Hardware Following registers also exist in the

architecture:
Computer Architecture & Von Program Counter:
Neumann architecture Increments the value of the instructions
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known
by 1 and also fetches the data and
as a microprocessor or processor) is central to
instructions.
all modern computer systems
Memory Address Register:
The CPU consists of the following
Stores the Address of the instruction and
architecture:
copies it and sends to MDR
Memory Data Register:
Processor: The processor contains the
Stores the Data from the address received
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
from the MAR and sends data to CIR
Control Unit: The control unit controls the Current instructions Register:
operation of the memory, processor and
Data gets executed from here by sending
input/output devices
to bios or processed by sending to ALU
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic Accumulator:
system like calculations
During calculations data is temporarily
System Clock: System clock is used to held in it
produce timing signals on the control bus

Busses: Carry data through components. The

following are it’s types

Address bus – unidirectional

Data Bus – bi-directional

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
Control Bus – unidirectional and bi-directional Second Edition (Hodder Education)

The Fetch-Execute Cycle

Immediate Access Store: Stores the
1. PC contains address of the next instruction to
instructions that are to be processed which
be fetched
are fetched by the CPU
2. This address is copied to the MAR via the
\
address bus
3. The instruction of the address is copied into
the MDR temporarily
4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in
the CIR
 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, performance of the computer is increased
pointing the next instruction to be fetched however.
6. The instruction is nally decoded and then Overclocking
executed
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was
Stored program concept: designed for.
Instructions are stored in main memory
It leads to multiple issues
Instructions are fetched, decoded and
Operations become unsyncronised - (the
executed by the processor
computer would frequently crash and become
Programs can be moved to and from the main
unstable)
memory
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU
Memory Concept
Length of data buses
A computer’s memory is divided in partitions :
The wider the data buses, the better the
Each partition consists of an address and its
performance of the computer
contents e.g.
Cache
MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

-- allows faster access to CPU

10101010 01010110
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that

Instruction Set: need to be accessed faster, which improves CPU

An instruction set is a list of all the commands that performance

can be processed by a CPU and the commands are The larger the cache memory size the better

machine code the CPU performance

Cores
More the cores in the CPU, the better and

Factors that
faster the performance

determine the
Input Devices
performance of a Two-dimensional Scanners:

CPU Used to input hard-copy documents

The image is converted into an electronic form

System Clock which can be stored in the computer
The clock de nes the clock cycle that synchronises
Document is placed on a glass panel
all computer operations. By increasing clock
A bright light illuminates the document
speed, the processing speed of the computer is
A scan head moves across the document
also increased. This doesn’t mean that the
until the whole page is scanned. And
 image of the document is produced and The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a
sent to a lens using a series of mirrors unique series of lines
The lens focuses the document image The left and right hand sides of the barcode

The focused image now falls onto a charge are separate using guard bars
couple device (CCD) which consists of a Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
numbers of integrated circuits Barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
Software produces a digital image from
Light is re ected back o the barcode;
the electronic form
dark areas re ect little light which allows
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a the bars to be read
software which converts scanned documents
Re ected light is read by sensors
into a text le format
(photoelectric cells)
If the original document was a photo/image,
Pattern is generated which is converted to
then the scanned image forms an image le
digital
such as JPEG
Quick Response (QR) Codes
Three-dimensional Scanners
Another type of barcode is the QR codes
3D scanners can scan solid objects and
Made up of a matrix of lled in dark squares
produce a three-dimensional image
on a light background
Scanners take images at several points, x, y
Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
and z (lasers, magnetic, white light)
Advantages of QR codes:
The scanned images can be used in Computer
No need for the user to write down
Aided Design (CAD) or to a 3D printer to
website address
produce a working model
QR codes can store website addresses
Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:
Digital Cameras
Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images
Controlled by microprocessor which
which represent the passport pages
automatically adjusts the shutter speed, focus
Text can be stored in ASCII format
the image, etc.
The 2D photograph in the passport is also
Photo is captured when light passes through
scanned and stored as jpeg image
the lens onto a light sensitive cell
The passenger’s face is also photographed
Cell is made up of pixels
using a digital camera and compared using
Number of pixels determines size of the le
face recognition software

Key parts of the face are compared (distance Keyboards

between eyes, width of nose) Connected to computer with a USB

connection or by wireless connection
Barcode readers/scanners
Each character has an ASCII value and is
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel
converted into a digital signal
lines of varying thicknesses
 Slow method Point of contact is based on which grid co-

Prone to errors ordinate is touched

Pointing devices Resistive (inexpensive)

Mouse/trackball Upper layer of polyester, bottom layer of

Traditional; mechanical ball, connected by glass

USB port When the top polyester is touched, the

Modern type; red LEDs to detect movement top layer and bottom layer complete a
circuit
Microphones
Signals are then sent out which are
Used to input sound to a computer
interpreted by a microprocessor,
When a microphone picks up sound, a
determine where screen was touched
diaphragm vibrates producing an electric
Sensors
signal
Devices which read or measure physical
The signal goes to a sound card and is
properties
converted into digital values and stored in
computer Data needs to be converted to digital

