ANSWERS (SEDIMENT TRANSPORT EXAMPLES) AUTUMN 2024

Q1.
Cheng’s formula:
1/3
𝑤𝑠 𝑑 (𝑠 − 1)𝑔
= [(25 + 1.2𝑑∗ 2 )1/2 − 5] 3/2 , where ∗
𝑑 = 𝑑[ ]
𝜈 𝜈2

Densities:
𝜌sand = 2650 kg m–3
𝜌air = 1.2 kg m–3
𝜌water = 1000 kg m–3

Kinematic viscosities:
𝜈air = 1.5 × 10–5 m2 s–1
𝜈water = 1.0 × 10–6 m2 s–1

(a) For sand particles in air:

𝜌𝑠 2650
𝑠= = = 2208
𝜌 1.2
1/3 1/3
∗
(𝑠 − 1)𝑔 (2208 − 1) × 9.81
𝑑 = 𝑑[ ] = 0.001 [ ] = 45.82
𝜈2 (1.5 × 10−5 )2
𝑤𝑠 𝑑
= [(25 + 1.2𝑑∗ 2 )1/2 − 5] 3/2 = [(25 + 1.2 × 45.822 )1/2 − 5] 3/2 = 306.3
𝜈
𝜈 1.5 × 10−5
𝑤𝑠 = 306.3 × = 306.3 × = 4.595 m s−1
𝑑 10−3

Answer: 4.60 m s–1

(b) For sand particles in water:

𝜌𝑠 2650
𝑠= = = 2.65
𝜌 1000
1/3 1/3
∗
(𝑠 − 1)𝑔 (2.65 − 1) × 9.81
𝑑 = 𝑑[ ] = 0.001 [ ] = 25.30
𝜈2 (1.0 × 10−6 )2
𝑤𝑠 𝑑 3/2
= [(25 + 1.2𝑑∗ 2 )1/2 − 5] 3/2 = [(25 + 1.2 × 25.302 )1/2 − 5] = 111.5
𝜈
𝜈 1.0 × 10−6
𝑤𝑠 = 111.5 × = 111.5 × = 0.1115 m s −1
𝑑 10−3

Answer: 0.112 m s–1

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -1 Dr David Apsley

Q2.
As in Q1(b) above,
𝑑 ∗ = 25.30

Soulsby’s formula,
∗
0.30 𝜏𝑏
𝜏crit = + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020𝑑 ∗ )], where 𝜏∗ =
1 + 1.2𝑑 ∗ (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑
Hence,
∗
0.30
𝜏crit = + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020 × 25.30)] = 0.03141
1 + 1.2 × 25.30
∗
𝜏crit = 𝜏crit × (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 = 0.03141 × (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 0.001 = 0.5084 N m−2

Answer: critical Shields parameter = 0.0314; critical shear stress = 0.508 N m–2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -2 Dr David Apsley

Q3.
From Q1 and Q2 above, the settling velocity and critical shear stress for incipient motion are
given, respectively, by:
𝑤𝑠 = 0.1115 m s−1
𝜏crit = 0.5084 N m−2

(a) The bed shear stress is given, in general, by

1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 )
2
Rearranging for V:

2 𝜏𝑏
𝑉=√
𝑐𝑓 𝜌

At incipient motion, 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜏crit . Hence,

2 0.5084
𝑉=√ × = 0.4510 m s−1
0.005 1000

Answer: 0.451 m s–1

(b) For incipient suspended load,

𝑢𝜏 = 𝑤𝑠
where 𝑢𝜏 is the friction velocity and 𝑤𝑠 is the settling velocity.

By definition,

𝜏𝑏 1 𝑐𝑓
𝑢𝜏 = √ = √𝑐𝑓 ( 𝑉 2 ) = 𝑉√
𝜌 2 2

Hence,
𝑐𝑓
𝑉√ = 𝑤𝑠
2

2 2
 𝑉 = 𝑤𝑠 √ = 0.1115√ = 2.23 m s −1
𝑐𝑓 0.005

Answer: 2.23 m s–1

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -3 Dr David Apsley

Q4.
𝑞 = 0.9 m2 s –1
𝑑 = 0.06 m
𝜌𝑠 = 2650 kg m–3
∗
𝜏crit = 0.056
𝑐𝑓 = 0.01
𝑤𝑠 = 0.8 m s −1

From the critical Shields stress we can determine the critical bed stress for incipient motion:
𝜏crit = 𝜏 ∗ (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 = 0.056 × (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 0.06
= 54.39 N m−2

(a) Upstream of the gate:

ℎ = 2.5 m
𝑞 0.9
𝑉= = = 0.36 m s−1
ℎ 2.5
1 1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑓 × 𝜌𝑉 2 = 0.01 × × 1000 × 0.362 = 0.648 N m−2
2 2
The bed stress is (considerably) less than the critical value, so the bed is stationary.

