one under the other, aligning them by their
least significant bit (rightmost).
2. Add from right to left: Starting from the rightmost bit, add each pair of bits together,
including any carry from the previous column.
3. Write down the result: Record the result (sum) and any carry to the next column.
4. Continue until all bits are added.

EXAMPLE: ADDING TWO BINARY NUMBERS:

Let’s add 1011 and 1101

 1. Rightmost Column:

1
1011
+ 1101
--------
0
2. Next Column:

1
1011
+ 1101
--------
00
3. Next Column:

1
1011
+ 1101
--------
000
4. Next Column:

1
1011
+ 1101
--------
1000
5. Final Carry: Since there is a carry left, write it down in the next column.

1
1011
+ 1101
--------
11000
SUMMARY

Binary addition works similarly to decimal addition, with a few unique rules due to its base 2
nature. Practice with different binary numbers can help solidify the concept!

BINARY SUBTRACTION:

Subtracting binary numbers is similar to decimal subtraction but is based on base 2. Here’s a
step-by-step guide to binary subtraction, including rules and an example.

BINARY SUBTRACTION RULES:

 0-0=0
 1-0=1
 1-1=0
 0 - 1 = 1 (requires borrowing)
 Borrowing: When subtracting 1 from 0, you need to borrow from the next higher bit.
This means:

 Change the next higher bit (to the left) from 1 to 0.

 Add 2 (which is 2 in binary) to the current bit (now it’s effectively 2).
STEPS FOR BINARY SUBTRACTION:

1. Align the numbers: Write the binary numbers one under the other, aligning them by their
least significant bit (rightmost).
2. Subtract from right to left: Starting from the rightmost bit, subtract each bit. If the top bit
is smaller than the bottom bit, borrow from the next column.
3. Write down the result: Record the result for each column.

EXAMPLE: SUBTRACTING TWO BINARY NUMBERS:

Let’s subtract 1011 from 1101.

1. Rightmost Column:

1101
- 1011
--------
0
2. Next Column:

1101
- 1011
--------
010
3. Next Column:

1101 (after borrowing)

- 1011 (the original number adjusted)
--------
0010

4. Final Result: Since there are no more bits to subtract, the result is 0010

CONCLUSION

Binary subtraction involves borrowing in a similar way to decimal subtraction. Understanding

how to borrow and subtract correctly is essential for performing binary arithmetic accurately.
Practice with various examples can help reinforce these concepts!

STEPS FOR BINARY MULTIPLICATION

1. Write the Numbers: Align the binary numbers you want to multiply.
2. Multiply Each Bit: Starting from the rightmost bit of the bottom number, multiply it by
each bit of the top number, just like in decimal multiplication.
3. Shift Left: For each subsequent bit of the bottom number, shift the result one place to the
left (this is equivalent to multiplying by 222).
4. Add the Results: Finally, add all the shifted results together to get the final product.

EXAMPLE: MULTIPLYING BINARY NUMBERS

Let’s multiply 101 by 11.

101 (this is 5 in decimal)

x 11 (this is 3 in decimal)

------
1. Multiply by the Rightmost Bit (1):

101
x 1
------
101

2. Multiply by the Next Bit and Shift Left:

101
x 11
------
101
+ 101x
----------

3. Add the Results:

101
+ 101x
---------
1111
4. Final Result

The product of 101 and 11 is 1111.

SUMMARY OF STEPS

 Write the numbers.

 Multiply each bit of the bottom number by the top number.
 Shift left for each bit down.
 Add all the partial results.

CONCLUSION

Binary multiplication follows similar principles to decimal multiplication but operates in base 2.
Practicing with different binary numbers will help reinforce your understanding!

STEPS FOR BINARY DIVISION

1. Setup: Write the dividend (the number to be divided) and the divisor (the number you are
dividing by). The dividend is placed inside the division bracket, and the divisor is outside.
2. Compare: Starting from the leftmost bit of the dividend, compare the current section of
the dividend to the divisor to determine how many times the divisor can fit into that section.
3. Subtract: If the divisor can fit, write down 111 in the quotient and subtract the divisor
from that section of the dividend. If it cannot fit, write down 000 in the quotient.
4. Bring down the next bit: After subtracting, bring down the next bit of the dividend to the
right of the remainder.
5. Repeat: Continue this process until you have gone through all bits of the dividend.
6. Remainder: The final result is the quotient, and what remains after the last subtraction is
the remainder.