Voice recognition, voice is detected and Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) converts

converted into digital physical values into digital

Touchscreens Control of Street Lighting

Capacitive (medium cost tech) Light sensor sends data to the ADC

Made up of many layers of glass Digitises data and sent to the microprocessor

Creating electric elds between glass Microprocessor samples data every minute

plates in layers If data from sensor < value stored in memory:

When top layer of glass is touched, Signal sent from microprocessor to street

electric current changes lamp

Co-ordinates where the screen was Lamp switched on

touched is determined by an on-board

microprocessor

Infra-red heat (expensive)

Output Devices
Use glass as the screen material Inkjet Printers
Needs warm object to carry an input Used to print one-o pictures and documents
operation 1. Data from document sent to printer driver
Infra-red optical (expensive) 2. Printer driver ensures data is in correct format

Uses glass as screen material 3. Check made by printer driver that chosen
printer is available
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
 4. Data is sent to printer, stored in a temporary Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin,
memory (printer bu er) ceramic powder
5. Sheet of paper is fed; sensor detects if paper A design is made using Computer-aided
is available in paper tray Design (CAD)
6. Print head moves across paper printing 2D and 3D Cutters
text/image, four ink colours sprayed in exact 3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z
amount direction
7. Paper is advanced so next line is printed 3D laser cutters can cut; glass, crystal, metal,
8. Repeated until bu er is empty wood
9. Once it is done, printer send an interrupt to Actuators
the processor (request for more data to be
Used in many control applications involving
sent)
sensors and devices (ADC and DAC)
Laser Printers
Loudspeakers/Headphones
Used to print yers, high quality
Sound is produced by passing the digital data
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static
through a DAC then through ampli er and
electricity to produce text and images
then emerges from loudspeaker
Prints the whole page in one go
Produced by voltage di erences vibrating a
1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) cone in the speaker at di erent frequencies
2. Printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
LCD and LED Monitors
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across
Front layer of monitor is made up of Liquid
it removing the positive charge leaves
Crystal Display (LCD), these tiny diodes are
negatively charged areas which match the
grouped together in threes as pixels (LCD
text/image
doesn’t emit any light)
3. Drum is then coated with positively charged
LCD monitors are back lit using Light Emitting
toner, it only sticks to negatively charged parts
Diode (LED) because:
of the drum
LEDs reach their maximum brightness
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the
immediately
drum
LEDs sharpens image (higher resolution),
5. Toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
CCFL has yellow tint
produce copy of page
LEDs improve colour image
6. Paper nally goes through a fuser (set of
Monitors using LED are much thinner
heated rollers); heat melts the ink so it is
than CCFL
permanent
LEDs consume very little power
7. Discharge lamp removes all electric charge
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using
from the drum, ready to print next page
CCFL
3D Printers
CCFL uses two uorescent tubes behind the
Used for models of cars
LCD screen which supplies the light source
Produce solid objects that work
Light Projectors: Finally, the image passes through the

Two common types of light projectors: projector lens onto the screen

Digital Light Projector (DLP)

LCD Projector
Projectors are used to project computer
output onto larger screens/interactive
whiteboards
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
Uses millions of micro mirrors
Second Edition (Hodder Education)
the number of micro mirrors and the way they
are arranged on the DLP chip determines the
resolution of the image
When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light Memory, Storage Devices &
source they are on
Media
When the micro mirrors tilt away from the
Primary Memory:
light source they are o
Random Access Memory (RAM)
This creates a light or dark pixel on the
Features of RAM
projection screen
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost
A bright white light source passes through a
if RAM is turned o )
colour lter on its way to the DLP chip
Used to store; data, les
White light splits into primary colours
It can be written to or read from and the
LCD Projectors
contents from the memory can be
Older technology than DLP
changed
A powerful beam of white light is generated
Larger the size of the RAM, faster the
from a bulb
computer will operate
This beam of light is then sent to a group of
RAM never runs out of memory, continues to
chromatic-coated mirrors; these re ect the
run slow
light back at di erent wavelengths
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to
When the white light hits the mirrors, the
continually access the hard drive to overwrite
re ected light has wavelengths corresponding
old data on RAM with new data
to red, green and blue
RAM is of two types:
These three di erent light pass through three
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)
LCD screens; these screens show the image to
be projected as millions of pixels in grayscale
When the coloured light passes through the
LCD screens, a red, green and blue version of
the grey image emerges
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -

Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Read Only Memory (ROM) Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per

Features of ROM day)

Non-volatile/permanent memories O -Line Storage:

(contents remain even when ROM is CD/DVD Disks

turned o ) Laser (red) light is used to read and write data

Used to store start up instruction (basic in the surface of the disk
input/output systems) Use a thin layer of metal alloy to store data
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be Both systems use a single, spiral track which
read, cannot be changed runs from the centre of the disk to the edge
Secondary Storage: DVD uses Dual-Layering which increases the