(b) Sluice gate assumption: total head the same on both sides of the gate.
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
For a flat bed:
𝑞2 𝑞2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2𝑔ℎ12 2𝑔ℎ22
Substituting values:
0.04128
2.507 = ℎ2 +
ℎ22
Rearranging for the supercritical solution:

0.04128
ℎ2 = √
2.507 − ℎ2

Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ2 = 0) gives

ℎ2 = 0.1318 m

Then:
𝑞 0.9
𝑉= = = 6.829 m s−1
ℎ2 0.1318

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -4 Dr David Apsley

 1 1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑓 × 𝜌𝑉 2 = 0.01 × × 1000 × 6.8292 = 233.2 N m−2
2 2
𝜏𝑏 exceeds 𝜏crit , so the bed is mobile.

Answer: downstream depth = 0.132 m; bed stress exceeds the critical value

(c) Scour will continue with the depth increasing and the velocity and stress decreasing, until
the stress no longer exceeds the critical value. At this point:
𝜏𝑏 = 54.39 N m−2
1
𝑐𝑓 × 𝜌𝑉 2 = 54.39
2

2 54.39 2 54.39
𝑉 =√ × =√ × = 3.298 m s−1
𝑐𝑓 𝜌 0.01 1000

The overall depth downstream is then

𝑞 0.9
ℎ= = = 0.2729 m
𝑉 3.298
Since the water level is fixed by the gate it is the same as before. The depth of scour is then
0.2729 − 0.1318 = 0.1411 m

Sluice gate assumption: total head the same on both sides of the gate.
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑧𝑠1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
Upstream, 𝑧𝑠1 = ℎ1 , but downstream there is a distinction between water level 𝑧𝑠2 = 0.1318 m
and depth ℎ2 = 0.2729 m.
𝑞2 𝑞2
ℎ1 + = 𝑧𝑠2 +
2𝑔ℎ12 2𝑔ℎ22
Substituting values:
0.04128
ℎ1 + = 0.6861
ℎ12
Rearranging for the subcritical solution:
0.04128
ℎ1 = 0.6861 −
ℎ12
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ1 = 0.6861) gives
ℎ1 = 0.5493 m

Answer: depth of scour = 0.141 m; depth upstream = 0.549 m; depth downstream = 0.273 m

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -5 Dr David Apsley

(d) To determine the significance of suspended load compare the settling velocity with the
maximum friction velocity (which occurs in the initial downstream state).

Settling velocity:
𝑤𝑠 = 1.1 m s –1 (given)

Friction velocity:

𝜏 233.2
𝑢𝜏 = √ =√ = 0.4829 m s−1
𝜌 1000

Here, the settling velocity greatly exceeds the friction velocity, so suspended load is negligible.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -6 Dr David Apsley

Q5.
𝑏 = 5 m (width of main channel)
𝑏min = 3 m (width of restricted section)
𝑑 = 0.01 m
𝜌𝑠 = 2650 kg m–3 (𝑠 = 2.65)
∗
𝜏crit = 0.05
𝑐𝑓 = 0.01
𝑄 = 5 m3 s –1

The bed is mobile if and only if the bed shear stress exceeds the critical stress for incipient
motion. Alternatively, one may compare the velocity with a critical velocity found using the
friction coefficient – this is more convenient here.

The critical shear stress for incipient motion is

∗
𝜏crit = 𝜏crit (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 = 0.05 × (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 0.01 = 8.093 N m−2
and the corresponding velocity for incipient motion is given by
1 2
𝜏crit = 𝑐𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉crit )
2
whence

2 𝜏crit 2 8.093
𝑉crit = √ =√ × = 1.272 m s−1
𝑐𝑓 𝜌 0.01 1000

This is a venturi so we need to determine velocities at various locations.

Upstream, 𝑧𝑠 = ℎ = 1 m and the velocity and total head are, respectively,

𝑄 5
𝑉= = = 1.0 m s −1
𝑏ℎ 5×1
𝑉2 12
𝐻𝑎 = 𝑧𝑠 + = 1+ = 1.051 m
2𝑔 2 × 9.81

If critical-flow conditions occur at the throat then the total head there would be
2 1/3 1/3 1/3
3 3 𝑞𝑚 3 𝑄2 3 52
𝐻𝑐 = ℎ𝑐 = ( ) = ( 2 ) = ( 2 ) = 0.9850 m
2 2 𝑔 2 𝑏min 𝑔 2 3 × 9.81
Since the upstream head exceeds that required for critical-flow conditions the flow remains
subcritical throughout, with total head in the restricted section, 𝐻 = 1.051 m. The depth ℎ is
given by:
𝑉2 𝑄2
𝐻 =ℎ+ =ℎ+ 2
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑏min ℎ2
Rearranging as an iterative formula for the subcritical value of ℎ:

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -7 Dr David Apsley

 𝑄2
ℎ=𝐻− 2
2𝑔𝑏min ℎ2
Substituting numerical values:
0.1416
ℎ = 1.051 −
ℎ2
Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 1.051) gives
ℎ = 0.8592 m
and corresponding velocity
𝑄 5
𝑉= = = 1.940 m s −1
𝑏min ℎ 3 × 0.8592

Hence we have:
• in the 5 m width, 𝑉 = 1.0 m s–1 < 𝑉crit and the bed is stationary;
• in the 3 m width, 𝑉 = 1.94 m s –1 > 𝑉crit and the bed is mobile.

