EARTH LIFE SCIENCE

UST SHS HEALTH ALLIED l FIRST SEMESTER: SECOND QUARTER

Introduction to Life Science ● Philippine Version: Malakas at Maganda

— The Philippine version of Adam and
Eve’s story
ORIGIN OF LIFE SCIENCE
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION:
BIOLOGY
ABIOGENESIS
● Deals with the structures, functions and
relationships of living organisms with the
● States that life came from nonliving matter
environment. ● Proposed by the great philosopher
Aristotle
● Greek words “bios” (life) and “logos” (study)
● Animals, Plants, and Microorganisms THE FIGHT OF THE CENTURY
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
● ABIOGENESIS
● Taxonomy - naming and classifying o Ancient Egyptians
organisms o Aristotle
o John Needham
● Cytology - cells
o Living organisms come from
● Embryology - formation and dev’t of nonliving matter
organisms
● BIOGENESIS
● Anatomy - structures and body parts o Francesco Redi
● Physiology - functions of organisms and o Lazzaro Spallanzani
its parts o Louis Pasteur
o Living organisms come from
● Biochemistry - biological composition another living matter
● Genetics - heredity and variation
● Evolution - origin or organisms JOHN NEEDHAM
● Ecology - relationship of organisms w/ the ● English scientist who believed in
environment Abiogenesis
● He used round bottom flask and broth for
BIOTECHNOLOGY his experiment
● Not a single technology ● He boiled the broth that contained both
plant and animal matter. He believed that
● It is a group of technology that share two
boiling it would kill the microorganisms. He
common characteristics:
sealed the broth mixture in a flask and let
o Working with living things and
it be for 3 days.
their molecules
o Having a wide range of practice ● After 3 days, the broth was already cloudy.
uses that can improve our lives He looked into it and observed microbes
present in the mixture.
● e.g. Genetic Engineering - altering
genetic materials in order to achieve a ● Conclusion: Tiny organisms have
desirable trait spontaneously generated from the
nonliving matter of the broth.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE
FRANCESCO REDI
DIVINE CREATION ● Pro-biogenesis
● Based according to the Bible ● Used three jars with the first jar uncovered,
● Belief that God created the universe out of the second jar covered, and the third jar
nothing covered with gauze. (Containing
meat/broth)
● On the 7th day, he rested

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● After the experiment he observed that ● “I made pee without peeing!”

maggots developed on the uncovered jar ● He was able to synthesize urea by slowly
and gauze-covered jar while no maggots evaporating a water solution of ammonium
were seen on the sealed jar. cyanate (made by adding silver cyanate to
● Conclusion: The maggot could only form ammonium chloride)
when flies were allowed to lay eggs on the ● Urea – Waste product and major
meat and the maggots were the offspring component or human urine
of the fly and not of spontaneous
generation.
HAROLD UREY & STANLEY MILLER
LAZZARO SPALLANZANI EXPERIMENT

● He is an Italian scientist and he studied

● First attempt to scientifically explore ideas
about the origin of life.
the experiments of Needham and Redi
and eventually supported Redi’s theory. ● Provided first evidence that organic
molecules needed for life can be formed
● He argued that the organisms entered the
from inorganic molecules.
broth after it was boiled before sealing.
● To test this, he modified Needham’s PANSPERMIA / COSMOZOIC THEORY
experiment—He brought the broth in a
flask, sealed it, removed the air, then ● Biochemical compounds from outer space
boiled the broth. are the one responsible for originating life
here on Earth and possible in other parts
● After boiling, no organisms grew, proving of the universe where suitable
that spontaneous generation cannot occur atmospheric conditions exist.
without air.
● States that life on Earth came from outer
● Disproved the idea of spontaneous space.
generation (abiogenesis)
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
LOUIS PASTEUR
● Young French chemist with an experiment BASIC STRUCTURE OF LIFE
which is a variation of Needham and
● Stem Cell – Unspecialized cell (can
Spallanzani.
function as different cells depending on
● He boiled the broth, heated the bottom of what our body needs)
the flask and bent it with an S shape. Then,
he removed the bent shape. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
● He observed two set ups, one with a ● We are all made up of cells–the building
regular flask and one with an exposed blocks of living organisms.
opening (bent). However, with the bent
flask, the organisms only settled on the ● THE SIX KINGDOMS
neck part, finding no growth on the body of o Archaebacteria
the flask itself. o Eubacteria
o Protista
● In 1859, the theory of abiogenesis was o Fungi
finally set down. o Plantae
o Animalia
ALEXANDER OPARIN
● Russian Biochemist REPRODUCTION
● Famous for his study on the origin of life ● All living organisms must have the ability
from chemical matter. to reproduce.
● All living things also make more organisms
FRIEDRICH WOHLER like themselves
● 1828