EXAMPLE: DIVIDING BINARY NUMBERS

Let’s divide 1011 by 10.

 11 (quotient)
------
10 | 1011
-10 (10 in binary, which is 2)
------
011 (this is 3 in decimal)
-10 (this is 1 in decimal)
------
01

1. First Division:

 Compare 10 with the first two bits of the dividend 10. It fits once.
 Write down 1 in the quotient and subtract 10 from 10.
 Remainder is 0.

1
------
10 | 1011
-10
-------
011

2. Bring Down:

 Bring down the next bit (1) from the dividend, making it 011.

3. Second Division:

 Compare 10 with 11. It fits once.

 Write down 01 in the quotient and subtract 10 from 10.
 Remainder is 001.

11
------
10 | 1011
-10
------
011
-10
------
001

4. Final Step:

 Bring down the last bit (none, so we're done).

 10 cannot fit into 01, so write down 11 in the quotient.
 Remainder is 01.

5. Final Result

The quotient is 11 and the remainder is 01.

CONCLUSION

Binary division follows similar principles as decimal division, but you work with base 2.
Understanding the process and practicing with different examples will help reinforce these
concepts!

UNDERSTANDING DECIMAL ADDITION

Decimal addition is similar to whole number addition, but it requires attention to the placement of
the decimal point. Each digit is aligned according to its place value, which includes tenths,
hundredths, thousandths, etc.

STEPS FOR ADDING DECIMAL NUMBERS

1. Align the Numbers: Write the numbers one above the other, aligning the decimal points
vertically. This helps keep the place values aligned.

12.34
+ 5.678

2. Fill in Zeros if Necessary: If the numbers have different lengths after the decimal point,
you can add zeros to the right of the shorter number to make them the same length.

12.340
+ 5.678

3. Add from Right to Left: Start adding from the rightmost digit (the smallest place value)
and move to the left, just like with whole numbers.

12.340
+ 5.678
----------
8

4. Carry Over if Necessary: If the sum of any column is 10 or greater, write down the
rightmost digit and carry over the leftmost digit to the next column.

12.340 12.340 12.340

+ 5.678 + 5.678 + 5.678
---------- ---------- ----------
18 018 18.018

5. Write the Decimal Point: The decimal point in the result will be directly below the
decimal points of the numbers you are adding.
6. Final Result: After adding all columns, write down the final result.

TIPS FOR DECIMAL ADDITION

 Practice: The more you practice, the more comfortable you’ll become with decimal
addition.
 Check Your Work: After adding, you can check your work by estimating the answer.
Rounding the numbers to the nearest whole number can help you confirm if your sum is
reasonable.
  Use a Calculator: For complex or lengthy decimal additions, using a calculator can save
time and minimize errors.

CONCLUSION

Adding decimal numbers involves careful alignment, attention to place values, and carrying over
when necessary. With practice, it becomes an easy and straightforward process!

UNDERSTANDING DECIMAL SUBTRACTION

Subtracting decimal numbers is similar to subtracting whole numbers but requires careful
alignment of decimal points to ensure that place values are accurate.

STEPS FOR SUBTRACTING DECIMAL NUMBERS

1. Align the Numbers: Write the numbers one above the other, making sure to align the
decimal points vertically.

15.78
- 3.45

2. Fill in Zeros if Necessary: If the numbers have different lengths after the decimal point,
you can add zeros to the right of the shorter number to make them the same length.

15.780
- 3.450

3. Subtract from Right to Left: Start subtracting from the rightmost digit (the smallest place
value) and move to the left.

15.780
- 3.450
------------
0

4. Borrow if Necessary: If the digit you are subtracting from is smaller than the digit you are
subtracting, you will need to borrow from the next left column.

15.780 15.780 15.780

- 3.450 - 3.450 - 3.450
---------- ---------- ----------
30 330 12.330

5. Write the Decimal Point: The decimal point in the result will be directly below the
decimal points of the numbers you are subtracting.
6. Final Result: After completing the subtraction for all columns, write down the final result.