(b) The bed will erode in the restricted section until 𝑉 = 𝑉crit . Then the flow depth is given by
𝑄 = 𝑉crit × ℎ𝑏min

𝑄 5
 ℎ= = = 1.310 m
𝑏min × 𝑉crit 3 × 1.272

If Δ𝑧𝑏 is the change in height of the bed, then the total head is given by
𝑉2
𝐻 = Δ𝑧𝑏 + 𝐸 = Δ𝑧𝑏 + ℎ +
2𝑔
Hence,
𝑉2 1.2722
Δ𝑧𝑏 = 𝐻 − ℎ − = 1.051 − 1.310 − = −0.3415 m
2𝑔 2 × 9.81

Answer: 0.342 m

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -8 Dr David Apsley

Q6.
𝑏 = 12 m
𝑆 = 0.003
𝑄 = 200 m3 s –1
∗
𝜏crit = 0.056

Let the minimum stone diameter (corresponding to incipient motion) be 𝑑. Then the critical
shear stress for incipient motion is given by
∗
𝜏crit = 𝜏crit (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 = 0.056 × (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 𝑑 = 906.4𝑑

For normal flow:

𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆
For incipient motion:
𝜏crit 906.4𝑑
𝑅ℎ = = = 30.80𝑑 (*)
𝜌𝑔𝑆 1000 × 9.81 × 0.003

The corresponding depth of flow ℎ is given by the expression for 𝑅ℎ in a rectangular channel,
ℎ
30.80𝑑 =
2ℎ
1+
𝑏
With 𝑏 = 12 m this gives (after some rearrangement) an expression for ℎ in terms of 𝑑:
30.8𝑑
ℎ= (**)
1 − 5.133𝑑

From Manning’s equation:

1 2/3 1/2 𝑑1/6
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑅 𝑆 × 𝑏ℎ, where 𝑛= (Strickler’s equation)
𝑛 ℎ 21.1
Hence,
21.1 2/3 1/2
30.8𝑑
𝑄= × (30.80𝑑) 𝑆 × 𝑏 ×
𝑑1/6 1 − 5.133𝑑
Subtituting numerical values:
𝑑 3/2
200 = 4198
1 − 5.133𝑑
Rearranging as an iterative formula for 𝑑:
2/3
200(1 − 5.133𝑑)
𝑑=[ ]
4198
Iteration (from, e.g., 𝑑 = 0) gives
𝑑 = 0.08802 m

Substituting in (**) gives

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -9 Dr David Apsley

 30.8𝑑 30.8 × 0.08802
ℎ= = = 4.945 m
1 − 5.133𝑑 1 − 5.133 × 0.08802

Answer: minimum diameter of stone = 88 mm; river depth = 4.95 m

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -10 Dr David Apsley

Q7.
(a) Assume rapidly-varied flow with critical conditions over the crest. Neglect upstream
dynamic head.

Measuring head relative to the top of the weir, noting that the upstream head is just the
freeboard and the head over the weir is 3/2 times critical depth:
1/3
3 𝑞2
ℎ0 = ( )
2 𝑔
Hence, the flow rate (per metre width of embankment) is
3/2
𝑞 = (2/3)3/2 𝑔1/2 ℎ0 = (2/3)3/2 × 9.811/2 × 0.153/2 = 0.09905 m2 s −1

Critical depth:
2 2
ℎ𝑐 = ℎ = × 0.15 = 0.1 m
3 0 3

Answer: flow rate (per metre width) = 0.0990 m2 s–1; depth over embankment = 0.1 m

(b)
𝑆 = 0.125
𝑛 = 0.013 m–1/3 s

Normal Depth
1 2/3
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ, where 𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 1/2, 𝑅ℎ = ℎ (wide channel)

1 5/3 1/2
 𝑞= ℎ 𝑆
𝑛

𝑛𝑞 3/5 0.013 × 0.09905 3/5

 ℎ=( ) =( ) = 0.03442 m
√𝑆 √0.125

Velocity
𝑞 0.09905
𝑉= = = 2.878 m s −1
ℎ 0.03442

Bed shear stress

For normal flow,
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆, where 𝑅ℎ = ℎ (wide channel)

 𝜏 = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.03442 × 0.125 = 42.21 N m−2

Answer: depth = 0.034 m; velocity = 2.88 m s–1; bed stress = 42.2 N m–2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -11 Dr David Apsley

(c) For the given bed material,
1/3 1/3
∗
(𝑠 − 1)𝑔 (2.65 − 1) × 9.81
𝑑 = 𝑑[ ] = 0.002 × [ ] = 50.59
ν2 (1.0 × 10−6 )2

∗
0.30
𝜏crit = + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020𝑑∗ )] = 0.03987
1 + 1.2𝑑 ∗

For the actual flow down the slope,

𝜏 42.21
𝜏∗ = = = 1.304
(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 0.002

∗
𝜏 ∗ is far in excess of 𝜏crit ; hence the surface will erode.