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● Regarded as the necessity of living ● Ecology

organisms to increase their number in ● Science & Society
order to maintain the continuity of species.
● Evolution
● Extinction - Happens when living
organisms stop reproducing ● Flow of energy
● Genes influence our appearance,
PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION
personality, qualities, and even sickness
that we can acquire in our lifetime.
EMPEDOCLES
METABOLISM: Gathering & Using Energy ● Devised a theory of natural selection and
proposed that everything in existence is
● Mitochondria – The powerhouse of the
made of a different combination of 4
cell
elements—Water, earth, fire, and air.
● Includes those that break down nutrients
from our food and those that repair our PIERRE LOUIS MOREAU DE MAUPERTUIS
body. (ATP)
● He did not directly believe in evolution but
he did have interesting ideas related to
theories we understand today.
Why do your ears pop during flights?
● He proposed an early theory related to
- Swallowing opens our eustachian tube genetics as a way of understanding the
and allows our middle ear to get more inheritance of physical traits
air thus equalizing air pressure.

KARL VON LINNE

HOMEOSTASIS: Keeping it Balance
● Father of Taxonomy
● The ability to maintain a relatively stable
internal state that persists despite the ● Introduced the idea of genus name and
changes in the outside world. species name of organisms.
● According to him, each and every
RESPOND TO ENVIRONMENT organism should have one scientific name
which would be used by everyone to
● Begins with a stimulus. identify that organism.
o e.g. Receptors in our skin like
o e.g. Apple – Malus Domestica
temperature and pain
● Binomial Nomenclature – Process of
● Information is sent to the nervous system
standardized naming.
and this system decides how our body
responds. ● Karl also made his own scientific name,
Carolus Linnaeus
ADAPT THROUGH EVOLUTION
● “It is not the strongest of the species that George-Louis Buffon – French naturalist
survives, nor the most intelligent, but the remembered for his comprehensive work on
one most responsive to change” Charles natural history.
Darwin, 1809 Charles Darwin – Father of Evolution
● Struggling to keep up with technology may Jean Baptiste Lamarck – Best known for his
make living harder for older generations. theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

UNIFYING THEMES IN LIFE SCIENCE

NATURAL SELECTION
● Levels of organization
● Structures & Function
● The process through which populations of
living organisms adapt and change.
● Interacting system

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THEORY OF USE AND DISUSE ● Can be multicellular or unicellular

● Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ● Only some contains cell walls
● States that (1) organs always often used ● More complex
undergo hypertrophy or when the organ
becomes developed.
● Tend to be larger