TIPS FOR DECIMAL SUBTRACTION

 Practice: The more you practice, the more confident you’ll become with decimal
subtraction.
 Check Your Work: After subtracting, consider adding the result to the smaller number to
check if it equals the original larger number.
  Use a Calculator: For complex or lengthy decimal subtractions, a calculator can help save
time anD REDUCE ERRORS.

CONCLUSION

Subtracting decimal numbers involves careful alignment of the decimal points, attention to place
values, and borrowing when necessary. With practice, it becomes a straightforward process!

UNDERSTANDING DECIMAL MULTIPLICATION

Multiplying decimal numbers follows the same basic principles as multiplying whole numbers,
but you'll need to pay attention to the placement of the decimal point in the final result.

STEPS FOR MULTIPLYING DECIMAL NUMBERS

1. Ignore the Decimals: Temporarily disregard the decimal points and treat the numbers as
whole numbers. Multiply them as you normally would.
2. Count Decimal Places: Count the total number of decimal places in both of the original
numbers. This includes the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in each
number.
3. Multiply the Numbers: Perform the multiplication as if they are whole numbers.
4. Place the Decimal Point: In the final product, place the decimal point so that the total
number of decimal places equals the sum of the decimal places from the original numbers.
5. Final Result: Write down the final product with the decimal point in place.

EXAMPLE : Multiply 2.5 by 3.6

1. Ignore the Decimals:

25
x 36

2. Count Decimal Places:

 2.5 has 1 decimal place.

 3.6 has 1 decimal place.
 Total decimal places = 1 + 1 = 2.

3. Multiply the Numbers:

25 25 25
* 36 * 36 * 36
---------- ---------- ----------
150 150 150
75* + 75*
----------
900

4. Place the Decimal Point:

 Since there are 2 total decimal places, place the decimal point in the product (900)
to get 9.00.
 5. Final Result:

 The final answer is 9.00, or simply 9.

EXAMPLE: Multiply 0.45 by 0.6

1. Ignore the Decimals:

45
* 6

2. Count Decimal Places:

 0.45 has 2 decimal places.

 0.6 has 1 decimal place.
 Total decimal places = 2 + 1 = 3.

3. Multiply the Numbers:

45
* 6
----------
270

4. Place the Decimal Point:

 Since there are 3 total decimal places, place the decimal point in the product (270)
to get 2.70.

5. Final Result:

 The final answer is 2.70, or simply 2.7.

TIPS FOR DECIMAL MULTIPLICATION

 Practice: The more you practice, the easier it becomes to multiply decimals.
 Use a Calculator: For complex multiplications, especially with larger numbers, a
calculator can help.
 Check Your Work: You can estimate the product by rounding the numbers to one decimal
place to see if your answer is reasonable.

CONCLUSION

Multiplying decimal numbers involves treating them as whole numbers, counting the decimal
places, performing the multiplication, and placing the decimal point correctly in the final product.
With practice, you'll find it becomes a straightforward process!

UNDERSTANDING DECIMAL DIVISION

Dividing decimal numbers is similar to dividing whole numbers, but it requires careful handling
of the decimal points in both the divisor and the dividend.

STEPS FOR DIVIDING DECIMAL NUMBERS

 1. Align the Decimal Points: If the divisor (the number you’re dividing by) is a decimal, you
need to eliminate the decimal point by multiplying both the divisor and the dividend by a
power of 10. This moves the decimal point to the right.
2. Perform the Division: Divide as you would with whole numbers, bringing down digits as
needed.
3. Place the Decimal Point: Place the decimal point in the quotient (the result) directly above
the decimal point in the dividend.
4. Continue Dividing: If necessary, add zeros to the right of the dividend to continue the
division until you reach the desired level of precision.
5. Final Result: Write down the quotient, which is the final answer.

EXAMPLE: Let’s go through an example step-by-step.

Divide 4.56 by 0.12

1. Eliminate the Decimal in the Divisor:

 The divisor is 0.12. To eliminate the decimal, multiply both the divisor and the
dividend by 100 (moving the decimal point two places to the right):
 0.12 × 100 = 12
 4.56 × 100 = 456

So, we rewrite the problem as: 456 ÷ 12

2. Perform the Division:

 12 goes into 45 three times (3 × 12 = 36). Subtract: 45 - 36 = 9. Bring down
the next digit (6) to make 96.
 12 goes into 96 eight times (8 × 12 = 96). Subtract: 96 - 96 = 0.