(Alternatively, one could compute the absolute critical stress 𝜏crit to compare with 𝜏).

Answer: slope erodes

(d) Cost-effective examples include:

• increasing the size of bed material; e.g. rock armour;
• semi-immobilising by vegetating the slope or using geotextiles.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -12 Dr David Apsley

Q8.
(a)
𝑑1/6
𝑛= = 0.01800 m−1/3 s
21.1

Answer: 0.0180 m–1/3 s

(b)
1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ, where 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , 𝑅ℎ = ℎ
𝑛 ℎ
Hence,
1 5/3 1/2
𝑞= ℎ 𝑆
𝑛
or
𝑛𝑞 3/5
ℎ=( ) = 1.532 m
√𝑆

Answer: 1.53 m

(c)
𝜏𝑏 = ρ𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 = 18.79 N m−2

Answer: 18.8 N m–2

(d)
1/3
∗
(𝑠 − 1)𝑔
𝑑 = 𝑑[ ] = 75.89
𝜈2
By Soulsby’s formula,
∗
0.30
𝜏crit = + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020𝑑∗ )] = 0.04620
1 + 1.2𝑑 ∗

Here,
𝜏𝑏
𝜏∗ = = 0.3869
(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑

∗
As 𝜏 ∗ > 𝜏crit the bed is mobile.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -13 Dr David Apsley

Meyer-Peter and Müller
∗
𝑞 ∗ = 8(𝜏 ∗ − 𝜏crit )3/2 = 1.591
Hence,
𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞 ∗ √(𝑠 − 1)𝑔𝑑3 = 1.052 × 10−3 m2 s −1

Van Rijn
0.053
𝑞∗ = 2.1 = 0.9604
𝜏∗
(𝑑 ∗ 0.3 ) ( ∗ − 1)
𝜏crit
Hence,
𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞 ∗ √(𝑠 − 1)𝑔𝑑3 = 6.349 × 10−4 m2 s −1

Answer: bed load = 1.0510–3 m2 s–1 (Meyer-Peter and Müller); 6.3510–4 m2 s–1 (Van Rijn)

(e) By Cheng’s formula,

𝜈
𝑤𝑠 = 3/2
= 0.2309 m s −1
1/2
𝑑 [(25 + 1.2𝑑 ) ∗2 − 5]

By definition,

𝜏𝑏
𝑢𝜏 = √ = 0.1371 m s−1
𝜌

𝑢𝜏 < 𝑤𝑠 , so no significant suspended load occurs.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -14 Dr David Apsley

Q9.
𝑆 = 1/800 = 0.00125
𝑑 = 0.0005 m
𝑞 = 5 m2 s –1
Assume water has density 𝜌 = 1000 kg m–3 and kinematic viscosity 𝜈 = 1.0 × 10–6 m2 s–1 .

(a)
𝑑1/6 (5 × 10−4 )1/6
𝑛= = = 0.01335 m−1/3 s
21.1 21.1

Answer: 0.0134 m–1/3 s

(b)
1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ, where 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , 𝑅ℎ = ℎ
𝑛 ℎ
Hence,
1 5/3 1/2
𝑞= ℎ 𝑆
𝑛

𝑛𝑞 3/5 0.01335 × 5 3/5

 ℎ=( ) =( ) = 1.464 m
√𝑆 √0.00125

Answer: 1.46 m

(c)
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.464 × 0.00125 = 17.95 N m−2

Answer: 18.0 N m–2

(d)
1/3 1/3
∗
(𝑠 − 1)𝑔 (2.65 − 1) × 9.81
𝑑 =𝑑 [ ] = 0.0005 × [ ] = 12.65
𝜈2 (1.0 × 10−6 )2

By Soulsby’s formula, the critical Shields stress is

∗
0.30
𝜏crit = + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020𝑑 ∗ )]
1 + 1.2𝑑 ∗
0.30
= + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020 × 12.65)] = 0.03084
1 + 1.2 × 12.65

For this flow the actual Shields stress is

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -15 Dr David Apsley

 𝜏𝑏 17.95
𝜏∗ = = = 2.218
(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 0.0005

∗
As 𝜏 ∗ > 𝜏crit the bed is mobile.