● and that (2) organs not often used will

● Contains membrane bound organelles
undergo atrophy and will begin to ● Have nucleus
degrade due to lack of use.
However both have,
Cellular Basis of Life - Ribosomes, Plasma Membranes,
Cytoplasm, and Cell Wall
CELLS - All cells of living things fall in one of
these two categories
STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
● Atoms > Molecules > Organelles > Cell
CELL MEMBRANE
● Cells are the basic unit of life and the
smallest known unit that can accomplish ● AKA Plasma Membrane
all life forms. ● Not to be confused with CELL WALL
● All living things started out with a cell. ● Made of Phospholipids, Proteins,
● Cells are the building blocks of life. Cholesterols
o Lipids - can make up 20 to 80 %
● It differentiates objects that possess life of the membrane; the rest are
and those that do not. made up mostly of the protein;
● The human body is composed of trillions aid in giving membranes their
of cells with different functions, shapes, flexibility
structures and behaviors. o Protein - monitor and maintain
the cells chemical climate and
CELL THEORY assist in the transfer of molecules
across the membrane
● States that, all organisms are composed of
one or more cells;
● Double membrane (bilayer)
o The boundary which separates
● Cell is the most basic unit of life; the living cells from their nonliving
● All cells arise from pre-existing cells or the surroundings
omnis cellula-e-cellula o Regulates what enters the cell
● Flexile structure (Fluid Mosaic Model)
PROKARYOTES ● Has a lipid bilayer which contains two
● Either bacteria or archaea layers of phospholipids. The phosphate
head is polar or water loving while the
● Unicellular or single celled
fatty acid tails are nonpolar or water
● Majority contains cell walls including plants fearing.
and some of the fungal cells.
● There are proteins embedded in the
● Have no membrane bound organelles membrane.
● Have no nucleus ● Amphipathic - contains both hydrophilic
heads and hydrophobic tails
EUKARYOTES ● Regulates the movements of substance in
● Organisms that fit all in this class domain: and out of the cell. It plays a vital role in
The eukarya protecting the integrity of the interior of the
cell.
● Protist, plants, animals or fungi

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CELL TRANSPORT EXOCYTOSIS

● Expel the materials from the cell into the
extracellular fluid; it releases secretions of
● Cell requires energy and materials in order
proteins and neurotransmitters
to perform cellular tasks (movement,
packaging, dividing, and exporting
materials)
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
● As energy flows within the cell, materials ● Diffusion and Osmosis
also flow in order for growth, repair, and ● Does not use energy
replacement to continue.
● A naturally occurring phenomenon that
does not require energy to accomplish the
ACTIVE TRANSPORT movement..
● Endocytosis and Exocytosis
● Requires energy to get done. DIFFUSION
● A type of cellular transport in which ● The process of moving particles from a
substances are transported across region of higher concentration to a lower
biological membranes towards the region concentration until equilibrium is reached.
that already contains a lot of such ● The tendency of particles to spread out
substances. evenly in an available space
● Uses chemical energy such as ATP
(Adeno) to move such substances against OSMOSIS
their concentration gradient. ● The spontaneous movement of solvent
● Bulk Vesicular Transport - the molecules through a semipermeable
movement of the macromolecules into or membrane from a lower concentration to a
out of the cell higher concentration solution.
● Hypotonic Solution
ENDOCYTOSIS ○ The solute concentration inside
● Moves particles inside the cell; engulfing the cell is higher so the water will
particles and substances from outside the go inside causing the cell to swell
cell ● Isotonic Solution
● Phagocytosis ○ Solute concentration inside and
○ Cell eating “to devour” outside the cell is equal
○ Process by which the cell engulfs ○ Thus the cell remains in its
large particles normal cell
○ Often happens when the cell is ● Hypertonic Solution
trying to destroy something like ○ The solute concentration outside
viruses the cell is higher therefore the
○ Immune System Cells water will go outside which
● Pinocytosis causes the cell to shrink
○ Cell drinking “to drink”
○ A cell absorbs small particles DIFFERENT ORGANELLES OF THE CELL
outside the cell and brings them
inside ● Division of labor - the different work and
○ The cell surrounds particles and functions that is performed by different
then pinches off part of it organelles in a cell.
membrane to enclose the
particles
CYTOPLASM
● Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
○ Bulk amounts of specific ● Jelly-like, clear substance that fills the
molecules can be imported into a entire cell’s volume
cell after binding to the cell ● Water & nutrients
surface receptors. ● Removes waste material
○ The molecules are taken into the ● Converts glucose into energy
cell through inward folding which ● Helps in cell respiration (glycolysis)
is eventually pinched off into a
vesicle. CENTROSOMES AND CENTRIOLES

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● Centrosomes ● Responsible for the destruction of tissue in

○ Microtubule Organizing Center animals such as the tail of tadpoles
○ Contains two centrosome in the
animal cell NUCLEUS
● Centrioles ● Largest organelle in a cell
○ Act as anchors that microtubules ● Stores “DNA”
attach during cell division ● Makes sell LAWS
● Uses DNA to make LAWS
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) ● The control center of the cell
● Carries stuff around
● System of folded tubelike structures NUCLEOLUS
○ Fold proteins ● Responsible for rRNA synthesis or the
○ Transports proteins Ribosomal RNA
○ Site of ribosomes ● Responsible for Ribosome Biogenesis