456 ÷ 12 = 38

3. Place the Decimal Point:

 Since we multiplied both numbers by 100, we do not need to adjust the decimal in
the quotient. Thus, the answer remains 38.
4. Final Result:
 The final answer is 38.

EXAMPLE: Divide 7.5 by 0.5

1. Eliminate the Decimal in the Divisor:

 The divisor is 0.5. To eliminate the decimal, multiply both the divisor and the
dividend by 10:
 0.5 × 10 = 5
 7.5 × 10 = 75

So, we rewrite the problem as: 75 ÷ 5

2. Perform the Division:

 5 goes into 7 once (1 × 5 = 5). Subtract: 7 - 5 = 2. Bring down the next digit
(5) to make 25.
 5 goes into 25 five times (5 × 5 = 25). Subtract: 25 - 25 = 0.

75 ÷ 5 = 15

3. Place the Decimal Point:

 There’s no decimal point to adjust in the quotient, so the answer remains 15.
4. Final Result:
  The final answer is 15.

TIPS FOR DECIMAL DIVISION:

 Practice: The more you practice dividing decimals, the more comfortable you'll become
with the process.
 Use a Calculator: For more complex divisions, especially with more decimal places, a
calculator can save time.
 Check Your Work: You can multiply the quotient by the divisor to see if you return to the
original dividend.

CONCLUSION:

Dividing decimal numbers involves eliminating decimals from the divisor, performing the division
like whole numbers, placing the decimal point accurately in the quotient, and ensuring you have
the desired precision. With practice, you’ll find this process straightforward!

STEPS FOR ADDING OCTAL NUMBERS:

Adding octal numbers involves a process similar to decimal addition but with a base of 8. Here’s
a complete guide on how to do it:

STEPS FOR ADDING OCTAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand Octal System:

 The octal number system uses digits from 0 to 7.

 Each place value represents a power of 8 (e.g., 80, 81, 82 etc.).

2. Align the Numbers:

 Write the octal numbers to be added one below the other, aligning them by their
least significant digit (rightmost).

3. Add Column by Column:

 Start from the rightmost column and move left.

 Add the digits in each column.

4. Carry Over if Necessary:

 If the sum of a column is 8 or more, carry over to the next left column.
 For octal, if the sum is 8, write down 0 and carry over 1. If the sum is 9, write down
1 and carry over 1, and so forth up to 15 (which would write down 7 and carry over
1).

5. Final Carry:

 If there is a carry left after the last column addition, write it down in the next left
column.

EXAMPLE: Let’s add the octal numbers 345 and 527.

345
+ 527
------
STEP-BY-STEP ADDITION:

1. Rightmost Column:

 5 + 7 = 12 (in decimal)
 Convert 12 to octal: 1210 = 148 (Write down 4 and carries over 1).

Carry 1
345
+ 527
------
4

2. Next Column:

 4 + 2 + 1 (carry) = 7
 Write down 7.

Carry:
345
+ 527
------
74

3. Next Column:

 3+5=8
 In octal, 8 is represent as 10(8 + 0), so write down 0 and carry over 1.
 Convert 8 to octal: 810 = 108 (2 carries over).

Carry: 1
345
+ 527
------
074

4. Final Column (the carry):

 Add the carry to the next column: write down 1.

345
+ 527
--------
1074
5. Result:

The sum of the octal numbers 345 and 527 is 1074 in octal.

SUMMARY OF CARRYING RULES:

 Sum of 0-7: Write down the sum.

 Sum of 8: Write down 0, carry 1.
  Sum of 9: Write down 1, carry 1.
 Sum of 10: Write down 2, carry 1.
 Sum of 11: Write down 3, carry 1.
 Sum of 12: Write down 4, carry 1.
 Sum of 13: Write down 5, carry 1.
 Sum of 14: Write down 6, carry 1.
 Sum of 15: Write down 7, carry 1.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. Add 276 and 543 in octal.

2. Add 124 and 567 in octal.

By following these steps, you can successfully add any octal numbers!

SUBTRACTION OF OCTAL NUMBERS:

Subtracting octal numbers follows a process similar to decimal subtraction but is based on base
8. Here's a complete guide on how to do it.