Meyer-Peter and Müller

∗
𝑞 ∗ = 8(𝜏 ∗ − 𝜏crit )3/2 = 8 × (2.218 − 0.03084)3/2 = 25.88
Hence,
𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞 ∗ √(𝑠 − 1)𝑔𝑑3 = 25.88 × √1.65 × 9.81 × 0.00053 = 1.164 × 10−3 m2 s−1

Nielsen
∗
𝑞 ∗ = 12(𝜏 ∗ − 𝜏crit )√𝜏 ∗ = 12 × (2.218 − 0.03084)√2.218 = 39.09
Hence,
𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞 ∗ √(𝑠 − 1)𝑔𝑑3 = 39.09 × √1.65 × 9.81 × 0.00053 = 1.758 × 10−3 m2 s−1

Answer: bed load = 1.1610–3 m2 s–1 (Meyer-Peter and Müller); 1.7610–3 m2 s–1 (Nielsen)

(e) By Cheng’s formula, the settling velocity is given by

𝜈 1.0 × 10−6
𝑤𝑠 = 3/2 =
1/2 0.0005[(25 + 1.2 × 12.652 )1/2 − 5]3/2
𝑑 [(25 + 1.2𝑑 ∗ 2 ) − 5]
⬚ = 0.06072 m s −1
By definition, the friction velocity is

𝜏𝑏 17.95
𝑢𝜏 = √ =√ = 0.1340 m s−1
𝜌 1000

𝑢𝜏 > 𝑤𝑠 , so suspended load occurs.

Answer: 0.0607 m s–1

(f)
0.117 𝜏 ∗ 0.117 2.218
𝐶ref = min { ( ∗ − 1) , 0.65} = min { ( − 1) , 0.65}
𝑑 ∗ 𝜏crit 12.65 0.03084
⬚ = min{0.6559, 0.65} = 0.65

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -16 Dr David Apsley

 1/2
∗ 0.7
𝜏∗
𝑧ref = 𝑑 × 0.3𝑑 ( ∗ − 1)
𝜏crit
1/2
2.218
= 0.0005 × 0.3 × 12.650.7 ( − 1) = 7.463 × 10−3 m
0.03084
The concentration profile is then
𝑤𝑠
ℎ 𝜅𝑢𝜏
𝐶 −1
=( 𝑧 )
𝐶ref ℎ
𝑧ref − 1
or, with 𝜅 = 0.41,
1.105
1.464
−1
𝐶 = 0.65 ( 𝑧 ) (*)
195.2

The velocity profile is

𝑢𝜏 𝑧
𝑢(𝑧) = ln (33 )
𝜅 𝑘𝑠
Taking the roughness length 𝑘𝑠 equal to a diameter, i.e. 𝑘𝑠 = 0.0005 m, gives
𝑢(𝑧) = 0.3268 ln(66000𝑧) (**)

The total suspended load (per unit width) is:

ℎ
𝑞𝑠 = ∫ 𝐶𝑈 d𝑧
𝑧ref

With equations (*) and (**) this becomes

1.464 1.105
1.464
𝑞𝑠 = ∫ (6.255 × 10−4 ) ( − 1) ln(66000𝑧) d𝑧
0.007463 𝑧
and this can be evaluated using numerical integration (e.g. trapezium rule) to give
𝑞𝑠 = 0.044 m2 s –1

Answer: 0.044 m3 s–1 per metre width

A simple Fortran code for doing the numerical integration is given on the following page. The
code can be modified for any alternative values of 𝑘𝑠 or velocity and concentration profiles.

A significant number of trapezia is necessary (probably 200+), although this could be reduced
by using Simpson’s rule instead. For any numerical method you should always perform the
calculations with more, shorter, subintervals to confirm that numerical accuracy is sufficient.
The need to be able to vary the number of intervals is one reason why a spreadsheet alone is
not particularly good at this, as it would require intervention to change the number of trapezia.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -17 Dr David Apsley

PROGRAM SUSPENDED_LOAD
IMPLICIT NONE
DOUBLE PRECISION, PARAMETER :: KAPPA = 0.41
DOUBLE PRECISION CREF, ZREF
DOUBLE PRECISION H, KS, WS, UTAU
DOUBLE PRECISION ROUSE
DOUBLE PRECISION DZ, Z, INTEGRAL
INTEGER N, J

! Particulate and flow data

DATA CREF, ZREF, H, KS, WS, UTAU &
/ 0.65, 0.007463, 1.464, 0.0005, 0.06072, 0.1340 /

ROUSE = WS / (KAPPA * UTAU)

! Number of intervals and size

PRINT *, 'Input N'; READ *, N
DZ = (H - ZREF) / N

! Integral by trapezium rule

INTEGRAL = C(ZREF) * U(ZREF) + C(H) * U(H)
DO J = 1, N - 1
Z = ZREF + J * DZ
INTEGRAL = INTEGRAL + 2.0 * C(Z) * U(Z)
END DO
INTEGRAL = INTEGRAL * DZ / 2.0

WRITE( *, "('Suspended load: ', ES10.3, ' m3/s per metre')" ) INTEGRAL

! Internal functions giving profiles of concentration and velocity

CONTAINS

!--------------------------------------

DOUBLE PRECISION FUNCTION C( Z )

IMPLICIT NONE
DOUBLE PRECISION Z

C = CREF * ( (H / Z - 1.0) / (H / ZREF - 1.0) ) ** ROUSE

END FUNCTION C

!--------------------------------------

DOUBLE PRECISION FUNCTION U( Z )