Hard Disk Drives (HDD) storage capacity (two individual recoding

Data is stored in a digital format on the layers)

magnetic surface of the disks (platter) Blu-ray Disks

Number of read/write heads can access all of Uses blue laser to carry out read and write

the surfaces of the disk operations

Each platter will have two surfaces which can Wavelength of laser light is less than CD and

be used to store the data DVD (stores up to ve times more data than

Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and DVD)

tracks Automatically come with secure encryption

HDD have very slow data access compared to (prevent piracy and copyright infringement)

RAM Used as back-up systems

Solid-State Drive (SSD) USB Flash Memories

No moving parts and all data is received at the Very small, lightweight suitable from

same time (not like HDD) transferring les

Store data by controlling the movement of Small back-up devices for photo, music

electrons within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s Solid state so need to be treated with care

Non-volatile rewritable memory Cloud Storage:

Bene ts of using SSD rather than HDD: Cloud storage is a method of data storage
More reliable (no moving parts) where data is stored on remote servers
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops) The same data is stored on more than one
Lower power consumption server in case of maintenance or repair,
Run much cooler than HDDs allowing clients to access data at any time.
Very thin This is known as data redundancy.
Data access is faster than HDD
The following are it’s types:

» Public cloud – this is a storage environment

where the customer/client and cloud storage
provider are di erent companies
 » Private cloud – this is storage provided by a Programmable devices have two methods of
dedicated environment behind a company updating -
rewall; customer/client and cloud storage Connecting the device to a computer and
provider are integrated and operate as a downloading the update
single entity Updating automatically via a satellite,

» Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the cellular or Wi-Fi link

two above environments; some data resides Advantages and Disadvantages of using

in the private cloud and less sensitive/less embedded systems

commercial data can be accessed from a

Advantages Disadvantages
public cloud storage provider

Small in size,

There is a risk that important and therefore, it can It can be di cult to

irreplaceable data could be lost from the easily t into upgrade

cloud storage facilities. devices

Low cost to The interface can be

make confusing sometimes

Embedded Systems Requires very Troubleshooting is a

Combination of Hardware and Software which
little power specialist’s job
is designed to carry out a speci c set of tasks.
Often thrown away as
Embedded systems may contain -
Swift reaction to challenging to upgrade,
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and
changing input and faults are more
other peripherals on one single chip
challenging to nd
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with

CPU only Dedicated to one Increased garbage as

System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor task only they are thrown away
with I/O ports, storage and memory
It can be
Process of Embedded Devices - Any computerised system
controlled
Input from the user is sent to the is prone to attacks
remotely
microprocessor (ADC needed if the data is
analogue)
Applications of Embedded devices -
Data from the user interface is also sent
GPS systems
to the microprocessor
Security Systems
Microprocessor then sends signals to
Vending Machines
actuators which is the output
Washing Machines
Non-programmable devices need to be
Oven
replaced if they need a software update.
Microwave
 Network Hardware Widely used protocol.
Consists of four groups of decimal

Network Interface Card (NIC) numbers separated by dots (e.g.,

A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a 192.168.0.1).

device to connect to a network (such as the Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique

Internet. addresses.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Media Access Control (MAC)
Developed to address the limitations of
Address IPv4.
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal
as six groups of hexadecimal digits. The rst six
numbers separated by colons (e.g.,
display the manufacturer’s code, and the second
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:733
half shows the device serial number.
4).
These do not change and are primarily Provides an extremely large number of
constant for every device unique addresses (approximately 340
there are two types of MAC addresses: the undecillion).
Universally Administered MAC Address (UAA) Di erences between IPv4 and IPv6:
and the Locally Administered MAC Address Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit
(LAA) address, while IPv6 uses a 128-bit
The only di erence between the two types are address.
that UAA is made Universally and cannot be Address space: IPv4 provides
changed, but it is the opposite for LAA approximately 4.3 billion addresses,

IP Addresses whereas IPv6 o ers around 340

IP address allocation: undecillion addresses.

The network allocates IP addresses. Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are

Two types of IP addresses: static and allocated using DHCP or manually, while

dynamic. IPv6 addresses are primarily assigned

Static IP addresses: using stateless autocon guration.

Assigned manually to a device. Routers

Does not change over time. Router functionality:

Dynamic IP addresses: A router is a networking device that

Assigned automatically by a DHCP directs data packets between di erent

(Dynamic Host Con guration Protocol) networks.

server. It determines the most e cient path for

Changes periodically or when the device data transmission.

connects to a di erent network. Sending data to a speci c destination on a

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): network:

 A router examines the destination IP
address of incoming data packets.
It uses routing tables to determine the

next hop or the next router on the path to

the destination.
The router forwards the data packet to
the appropriate next hop.
Router's role in IP address assignment:
A router can act as a DHCP server
(Dynamic Host Con guration Protocol)
and assign IP addresses to devices on a
local network.

It dynamically allocates IP addresses from

a prede ned range to connected devices.
DHCP allows for automatic IP address

con guration and simpli es network

management.
Connecting a local network to the Internet:
A router serves as the gateway between a
local network and the internet.
It connects the local network to an

internet service provider (ISP) network.

The router receives data packets from
devices on the local network and
forwards them to the internet.
It also receives incoming data packets

from the internet and routes them to the

appropriate devices on the local network.