SMOOTH ER (ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM) MITOCHONDRIA

● Tubular ● Powerhouse of the cell
● With few or no ribosomes ● Involve in cell respiration
● Acts as the factory or warehouse of the ● Uses ATP as the energy currency of the
cell cell.
● Synthesizes lipids ● The number of this organelle depends on
● Involve in cell detoxification the cell’s energy requirement
● Stores ions
FLAGELLUM
ROUGH ER (ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM) ● Cell appendages composed of
● Flattened sheets microtubules wrapped in an extension of
● Ribosomes attached in it plasma membrane for locomotion.
● Synthesizes protein

RIBOSOMES FLAGELLUM VS CILIA

● Can be found on the Rough ER
● Protein Synthesis
FLAGELLUM ● Cell appendages with
GOLGI APPARATUS wave-lik, undulating
● Protein processing and packaging movement
● Sends products out of the cell ● Found in prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells

VESICLES CILIA ● Cell appendages with

● Phospholipid Membrane rational, like a motor,
● Ship Golgi body products very fast moving

LYSOSOME ● Found only in

eukaryotic cells
● Cell digestion
● Membrane bound spherical sacks which
contain digestive egg enzymes to break
down materials such as nonself ANIMAL CELL VS PLANT CELL
microorganisms engulfed by phagocytes
to recycle food particles and to capture
PLANT ● Have chloroplasts
bacteria.
CELLS
● The white blood cells have many ● Have vacuoles
lysosomes that dispose bacteria
● Break up old or damaged cell structures ● Can absorb liquids

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● Director of all the activities happening

● Creates food by within the cell
Photosynthesis
● Has cell wall made of
cellulose
Central Dogma of Life
● Describes the flow of genetic information
ANIMAL ● Have no cell walls from DNA to messenger RNA to proteins
CELLS ● Proteins – Molecules that play many
● Eats other cells
critical jobs in our body. (e.g. Keratin)
● Cannot absorb much
liquid because it has no DNA: DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
cellulose
● A molecule in the shape of a double helix.
● Can form a variety of
shapes ● Blueprint of life because it contains the
instructions needed for an organism to
● Have lysosomes grow, survive and reproduce.
However both, ● Human Genome Project – An
● have Nucleus international project that maps all the DNA
● Eukaryotic in a human cell and according to this, the
● Size total length of a human genome is over 3
billion base pairs.
o Genome - Complete set of genes
ORGANELLES OF PLANT CELLS in an organism
● Sugar Phosphate: Deoxyribose
CELL WALL
● Surrounds Plasma Membrane RNA: RIBONUCLEIC ACID
● Made of Cellulose and Lignin (very tough)
● Makes plant cell turgid and cell bursting ● Single stranded
● We won't be able to get the genetic
PLASTIDS message to the cells in order to produce
● Make and store needed compounds proteins if there is no RNA.
● Plastids and Mitochondria started as ● Sugar Phosphate: Ribose
bacteria
● Hold Chloroplasts
NUCLEOBASES
CHLOROPLASTS ● PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES
● Most important plastids ● Purines = Adenine and Guanine
● Converts light energy into relatively stable
chemical energy via the process of ● Pyrimidines = Cytosine, Thymine and
photosynthesis Uracil

4 NITROGENOUS BASES: DNA & RNA

● IN DNA
o Adenine and Thymine
CENTRAL VACUOLE o Cytosine and Guanine
● Stores water and nutrients ● IN RNA
● Reinforces the plant
o Adenine and Uracil
● Supports the cell structure
o Cytosine and Guanine
NUCLEUS FRIEDRICH MEISCHER
● Acts as the headquarters
● Swedish chemist who studied white blood
● Stores genetic information
cells by collecting used bandages from
hospitals in 1869.