STEPS FOR SUBTRACTING OCTAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand the Octal System:

o The octal number system uses digits from 0 to 7.
o Each place value represents a power of 8.
2. Align the Numbers:
o Write the octal numbers to be subtracted one below the other, aligning them by
their least significant digit (rightmost).
3. Subtract Column by Column:
o Start from the rightmost column and move left.
o Subtract the digits in each column.
4. Borrowing if Necessary:
o If the digit being subtracted is larger than the digit above it, you will need to
borrow from the next left column.
o When you borrow, remember that you are borrowing 8 (since it’s base 8).

EXAMPLE: Let’s subtract the octal numbers 345 from 527.

527
- 345
------
STEP-BY-STEP SUBTRACTION:

1. Rightmost Column:

 7 − 5: 2 Since 5 is smaller than 7, we need to borrow.

 2 − 4: Since 2 is smaller than 4, we need to borrow.
 Borrow 1 from the next column (5 becomes 4, and the 1 borrowed converts to 8).
 So, 10−4=6 (in octal).

Borrow: 1
527
- 345
--------
62
2. Next Column:

 Now, we need to subtract 4−3:1

Borrow:
527
- 345
--------
162

3. Result:

The subtraction of the octal numbers 345 from 527 is 162 in octal.

4. Summary of Borrowing Rules

 When you borrow:

 The digit you are borrowing from decreases by 1.

 You add 8 to the current digit you are working with.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. Subtract 126 from 245 in octal.

2. Subtract 157 from 305 in octal.

FINAL NOTES:

 If the result of a subtraction is negative, it may indicate the need to express the result in a
different form (like finding a complement).
 Always ensure the numbers are correctly aligned and you handle borrowing properly to
maintain accuracy.

By following these steps, you can successfully subtract any octal numbers!

MULTIPLICATION OF OCTAL NUMBERS:

Multiplying octal numbers is similar to multiplying decimal numbers, but you need to keep in
mind that you are working in base 8. Here’s a complete guide on how to do it.

STEPS FOR MULTIPLYING OCTAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand the Octal System:

 The octal number system uses digits from 0 to 7.

 Each digit represents a power of 8.

2. Set Up the Multiplication:

 Write the numbers to be multiplied vertically, just like in decimal multiplication.

3. Multiply Digit by Digit:

 Start with the rightmost digit of the bottom number and multiply it by each digit
of the top number, moving from right to left.

4. Carry Over if Necessary:

  If any intermediate product is 8 or more, convert it to octal and carry over as you
would in decimal.

5. Shift for Each New Row:

 When moving to the next digit of the bottom number, shift one position to the left
(just like multiplying by 10 in decimal).

6. Add the Results:

 After you have all the partial products, add them together to get the final result.

EXAMPLE: Let’s multiply the octal numbers 258 and 348.

25
× 34
------

STEP-BY-STEP MULTIPLICATION:

1. Multiply the Rightmost Digit:

 5 × 4 = 20 (in decimal).
 Convert 20 to octal: 2010 = 248 (2 carries over).
 Write down 4 and carry 2.

25
× 34
------
4 (write down 4, carry over 2)

 Now multiply 2 × 4 = 8 add the carry 2: 8 + 2 = 10.

 Convert 10 to octal: 1010 =128 (1 carries over).
 Write down 2 and carry 1.

25
× 34
------
24 (write down 2, carry over 1)

2. Multiply the Next Digit:

 Now move to the next digit (3), shift left and multiply:
 5 × 3 = 15 (in decimal).
 Convert 15 to octal: 1510 = 178 (1 carries over).
 Write down 7 and carry 1.

25
× 34
------
7 (write down 7, carry over 1)

 Now multiply 2×3=6, add the carry 1: 6+1=7.

 Write down 7.
 25
× 34
------
77 (write down 7)
3. Combine the Partial Products:

 Now add the two results together.

1
24
+ 77x
------
1014
4. Result

The product of the octal numbers 258 and 348 is 1014 in octal.

5. Summary of Key Points:

 Convert Products: Remember to convert any products of digits that exceed 7 into octal
format.
 Carry Over: Handle carries similar to decimal, but ensure you are working within base 8.
 Final Addition: Carefully add up all the partial products to get the final result.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Multiply 478 and 538.