IMPLICIT NONE
DOUBLE PRECISION Z

U = (UTAU / KAPPA ) * LOG( 33.0 * Z / KS )

END FUNCTION U

END PROGRAM SUSPENDED_LOAD

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -18 Dr David Apsley

Q10.
(a)
𝑑1/6 (0.0025)1/6
𝑛= = = 0.01746 m−1/3 s
21.1 21.1

Answer: 0.0175 m–1/3 s

(b)
For normal flow:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ, where 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 , 𝑅ℎ = ℎ
𝑛 ℎ
1 5/3 1/2
 𝑞= ℎ 𝑆
𝑛
3/5

𝑛𝑞 3/5 0.01746 × 3.5

 ℎ=( ) = = 1.677 m
√𝑆
√ 1
( 1500 )

Average velocity:
𝑞 3.5
𝑉= = = 2.087 m s−1
ℎ 1.677

Answer: depth of flow = 1.68 m; average velocity = 2.09 m s–1

(c) Using the normal-flow relation:

1
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.677 × ( ) = 10.97 N m−2
1500
The Shields stress is
𝜏𝑏 10.97
𝜏∗ = = = 0.2711
(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 (2650 − 1000) × 9.81 × 0.0025

To find the critical Shields stress:

1/3 1/3
∗
(𝑠 − 1)𝑔 (2.65 − 1) × 9.81
𝑑 =𝑑 [ ] = 0.0025 × [ ] = 63.24
𝜈2 (1.0 × 10−6 )2

∗
0.30
𝜏crit = + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020𝑑 ∗ )]
1 + 1.2𝑑 ∗
0.30
= + 0.055 [1 − exp(−0.020 × 63.24)] = 0.04338
1 + 1.2 × 63.24

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -19 Dr David Apsley

 ∗
As 𝜏 ∗ > 𝜏crit the bed is mobile.

Answer: bed shear stress = 11.0 N m–2 and exceeds the critical shear stress

(d) For the bed-load flux:

∗
𝑞 ∗ = 8(𝜏 ∗ − 𝜏crit )3/2 = 8 × (0.2711 − 0.04338)3/2 = 0.8693
whence
𝑞𝑏 = 𝑞 ∗ √(𝑠 − 1)𝑔𝑑3 = 0.8693 × √1.65 × 9.81 × 0.00253
⬚ = 4.372 × 10−4 m2 s−1
Answer: 4.3710–4 m3 s–1 per metre width

(e)
By Cheng’s formula:
3/2 1 3/2
∗ 2 1/2
𝑤𝑠∗ = [(25 + 1.2𝑑 ) − 5] 2 )2
= [(25 + 1.2 × 63.24 − 5] = 517.5

𝜈 1.0 × 10−6
 𝑤𝑠 = × 𝑤𝑠∗ = × 517.5 = 0.2070 m s−1
𝑑 0.0025

By definition, the friction velocity is

𝜏𝑏 10.97
𝑢𝜏 = √ =√ = 0.1047 m s−1
𝜌 1000

𝑢𝜏 < 𝑤𝑠 so significant suspended load would not be expected to occur.

Answer: 0.207 m s–1

(f) If suspended load does occur then it may be computed by summing

concentration (𝐶)  volumetric flow rate (𝑈 d𝑧 per unit width)
over the water column. i.e.
ℎ
𝑞𝑠 = ∫ 𝐶𝑈 d𝑧
0

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -20 Dr David Apsley

Q11.
24
𝑐𝐷 =
Re

Expanding:
drag 𝜈
= 24 ×
1 2 𝑤𝑠 𝑑
(projected area)
2 ρ𝑤𝑠 ×

But, at terminal velocity,

4 𝑑 3
drag = reduced weight = (𝑚 − 𝑚𝑤 )𝑔 = (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌) × π ( ) × 𝑔
3 2
1
= π(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 3
6
whilst
π𝑑 2
projected area =
4

Hence,
1 3
6 π(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)𝑔𝑑 = 24 𝜈
1 2 1 2 𝑤𝑠 𝑑
2 𝜌𝑤𝑠 × 4 π𝑑
𝜌𝑠
 4 ( 𝜌 − 1) 𝑔𝑑 𝜈
2
= 24
3 𝑤𝑠 𝑤𝑠 𝑑

1 (𝑠 − 1)𝑔𝑑2
 = 𝑤𝑠
18 𝜈

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -21 Dr David Apsley

Q12.
Consider the velocity profile
𝑢𝜏 𝑧
𝑈(𝑧) = ln (33 )
𝜅 𝑘𝑠

The total flow per unit span is given by

ℎ
𝑞 = ∫ 𝑈(𝑧) d𝑧
0

Since 𝑞 = 𝑉ℎ (by definition of average velocity 𝑉):

