Unit-II Measuring Instrumentation

PMMC Instrument
The term PMMC is the short form of “permanent magnetic moving coil”. These instruments use
permanent magnets to create the stationary magnetic field in the coils.
The instruments are used either as ammeters or voltmeters and are suitable for dc network
only. PMMC instruments work on the principle that, when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts a conductor.
Construction of PMMC Instrument
The construction of the PMCC instrument can be done using several parts where the permanent
magnet and moving coils are essential parts.
It has a permanent shoe magnet & a rectangular coil having large number of turns wound
on a light aluminum or copper former. An iron core is provided inside the former to provide an
easy path for the magnetic lines of force.
The coil is mounted on a spindle. The springs are used to supply current to the moving coil.
The pointer is provided on the spindle to indicate the magnitude of quantity being measured.
 Deflecting torque is provided by the force acting on the coil when current flow through it.
 Controlling torque is provided by the springs provided on the spindle.
 Damping torque is provided by eddy current induced in the iron core of the moving
Working:
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the operating current
flows through the coil. Since the current
carrying coil is placed in the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet, a
mechanical torque acts on it. As a result
of this torque, the pointer attached to the
moving system moves in clockwise
direction over the graduated scale to
indicate the value of current or voltage
being measured.
If the current in the coil is
reversed, the deflecting torque will also
be reversed since the direction of the field
of the permanent magnet is the same. Consequently, the pointer will try to deflect below zero.
Deflection in the reverse direction can be prevented by a “stop” spring. Since the deflecting torque
reverses with the reversal of current in the coil, such instruments can be used to measure direct
currents and voltages only.
Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument:
If a current of I amperes flows in the coil, then force acting on each coil side is given by ; Force
on each coil side,
F = B I l N Newton’s
Where B = flux density in Wb/m2, l = length or depth of coil in m,
 I = current in the coli, b = breadth of coil in m, N = No. of turns in the coil
Deflecting torque, Td = Force × perpendicular distance = (B I l N) × b
∴ Td = B I N A Newton-metre
Where A (= b × l) is the area of the coil in m 2.
Since the values of B, N and A are fixed,
∴ Td ∝ I …….. (i)
The restoring torque can be provided to the moving coil can be done with the spring and
it can be expressed as
Tc=Kθ (‘K’ is the spring constant) …..(ii)
The pointer will come to rest at a position,
Tc=Td
Substitute the values of Tc and Td in the above equation, then we can get
Kθ=NBAI …. (iii)
ΘαI
Equation (iii) implies that deflection is directly proportional to the current flowing and
hence scale in PMMC is linear.
Advantages of PMMC Instrument
 It generates no losses because of hysteresis.
 It uses less power and high accuracy measurement.
 It is used as a voltmeter/ammeter with appropriate resistance.
 This instrument can measure the voltage & current with different ranges.
Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
 It works with only DC.
 It is expensive compared with other alternative instruments.
 It is delicate.
 It shows an error because of the magnetism loss in the permanent magnet.
Application of PMMC Instruments
 It is used in the measurement of direct voltages and currents
 Used to detect small currents in DC galvanometers.
 It is used to measure the change in magnetic flux linkage in Ballistic galvanometers
 It is used as an Ammeter, Voltmeter and galvanometer.
 At low frequencies, the PMMC instrument along with the rectifier is used to measure AC
by converting it into DC (<1mA).

Moving Iron instrument:

The most common type of ammeters and voltmeters or switch board at power frequencies are the
moving iron instruments because these are very cheap, accurate and simple in construction. The
main elements of a moving iron instrument, or measuring device are – a magnetized static coil and
a soft iron core.
Moving iron instruments are classified into two types:
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
Attraction type of MI instruments:
Principle: When an unmagnified soft iron piece is placed near the current carrying coil, then the
iron piece is attracted towards the coil. Damping torque is provided by air friction.
Construction: It mainly consists of
a hollow cylindrical coil. An oval
shaped soft iron piece and a pointer
are attracted to the spindle, which is
supported between two jeweled
bearings near the coil. The soft iron
piece is free to move in or out of the
coil. Then the pointer also deflects
on the scale with the motion of the
iron piece. This is provided with
spring control and air friction
damping.
Working: When the instrument is
connected to the circuit, the operating current flows through stationary coil. A magnetic field is
set-up and the soft iron piece is magnetized, which is attracted towards the center of the coil. Thus
the pointer attached to the spindle is deflected over the scale. If the current in coil is reversed, the
direction of the magnetic field produced will reverse and the magnetism produced in the soft iron
piece will also reverse. Hence the direction of the deflection torque remains unchanged.
Repulsive type of MI Instruments:
Principle: These instruments is based on the principle that the repulsive force will act, when two
similar magnetized iron pieces are
nearer to each other.
Construction: It consists of a fixed
cylindrical hollow coil, which carries the
operating current. Inside the coil there
are two vanes are placed parallel to each
other, one is fixed and the other is
movable which is connected to the
spindle. In this instrument, controlling
torque is provided by spring control
method and damping torque is provide
by air friction.
Working: If the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is set-up along the axis of the coil.
This field magnetizes both the vanes and attains similar polarity. A force of repulsion acts between
the two vanes. Therefore movable vane moves away from the fixed vane. Thus, the pointer
attached to the spindle deflects over the scale.
Advantages:
The merits of using a moving iron instrument are as follows.
1. Due to the less number of winding present in the stationary coil instrument, it is relatively
cheap.
2. MI instruments have a wide range of operations for voltage and current measurement.
3. It is very efficient and robust.
4. They can withstand momentarily overloads without getting damaged. Therefore, these
instruments can measure the transient currents and voltages.
5. MI instruments have good linearity in the measurements over a wide range. Therefore, they
can measure the voltage and current precisely.
6. These instruments can be used for measuring both AC and DC currents.
Disadvantages:
The demerits of using a moving iron instrument are as follows.
1. MI instruments have linearity over a wide range. However, at extreme values, they have
non-linearity in the measurement. Thus, the result obtained for extreme values of voltage
and current is less accurate.
2. These instruments have hysteresis errors. Current flowing in different directions causes a
magnetic reversal, and as a result, the hysteresis error creeps into the instrument.
3. At higher frequencies, MI instruments have limited frequency response because the
mechanical inertia of the instrument causes the instrument to slow response.
4. There are serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and stay magnetic fields.

Wheatstone Bridge:
Wheatstone bridge is a very reliable instrument as it measures the resistance very
precisely.
It calculates the unknown resistance by balancing the two sides of the bridge circuit
where one side contains both known resistors and the other side contains one known
(variable) and one unknown resistor. Since it estimates unknown resistance in an electric
circuit, it is also known as a resistance bridge.
Principle:
Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, which means that the ration
of their resistances is equal and there is no current flowing through the circuit.
Construction:
Construction of Wheatstone bridge requires four resistors P, Q, R, and S that are placed in
the form of four sides AB, BC, AD, and DC of a quadrilateral ABCD. A cell E and key K1 are
placed between the A and C ends of this quadrilateral, and a sensitive galvanometer G and
key K2 is placed between the B and D ends. Clearly, the potential of point A will be equal to
the potential of the positive plate of the cell and the potential of point C will be equal to the
potential of the negative plate of the cell.
Working:
It is clear from the figure that the
resistances P and Q are in series when the
key K2 is open. Similarly, resistances R
and S are in series, but P and Q together
(arm ABC) and R and S together (arm
ADC) are connected in parallel to each
other.
The unknown resistance can be
calculated in balanced condition of Wheat
stone Bridge. In the absence of current
through the galvanometer, the bridge gets balanced. In other words, the bridge gets
balanced when the voltage difference between the two points A and C are equal. Thus,
providing zero voltage across the galvanometer.
The current enters into the galvanometer divides into I 1 and I2, and their magnitude
remains same. The following condition exists when the current through the galvanometer is
zero.
I1 P= I2 R --------(1)
The bridge in a balanced condition is expressed as

Where E is the emf of the source,

Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in equation 1, we get,
 The above expression is the equation of the Wheatstone bridge under balanced
condition. Hence, from the above equation, the value of unknown resistance R can be
determined if the resistances in the other three arms i.e., P, Q, and S are known.
Advantages:
 With the help of Wheatstone’s bridge, we can build a Meter bridge.
 The biggest advantage of Wheatstone’s bridge is to accurately measure the electric
resistance instead of using costly instruments.
Limitations:
 If the Wheatstone bridge is unbalanced, it gives inaccurate readings.
 It is an extremely sensitive device.
 It measures resistances ranging from a few ohms to several kilo-ohms.
 Excessive current flow in the Wheatstone bridge may result in a permanent change
in the value of resistance.
 When low resistance is applied, leads and contacts in the circuit will cause an error,
and their values will attain constant.
 And in terms of high resistance, the measured values are off-charts, then the
galvanometer is considered to be in imbalance.
Applications:
 The Wheatstone bridge is used to measure low resistance precisely.
 Temperature, light, and strain are all measured using a Wheatstone bridge and an
operational amplifier.
 Variations on the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure impedance, inductance,
and capacitance.