2. Multiply 368 and 428.

By following these steps, you can successfully multiply any octal numbers!

DIVISION OF OCTAL NUMBERS:

Dividing octal numbers is similar to dividing decimal numbers, but it requires you to be mindful
of base 8. Here’s a detailed guide on how to perform octal division.

STEPS FOR DIVIDING OCTAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand the Octal System:

 The octal number system uses digits from 0 to 7.

 Each digit represents a power of 8.

2. Set Up the Division:

 Write the dividend (the number to be divided) and the divisor (the number you are
dividing by) in long division format.

3. Divide Digit by Digit:

 Start from the leftmost digit of the dividend.

 Determine how many times the divisor fits into the current number (or group of
numbers).
 4. Multiply and Subtract:

 Multiply the divisor by the quotient digit you found.

 Subtract this product from the current dividend portion.

5. Bring Down the Next Digit:

 Bring down the next digit from the dividend to the right of the remainder and repeat
the process.

6. Continue Until Completion:

 Continue dividing, multiplying, and subtracting until you have processed all the
digits of the dividend.

7. Express the Result:

 The result will be the quotient and any remaining value will be the remainder

EXAMPLE: Let’s divide 1238 by 38.

STEP-BY-STEP DIVISION:

1. Divide the First Digit:

 The first digit of 1238 is 1.

 3 cannot go into 1, so we consider the first two digits 128.
 3 fits into 128 three times (since 3×3=9). We convert 910 into octal is 118.
 Write 3 above the division line.

------
38 | 1238

2. Multiply and Subtract:

 Multiply 3 by 3 to get 9 and convert 910 into octal is 118.

 Subtract 11 from 12 (in octal), leaving 1.

3
------
38 | 1238
11
-----------
13

3. Bring Down the Next Digit:

 Bring down the next digit 3 from 1238 to the right of 1, making it 138.
 3 fits into 138 three times.

33
------
38 | 1238
- 9
-----------
138
 - 11
---------
28

4. Final Calculation:

 Multiply 3 by 3 again to get 910 and convert 910 into octal is 118.leaving 28.

5. Result

 The quotient of 1238÷38 is 338 with a remainder of 28.

Summary of Key Points:

 Work with Base 8: Ensure you are aware of the octal system and perform calculations
accordingly.
 Check Your Multiplication: Always verify your multiplication and subtraction steps,
especially when dealing with larger numbers.
 Remainders: The remainder should always be less than the divisor.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. Divide 3458 by 58.

2. Divide 4568 by 68.

By following these steps, you can successfully divide any octal numbers!

ADDITION OF HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

Hexadecimal (or hex) is a base-16 number system that uses the digits 0-9 and the letters A-F
(where A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15). Adding hexadecimal numbers follows a process
similar to decimal addition but with a few key differences due to the base.

STEPS FOR ADDING HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand Hexadecimal System:

 The digits in hexadecimal range from 0 to F.

 Each position represents a power of 16.

2. Align the Numbers:

 Write the hexadecimal numbers to be added one below the other, aligning them by
their least significant digit (rightmost).

3. Add Column by Column:

 Start from the rightmost column and move left.

 Add the digits in each column.

4. Carry Over if Necessary:

 If the sum of a column is 16 or more, carry over to the next left column.
 For example:

 Sum of 0-F: Write down the sum.

 If the sum equals 10: Write down 0, carry 1.
  If the sum equals 11: Write down 1, carry 1.
 If the sum equals 12: Write down 2, carry 1.
 If the sum equals 13: Write down 3, carry 1.
 If the sum equals 14: Write down 4, carry 1.
 If the sum equals 15: Write down 5, carry 1.
 If the sum equals 16: Write down 0, carry 1.
5. Final Carry:

 If there is a carry left after the last column addition, write it down in the next left
column.

EXAMPLE: Let’s add the hexadecimal numbers 1A3 and 2B5.

1A3
+ 2B5
------

STEP-BY-STEP ADDITION:

1. Rightmost Column:

 3 + 5 = 8.
 Write down 8.

1A3
+ 2B5
------
8

2. Next Column:

 A+B: In decimal, A = 10 and B = 11.

 So, 10 + 11 = 21.
 In hexadecimal, 21 is represented as 1516, write down 5 and carry over 1.