ℎ
𝑢𝜏 𝑧
𝑉ℎ = ∫ ln (33 ) d𝑧
0 𝜅 𝑘𝑠

Integrating by parts:
ℎ
𝑢𝜏 𝑧 ℎ
𝑉ℎ = {[𝑧 ln (33 )] − ∫ d𝑧}
𝜅 𝑘𝑠 0 0

𝑢𝜏 ℎ
 𝑉ℎ = {ℎ ln (33 ) − ℎ}
𝜅 𝑘𝑠

𝑢𝜏 ℎ
 𝑉= {ln (33 ) − 1}
𝜅 𝑘𝑠
or, since ln e = 1,
𝑢𝜏 33 ℎ 𝑢𝜏 ℎ
𝑉= ln ( ) = ln (12 )
𝜅 𝑒 𝑘𝑠 𝜅 𝑘𝑠
(with 2 sig. fig. accuracy for the constant)

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -22 Dr David Apsley

Q13.
(a)

𝜏𝑏
𝑢𝜏 = √
𝜌

where 𝜏𝑏 is the bed shear stress and 𝜌 is the fluid density.

(b) Linear shear stress profile with 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑏 ≡ 𝜌𝑢𝜏2 at 𝑧 = 0 and 𝜏 = 0 at 𝑧 = ℎ:

𝑧
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑢𝜏2 (1 − )
ℎ

From the given velocity profile:

d𝑈 𝑢𝜏
=
d𝑧 𝜅𝑧

By the definition of eddy viscosity (𝜇𝑡 = 𝜌𝜈𝑡 ):

d𝑈
𝜏 = 𝜌𝜈𝑡
d𝑧
Rearranging for 𝜈𝑡 :
𝑧
𝜏/𝜌 𝑢𝜏2 (1 − ) 𝑧
𝜈𝑡 = = ℎ = 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 (1 − )
d𝑈 𝑢𝜏 ℎ
d𝑧 𝜅𝑧

Thus, the kinematic eddy viscosity 𝜈𝑡 is a quadratic function of 𝑧.

(c) According to Fick’s gradient-diffusion law the net upward flux of sediment volume across
a horizontal area A is
d𝐶
−𝐾 𝐴
d𝑧
whilst the net downward flux due to settling is volume flux  concentration, or
𝑤𝑠 𝐴𝐶
At equilibrium these are equal and hence
d𝐶
−𝐾 𝐴 = 𝑤𝑠 𝐴𝐶
d𝑧
Dividing by A and rearranging:
d𝐶
𝐾 + 𝑤𝑠 𝐶 = 0
d𝑧

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -23 Dr David Apsley

It is assumed that, as the same turbulent eddies are responsible for the transport of both
momentum and particulate material the kinematic eddy viscosity (νt) and eddy diffusivity (K)
are equal. Hence, 𝐾 = 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧(1 − 𝑧/ℎ) and so
𝑧
𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 (1 − ) d𝐶
ℎ + 𝑤𝑠 𝐶 = 0
d𝑧

(d)
(Note that all sketches below have the independent variable – here the vertical coordinate – on
the vertical axis.)

Velocity:

Eddy viscosity:

nt

Concentration (Rouse number = 0.5 here)

(e)
Bed-load transport:
• set in motion by the fluid stress;
• main mechanisms: sliding, rolling, saltating (small jumps).

Suspended-load transport:
• occurs for sufficiently vigorous turbulent fluid motion;
• balance between net upward transport by turbulent eddies and downward settling;
• usually quantified by solving a diffusion equation (see the following question), then
integrating the resultant flux density (𝐶𝑈) over the flow cross-section.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -24 Dr David Apsley

Q14.
d𝐶
−𝐾 = 𝑤𝑠 𝐶
dz
Substituting the eddy diffusivity 𝐾 = 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧(1 − 𝑧/ℎ):
𝑧
𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 (1 − ) d𝐶
− ℎ = 𝑤𝑠 𝐶
d𝑧

Separating variables:
d𝐶 𝑤𝑠 d𝑧
=−
𝐶 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 (1 − 𝑧 )
ℎ

Using partial fractions:

d𝐶 𝑤𝑠 1 1
=− ( + ) d𝑧
𝐶 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 ℎ − 𝑧

Integrating between 𝑧ref , 𝐶ref and a general 𝑧, 𝐶 pair:

C
d𝐶 𝑤𝑠 𝑧 1 1
∫ =− ∫ ( + ) d𝑧
𝐶ref 𝐶 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧ref 𝑧 ℎ − 𝑧

𝐶 𝑤𝑠 𝑧 ℎ−𝑧
 ln =− (ln − ln )
𝐶ref 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧ref ℎ − 𝑧ref

𝐶 𝑤𝑠 𝑧ref ℎ − 𝑧
 ln = ln ( )
𝐶ref 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 ℎ − 𝑧ref
On the RHS, inside the logarithm divide both numerator and denominator by 𝑧 × 𝑧ref :
𝑤𝑠
ℎ 𝜅𝑢𝜏
𝐶 − 1
ln = ln ( 𝑧 )
𝐶ref ℎ
− 1
𝑧ref
𝑤𝑠
ℎ 𝜅𝑢𝜏
𝐶 − 1
 =( 𝑧 )
𝐶ref ℎ
− 1
𝑧ref