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● He used alcohol in order to dissolve lipids DNA POLYMERASE

and enzymes and then he noticed a gray
object called nuclein. ● Building enzyme
● Nuclein – Any of the substances present ● Binds with the primer and makes new
in the nucleus of a cell consisting chiefly of strands of DNA.
proteins, phosphoric acids, and nucleic
● DNA polymerase works in the 5’ to 3’
acids.
direction, because it can only add
nucleotides to the 3’ end.
ROSALIND FRANKLIN
● Okazaki Fragment – Short synthesized
● Died at the age of 37 due to ovarian DNA fragments on the lagging strand.
cancer o Reiji Okazai was a Japanese
● Discovery of the structure of DNA molecular biologist.
● Took the X Ray diffraction pattern of DNA ● Lagging Strand – Can’t do it continuously
PHOTO 51 because it runs in the opposite direction.
● Photo 51 became famous because at that
LIGASE
time, there was no available image of the
DNA ● Glue-ing enzyme
● Not recognized for her work ● Seals the fragments of DNA in both
● Maurice Wilkins - Franklin was the one strands in able to form a continuous
who captured Photo 51, however, Wilkins double strand.
took the scan and showed it to Watson
and Crick PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

JAMES WATSON and FRANCIS CRICK TRANSCRIPTION

● They did not discover DNA or even if DNA ● Synthesis of an RNA strand from a DNA
contained genetic information. template.
● Franklin and Wilkin published their ● An enzyme called RNA polymerase
manuscripts at the same time. However, attaches to the start of the gene. It moves
Franklin’s work was made to look like a along the DNA making a strand of
“confirmation” instead of really inspiring it. messenger RNA.

DNA REPLICATION KEY PLAYERS TRANSLATION

● Synthesis of proteins directed by mRNA
● Described as semiconservative because template (mRNA to tRNA/transfer RNA)
each DNA molecule is made up of one old
conserved strand of DNA and the other ● Translates the sequence of mRNA
one a new strand. molecules to the sequence of amino acids.
● Ribosomes bind the mRNA but also read
HELICASE the codes to produce a chain of amino
acids.
● Unzipping enzyme
● tRNA – Carry the amino acids to the
● Separates the DNA into two single strands
ribosomes.
which results in the formation of a
replication form. ● mRNA – Chain of amino acids that
elongates and folds into a complex 3D
PRIMASE shape to form a protein.

● Initiating enzyme CODON

● Starts the process by making small pieces
● Sequence of three DNA or RNA
of RNA called primer which marks the
nucleotides that corresponds with a
starting point for the construction of DNA.
specific amino acid

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● AUG (methionine) – start codon ● It must grow its genetic material (DNA)
and physically split it into two daughter
● UAG, UAA & UGA – stop codon cells.
● The cell performs this task in an organized
predictable series of steps that makes up
Cell Division ●
the cell cycle.
It is a cycle because the two daughter
cells can start the same process from the
CELL CYCLE beginning.
1. G1 PHASE: GROWING – The cell
TYPES OF CELLS increases in mass and organelle number
in preparation for cell division. Animal cells
● Somatic/Body Cells: Mitosis – Takes
are deployed meaning that they have two
place in our body cells, responsible for
sets of chromosomes.
growth and maintenance, and these cells
2. S PHASE: COPYING DNA – Period
undergo mitosis. Mitosis results in 2
during which DNA is synthesized. In most
identical daughter cells.
cells there is a narrow window time where
o haploid to diploid: n -> 2n
this happens. The chromosome content
● Meiotic Cells: Meiosis – Responsible for doubles in this phase.
the production of sex cells, they undergo 3. G PHASE: PREPARING FOR DIVISION –
meiosis in the testes or ovary and meiosis The cell makes additional proteins and
results into 4 daughter cells continues to increase in size. This phase
o diploid to haploid: 2n -> n ends when Mitosis begins.
4. M PHASE: MITOSIS
BINARY FISSION (In Prokaryotes)
● MITOSIS
Bacterial binary fission is similar in some
ways to mitosis that happens in humans
and other eukaryotes. ● Division of the mother cell into two
daughter cells with the same amount and
● There is no mitotic spindle forms in
quality of genetic material.
bacteria.
● 2 identical daughter cells produced at the
INTERPHASE end of mitosis
● During the segment of a cell cycle, a cell ● For somatic cells
goes and synthesizes DNA. It is estimated
that a dividing cell spends 90% to 95 % of PROPHASE
its time in this phase. ● The cell starts to break down some
structure and build others up, setting the
MITOSIS stage for division of the chromosomes and
● The cell separates its DNA into two sets the chromosomes start to condense
and divides its cytoplasms forming two making them easier to pull apart later on.
new cells ● The mitotic spindle begins to form and this
● The contents of the dividing cells are spindle is formed by microtubules–a
equally divided into two daughter cells. strong fiber that are parts of the cell
o Prophase skeleton–and its job is to organize the
o Metaphase chromosomes and move them around
o Anaphase during mitosis.
o Telophase ● Nucleolus - Part of the nucleus where
ribosomes are made and disappears and
STAGES OF CELL CYCLE this is a sign that the nucleus is getting
ready to break down.
STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE ● Prometaphase – Late prophase where
the mitotic spindle begins to capture the