1
1A3
+ 2B5
------
58

3. Next Column:

 1 + 2 + 1 (carry) =4.
 Write down 4.

1
1A3
+ 2B5
------
458
4. Result

 The sum of the hexadecimal numbers 1A3 and 2B5 is 458 in hexadecimal.
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS:

 Convert Sums Greater than 15: Always convert sums greater than 15 (or F) to
hexadecimal and manage carries accordingly.
 Carry Over: Ensure you handle carry overs correctly for any column sums.
 Align Properly: Make sure numbers are aligned correctly for accurate addition.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Add 2F42F42F4 and 3A73A73A7 in hexadecimal.

2. Add B3CB3CB3C and 1E51E51E5 in hexadecimal.

By following these steps, you can successfully add any hexadecimal numbers!

SUBTRACTION OF HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

Subtracting hexadecimal numbers is similar to subtracting decimal numbers, but it requires careful
handling of base-16 values. Here’s a complete guide on how to perform hexadecimal subtraction.

STEPS FOR SUBTRACTING HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand Hexadecimal System:

 Hexadecimal uses digits from 0 to 9 and letters A to F (where A = 10, B = 11, C =
12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15).
2. Align the Numbers:
 Write the hexadecimal numbers to be subtracted one below the other, aligning them
by their least significant digit (rightmost).
3. Subtract Column by Column:
 Start from the rightmost column and move left.
 Subtract the bottom digit from the top digit in each column.
4. Borrowing if Necessary:
 If the digit being subtracted is larger than the digit above it, you will need to borrow
from the next left column.
 When you borrow, remember that you are borrowing 16 (the base value).

EXAMPLE: Let’s subtract 1A3 from 2B5.

2B5
- 1A3
------

STEP-BY-STEP SUBTRACTION:

1. Rightmost Column:

 5 − 3 = 2.
 Write down 2.

2B5
- 1A3
------
2

2. Next Column:

 B − A: In decimal, B = 11 and A = 10.

 So, 11 − 10=1.
  Write down 1.

2B5
- 1A3
------
12

3. Next Column:

 2 – 1 = 1.
 Write down 1.

2B5
- 1A3
------
112
4. Result

 The result of the subtraction 2B5 − 1A3 is 112 in hexadecimal.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS:

 Work in Base 16: Ensure you are performing calculations within the hexadecimal system.
 Borrowing: When borrowing, reduce the digit you borrowed from by 1 and add 16 to the
digit you are working on.
 Write Properly: Always write down the results in their correct positions.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Subtract 3A7 from 5F1.

2. Subtract B3C from 1E5

By following these steps, you can successfully subtract any hexadecimal numbers!

MULTIPLICATION OF HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

Multiplying hexadecimal numbers follows a method similar to decimal multiplication but requires
attention to the base-16 system. Here’s a complete guide on how to perform hexadecimal
multiplication.

STEPS FOR MULTIPLYING HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand Hexadecimal System:

 Hexadecimal uses digits from 0 to 9 and letters A to F (where A = 10, B = 11, C =
12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15).
2. Set Up the Multiplication:
 Write the numbers to be multiplied vertically, similar to decimal multiplication.
3. Multiply Digit by Digit:
 Start with the rightmost digit of the bottom number and multiply it by each digit
of the top number, moving from right to left.
4. Carry Over if Necessary:
 If any intermediate product is 16 or more, convert it to hexadecimal and carry
over as needed.
5. Shift for Each New Row:
 When moving to the next digit of the bottom number, shift one position to the left
(like multiplying by 10 in decimal).
 6. Add the Results:
 After you have all the partial products, add them together to get the final result.

EXAMPLE: Let’s multiply the hexadecimal numbers 1A and 2B.

1A
× 2B
------
STEP-BY-STEP MULTIPLICATION:

1. Multiply the Rightmost Digit:

 A×B: In decimal, A = 10 and B = 11.

 10 × 11=110.
 Convert 110:
 11010=6E16 (6 carries over).
 Write down E and carry 6.

Carry: 6
1A
× 2B
------
E (write down E, carry over 6)

 Now multiply 1 × B = 11, add the carry 6:

 11 + 6 = 17.
 Convert 17 to hexadecimal:
 1710=1116 (1 carries over).
 Write down 1 and carry 1.