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -25 Dr David Apsley

Q15.
(a) Due to settling, sediment concentration is greater near the bed. As a result, upward turbulent
velocity fluctuations tend to carry larger amounts of sediment than downward fluctuations,
leading to a net upward diffusive flux. An equilibrium concentration distribution is attained
when this balances the downward settling flux.

dC
C+l
dz
C ws
dC
C-l
dz

Consider a horizontal surface, where the concentration is 𝐶. An upward turbulent velocity 𝑢′

for half the time carries material of concentration (𝐶 – 𝑙 d𝐶/d𝑧), where 𝑙 is a typical size of
turbulent eddy. The corresponding downward velocity for the other half of the time carries
material at concentration (𝐶 + 𝑙 d𝐶/d𝑧). The average upward flux of sediment (volume flux
× concentration) through horizontal area 𝐴 is
1 ′ d𝐶 1 d𝐶 d𝐶
𝑢 𝐴 (𝐶 − 𝑙 ) − 𝑢′ 𝐴 (𝐶 + 𝑙 ) = −𝑢′ 𝑙 𝐴
2 d𝑧 2 d𝑧 d𝑧
Writing 𝑢′𝑙 as 𝐾, the net upward flux is
d𝐶
−𝐾 𝐴
d𝑧
At equilibrium this is balanced by a net downward flux of material 𝑤𝑠 𝐴𝐶 due to settling:
d𝐶
−𝐾 𝐴 = 𝑤𝑠 𝐴𝐶
d𝑧
Dividing by A:
d𝐶
−𝐾 = 𝑤𝑠 𝐶
d𝑧

(b)
𝑧
𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 (1 − ) d𝐶
− ℎ = 𝑤𝑠 𝐶
d𝑧
Separating variables:
d𝐶 𝑤𝑠 d𝑧
=−
𝐶 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 (1 − 𝑧 )
ℎ
d𝐶 𝑤𝑠 1 1
 =− ( + ) d𝑧
𝐶 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 ℎ − 𝑧
Integrating between a reference height 𝑧ref and 𝑧:
C
d𝐶 𝑤𝑠 𝑧 1 1
∫ =− ∫ ( + ) d𝑧
𝐶ref 𝐶 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧ref 𝑧 ℎ − 𝑧

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -26 Dr David Apsley

 𝐶 𝑤𝑠 𝑧 ℎ−𝑧
 ln =− (ln − ln )
𝐶ref 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧ref ℎ − 𝑧ref

𝐶 𝑤𝑠 𝑧ref ℎ − 𝑧
 ln = ln ( )
𝐶ref 𝜅𝑢𝜏 𝑧 ℎ − 𝑧ref
Dividing top and bottom of the last fraction by 𝑧 and 𝑧ref :
𝑤𝑠
ℎ κ𝑢τ
𝐶 − 1
ln = ln ( 𝑧 )
𝐶ref ℎ
− 1
𝑧ref
𝑤𝑠
ℎ 𝜅𝑢𝜏
𝐶 − 1
 =( 𝑧 )
𝐶ref ℎ
− 1
𝑧ref

(c) The sediment flux can be determined by summing contributions 𝐶(𝑈 d𝐴) over a cross-
section, where d𝐴 = 𝑏 d𝑧 and 𝑏 is the width of the channel:
ℎ
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑏 ∫ 𝐶𝑈 d𝑧
𝑧ref

Using the trapezium rule (no need to learn this formula – just sum trapezoidal areas if you
prefer) on 𝑁 intervals (here, 𝑁 = 3) this is approximated by
Δ𝑧
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑏 (*)
2(𝑓0 + 2 ∑𝑁−1
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 + 𝑓𝑁 )

where 𝑓 is the integrand.

In this case,
𝑏 =5m
ℎ − 𝑧ref 1.5 − 0.001
Δ𝑧 = = = 0.4997 m
𝑁 3
𝑤𝑠
𝜅𝑢𝜏 0.3659
ℎ 1.5
−1 −1
𝐶 = 𝐶ref ( 𝑧 ) = 0.65 ( 𝑧 )
ℎ 1499
𝑧ref − 1
𝑢𝜏 𝑧
𝑈 = ln (33 ) = 0.4878 ln(33000𝑧)
𝜅 𝑘𝑠
𝑓 = 𝐶𝑈

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -27 Dr David Apsley

 𝑧𝑖 𝐶𝑖 𝑈𝑖 𝑓𝑖
0.0010 0.65000 1.706 1.1089
0.5007 0.05764 4.738 0.2731
1.0004 0.03472 5.075 0.1762
1.5000 0.00000 5.273 0.0000

Using (*),
0.4997
𝑄𝑠 = 5 × × (1.1089 + 2 × (0.2731 + 0.1762) + 0) = 2.508 m3 s−1
2

Answer: 2.5 m3 s–1

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Sediment Transport Examples) -28 Dr David Apsley