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chromosomes making them condense and

more compact. THE 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES IN
HUMANS
METAPHASE
● 1 PAIR OF SEX CHROMOSOMES — The
● The spindle has captured all the sex chromosomes X and Y determine a
chromosomes and lined them up in the person’s biological sex.
middle of the cell ready to divide. o Female: XX
● The two kinetacore should be attached to o Male: XY
microtubules from opposite spindle poles. ● These chromosomes are not through
homologous and not an exemption to the
rule of the same genes in the same places.
ANAPHASE ● Aside from small regions of similarity
● The sister chromatids separate from each needed during meiosis, the X and Y
other and are pulled towards the opposite chromosomes are different and they carry
poles of the cell. different genes.
● The protein glue is broken down and each ● 22 PAIRS OF AUTOSOMES — The 22
now has their own chromosome. non-sex chromosomes in humans are
called autosomal chromosomes.
TELOPHASE
MEIOSIS
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● Cell division which produces gametes (egg
CHROMATIN VS CHROMOSOMES and sperm cells). Takes place in the testes
● DNA does not usually exist by itself but and ovary.
instead associate with specialized proteins ● Reductional (diploid and haploid)
that organize it and give it structure. ● The union of haploids (sperm and egg cell)
in fertilization maintains the chromosome
● In eukaryotes, these proteins include the set (diploid of the species)
histones. Histones play an important role ● Results to 4 genetically different cells
in determining which genes are active.
● The complex of DNA plus histones and STAGES OF MEIOSIS: PMAT 2x
other structural proteins is called
● Meiosis goes through similar stages and
chromatin.
undergoes the same strategies as Mitosis.
● The tangled mass of chromatin condenses
● In meiosis, however, the cell has a more
into long threads and finally rod-like bodies
complex task. It still needs to separate
called chromosomes.
sister chromatids but it must also separate
homologous chromosomes.
CHROMOSOMES
● Homologous Chromosomes – The
● Each species has its own number of similar but nonidentical chromosomes
chromosomes. Humans have 46 pairs and organism receives from its 2
chromosomes in a typical body cell while parents.
dogs have 78 and cats have 38
chromosomes. 1. Meiosis I
● Like many species of animals and plants, a. Prophase
humans are deployed. Meaning, most of b. Metaphase
their chromosomes come in matched sets c. Anaphase
known as homologous pairs. d. Telophase
2. Meiosis II
● The 46 chromosomes of the human cell
are organized into 23 pairs and the two
members of each pair are said to be
homologous of one another.

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MEIOSIS I ● The cells move from Meiosis I to Meiosis II

● Before entering this phase, a cell must first without copying their DNA.
pass through the Interphase similar to ● Mitosis for Haploid Cells
Mitosis.
● The cells that enter this phase are the
● To further increase the genetic diversity, ones made in Meiosis I and these cells are
homologous chromosomes exchange part haploid. They have just one chromosome
of themselves such that one chromosome from each homologous pair but their
contains both maternal and paternal DNA. chromosomes still consist of 2 sister
This process is called crossing over. chromatids.
● The points at which this occurs in a ● In this phase the 2 sister chromatids
chromosome is referred to as chiasmata. separate