Carry: 1
1A
× 2B
------
1E (write down 1, carry over 1)

2. Multiply the Next Digit (222):

 Shift one position left and multiply:

 A × 2 = 20.
 2010=1416 (1 carries over).
 Write down 4 and carry 1.

Carry: 1
1A
× 2B
------
4

 Now multiply 1 × 2 = 2, add the carry 1:

 2 + 1 = 3.
 Write down 3.
 1A
× 2B
------
34
3. Combine the Partial Products

Now, we add the two results together:

Carry: 1
1E
34
----------
45E
4. Result

 The product of the hexadecimal numbers 1A and 2B is 45E in hexadecimal.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS:

 Convert Products: Convert any products that exceed (15 or F) to hexadecimal and manage
carries accordingly.
 Carry Over: Handle carries correctly for any column sums.
 Align Properly: Make sure numbers are aligned correctly for accurate addition.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. Multiply 2F2 and 3A3 in hexadecimal.

2. Multiply 4C4 and B2B in hexadecimal.

By following these steps, you can successfully multiply any hexadecimal numbers!

DIVISION OF HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

Dividing hexadecimal numbers is similar to dividing decimal numbers, but it requires careful
attention to the base-16 system. Here’s a complete guide on how to perform hexadecimal division.

STEPS FOR DIVIDING HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS:

1. Understand Hexadecimal System:

 Hexadecimal uses digits from 0 to 9 and letters A to F (where A = 10, B = 11, C =
12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15).
2. Set Up the Division:
 Write the dividend (the number to be divided) and the divisor (the number you are
dividing by) in long division format.
3. Divide Digit by Digit:
 Start from the leftmost digit of the dividend.
 Determine how many times the divisor fits into the current number (or group of
numbers).
4. Multiply and Subtract:
 Multiply the divisor by the quotient digit you found.
 Subtract this product from the current portion of the dividend.
5. Bring Down the Next Digit:
 Bring down the next digit from the dividend to the right of the remainder and repeat
the process.
6. Continue Until Completion:
  Continue dividing, multiplying, and subtracting until you have processed all the
digits of the dividend.
7. Express the Result:
 The result will be the quotient and any remaining value will be the remainder.

EXAMPLE: Let’s divide 2C0BE (hexadecimal) by 2A (hexadecimal).

-----------
2A | 2C0BE
STEP-BY-STEP DIVISION:

1. Convert to Decimal for Easier Understanding:

 2A16=A×160+2×161=10+32=4210
 2C16=C×160+2×161=12+32=4410

2. Determine How Many Times the Divisor Fits:

 Determine how many times 42 (the decimal equivalent of 2A) fits into 44 (2C).
 So, 2A fits into 2C, 1 times.

9
------
2A | 2C0BE
3. Multiply and Subtract:

 Multiply 2B by 9:
 2B×9=387 (in decimal, which is 183 in hexadecimal).
 Write 99 under 1A3 and subtract:

1
------
2A | 2C0BE
- 2A
----------
20

4. Bring Down the Next Digit:

 20 in decimal smaller than 42, so we bring down next digit.

10
------
2A | 2C0BE
- 2A
----------
20B

5. Repeat the Division:

 Convert 20B to decimal: 20B=523 (decimal).

 42 x 12 = 504 in decimal, 504 = 1F8 in hexadecimal.
 10C
----------
2A | 2C0BE
- 2A
-------------
20B
1F8
-----------
DE

6. Repeat the Division:

 Convert DE to decimal: DE=222 (decimal).

 42 x 5 = 210 in decimal, 210 = D2 in hexadecimal.

10C5
----------
2A | 2C0BE
- 2A
-------------
20B
1F8
-----------
DE
D2
-------------
2

7. Result

 The quotient is 10C5 in hexadecimal, and the remainder is 2 in hexadecimal.

Summary of Key Points:

 Work in Base 16: Always perform calculations within the hexadecimal system.
 Determine Quotients Carefully: Make sure you find the correct number of times the
divisor fits into the dividend.
 Subtract Correctly: Ensure accurate subtraction after each multiplication step.
 Express Quotient and Remainder: Clearly state the final quotient and remainder.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. Divide 3F1 by 2A in hexadecimal.

2. Divide C3E by 4B in hexadecimal.