PROPHASE I PROPHASE II
● Differences from mitosis begin to appear. ● Chromosomes condense and the nuclear
The chromosomes begin to condense but envelope breaks down if needed. The
in Meiosis I they also pair up. centrosomes move apart, the spindle
forms between them and the spindle
● Each chromosome carefully aligns with its microtubules begin to capture
homologue partner so that the two match chromosomes.
up at corresponding positions along their
full length. METAPHASE II
METAPHASE I ● Chromosomes line up individually along
the metaphase plate.
● Homologous pairs are now individual
chromosomes lined up at the metaphase ANAPHASE II
plate for separation. While homologous
pairs line up at the metaphase plate, the ● The sister chromatids separate and are
orientation of each pair is random. pulled towards the opposite poles of the
cells
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE II
● The homologous pairs are pulled apart
and move part to the opposite ends of the ● The nuclear membranes form around each
cell. set of chromosomes and the
● The sister chromatids of each chromosomes decondense.
chromosome however remain attached to ● Cytokinesis splits the chromosomes sets
one another. into new cells forming the final products of
meiosis—4 Haploid Cells in which each
TELOPHASE I chromosomes has just one chromatid
● The chromosomes arrive at the opposite (Sperm and egg cells for humans)
poles of the cell.
● In some organisms, the nuclear
The purpose of mitosis is to increase the
membrane reforms and the chromosomes
decondensed although in others this step number of cells. The purpose of meiosis is to
is skipped since cells will soon go through produce gametes. They are different ways of
another round of division which is the cell division and reproduction.
Meiosis II.
● Cytokinesis – Usually occurs at the same
time as Telophase I forming two haploid GAMETOGENESIS
daughter cells. ● The production of gametes.

MEIOSIS II ● Spermatogenesis – production of sperm at

the testes

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EARTH LIFE SCIENCE
UST SHS HEALTH ALLIED l FIRST SEMESTER: SECOND QUARTER

● Oogenesis – egg cell production at the ● Individual has a shrieking cry similar to
ovary that of a meowing cat
● Main reasons where we can get many ● Anatomical malformations, gastrointestinal
genetically different gametes: and cardiac malfunctions
o Crossing Over ● Often mentally retarded
o Random Orientation of
Homologous Pairs
DOWN SYNDROME (47, 21+)
CROSSING OVER ● Trisomy 21
● The points where homologous crossover ● Prominent epicanthic fold in the corner of
and exchange genetic material are chosen the eye
mre or at least random. ● Simian crease
● It will be different in each cell that goes ● Characteristically short
through meiosis.
● Small, round heads; protruding, furrowed
● If meiosis happens many times, tongues
crossovers happen at many different
points. ● Short broad-hands, physical and mental
development are retarded
RANDOM ORIENTATION OF
HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS EDWARDS SYNDROME (47, 18+)

● Metaphase I
● Trisomy 18

● Allows for the production of gametes with

● Small head, low set malformed ears,
abnormally small jaws, lip/cleft palate,
many different assortments of homologous
clenched hands, underdeveloped thumbs r
chromosomes.
nails
ANEUPLOIDY
● Very low rate of survival due to heart and
● Any deviation from the normal number of kidney abnormalities and other organ
chromosomes, usually meaning a cell disorders
nucleus possessing too many or too few
chromosomes.
PATAU SYNDROME (47, 13+)
KLINEFELTER SYNDROME (47, XXY) ● Trisomy 13
● Males have an extra X chromosome ● Cleft palate, low set of ears, abnormal
● Tall structure, poor beard growth, minor genitalia, overlapping of fingers over
breast development, testicular atrophy thumb, cutis aplasia (missing portion of
(failure to produce sperm) and female skin or hair) and heart and kidney defects
pubic hair pattern.

TURNER SYNDROME (45, XO)

● Monosomy
● All or part of one X chromosome is absent
● Short stature, webbed neck, rudimentary
ovaries, underdeveloped breasts, broad-
shield like chest

CRI-DU-CHAT SYNDROME (46, 5p-)

● Partial monosomy (loss of some part of
the p arm of chromosome 5)

12 I 11-HA