SCIENCE

(PHYSICS)
BY
PUNEET MAM
WINGS FACULTY

JKSSB | JKPSI
 BASIC CONCEPTS
MASS:
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it.
 It is a basic property of a matter.
 It does not depend upon the temperature, pressure or location of
the body in space.
 The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

WEIGHT: The weight of a body is the force with which a body is

pulled towards the centre of the earth. It is equal to the product of the
mass (m) of the body and the acceleration due to gravity (g) of the
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earth on the body.

Thus, w = mg
As the value of ‘g’ changes from place to place, so the weight of a body
is different at different places.

The S.I unit of weight is Newton (N).

Difference between mass and weight:

Mass Weight

1. Mass is a scalar quantity. 1. Weight is a vector quantity.

2. It is constant. 2. It varies from place to place.
3. It cannot be zero for a body. 3. It can be zero. E.g. at the centre
of the earth, in space, freely falling
4. No affect by the presence of lift.
other bodies. 4. It is affected by the presence of
5. Its units are kg, g etc. other bodies.
5. Its units are Dyne, Newton etc.
 Note: 1N= 105dyne
1J = 107 ergs

Mechanics: Branch of physics that deals with the conditions of rest or

motion of the material objects around us.
 It is one of the oldest branches of physics.

1. Statics
Branch of mechanics that deals with the study of objects at rest or in
motion, even when they are under the action of several forces.
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2. Kinematics
Study of motion of objects without considering the cause of motion.
The word kinematics comes from Greek word which is Kinema meaning
motion.
3. Dynamics
Study of motion of object taking into consideration the cause of
motion. The word Dynamics comes from a Greek word Dynamics
which means Power. Dynamics is concerned with the forces which cause
motion.

Rest: An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position

with respect to its surrounding with the passage of time. E.g. a book
lying on a table.
 Motion: An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position
with respect to its surroundings with the passage of time. E.g. a train
moving on rails.

Rest and motion are relative terms:

A passenger sitting in a moving train is at rest with respect to his
follow passengers but he is in motion with respect to the objects
outside train.

Thus an object may be at rest with respect to one object and at the
same time it may be in motion relative to another object.
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Point object: If the position of an object changes by distances much

greater than its own size in reasonable duration of time, then the object
may be regarded as a point object.

Example:
1. Earth can be regarded as a point object for studying its motion around
the sun.
2. A train under a journey of several hundred km can be regarded as a
point object.

1. Motion in one dimension: The motion of an object is said to be in

one dimensional only if one of the three coordinates specifying the
position of the object changes with time.

linear or rectilinear motion.

 Examples:
1. Motion of a train along a straight track.
2. Motion of a freely falling body.

2. Two dimensional motion: The motion of an object is said to be two

dimensional if only two of the three coordinates specifying its position
changes with time. Here an object moves along a plane.

Example of two dimensional motion:

(i) Motion of planets around the sun.
(ii) A car moving along a zig-zag path on a level road.
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3. Three dimensional motion: The motion of an object is said to be

three dimensional if all the three coordinates specifying its position
change with time. Here an object moves in space.

Example of three dimensional motion:

(i) A kite flying on a windy day.
(ii) Motion of an aeroplane in space.

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance or path length: It is the length of the actual path traversed by

a body between its initial and final positions. Suppose a body moves
from position A to B through C. Then
Distance covered = AC + CB
 Distance is a scalar quantity because it has only magnitude and no
direction. Distance covered is always positive or zero.
 The S.I unit of distance is metre (m).
 The CGS unit of distance is centimeter (cm).

Displacement: The displacement of an object is the change in the

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position of an object in a fixed direction. It is the shortest (or the straight

line) path measured in the direction from the initial point to the final
point. As displacement has both magnitude and direction, so it is a
vector quantity.
 Displacement may be positive, negative or zero.
 The SI unit of displacement is metre (m).
 The CGS unit of displacement is centimeter (cm).

Speed: The rate of change of position of an object with time in any

direction is called its speed. It is equal to the distance travelled by the
object per unit time.
Speed = Distance travelled
Time taken

Speed has only magnitude and no direction, so it is a scalar quantity.

Also the distance travelled by an object is either positive or zero, so the
speed may be positive or zero but never negative.
 The SI unit of speed is ms-1.
 The dimensional formula of speed is [M0L1T-1]

Different types of speed:

 (i) Uniform speed: An object is said to be in moving with uniform
speed, if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, however
small these time intervals may be.
(ii) Variable speed: An object is said to be moving with variable speed
if it covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
(iii) Average speed: For an object moving with variable speed, the
average speed is the total distance travelled by the object divided by the
total time taken to cover that distance.

Average speed= Total distance travelled

Total time taken

(iv) Instantaneous speed: The speed of an object at any particular

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instant of time or at a particular point of its path is called the

instantaneous speed of the object.

The speedometer of an automobile indicated its instantaneous speed

at any instant.

Velocity: The rate of change of position of an object with time in a

given direction is called its velocity. It can also be defined as the speed
of an object in a given direction. It is equal to the displacement
covered per unit time.
Velocity= Displacement
Time
As velocity has both magnitude and direction, it is a vector quantity.

Velocity can be positive, zero or negative depending on the

displacement is positive, zero or negative.
 The SI unit of speed is ms-1.
 The CGS unit of velocity is cm-1.
 The dimensional formula for the velocity is [M0L1T-1]
 Different types of velocities:

(i) Uniform velocity: A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity

if it covers equal displacements in equal intervals of time, however
small these time intervals may be.
(ii) Variable velocity: A body is said to be moving with variable if
either its speed changes or direction of motion changes or both
change with time.
(iii) Average velocity: For an object moving with variable velocity,
average velocity is defined as the ratio of its total displacement to the
total time interval in which that displacements occurs.

Average velocity= Total Displacement

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Total time
(iv) Instantaneous velocity: The velocity of an object at a particular
instant of time or at a particular point of its path is called its
instantaneous velocity.

ACCELERATION: The rate of change of velocity of an object with

time is called its acceleration. It tells how fast the velocity of an object
changes with time.
Acceleration= Change in velocity
Time Taken
Acceleration is a vector quantity. It has the same direction as that of the
change in velocity.
 The SI unit of acceleration is ms-2.
 The CGS unit of acceleration is cm-2.
 The dimensional formula of acceleration is [M0L1T-2]

Positive acceleration: If the velocity of an object increases with time,

its acceleration is positive. When bus leaves a bus-stop, its acceleration
is positive.
Negative acceleration: If the velocity of an object decreases with time,
its acceleration is negative. Negative acceleration is also called
 retardation or deceleration. When a bus slows down on approaching a
bus-stop, its acceleration is negative.

Distinguish between distance and displacement:

Distance Displacement

1. Distance is the length of the actual 1. Displacement is the shortest distance

path traversed by a body, irrespective of between the initial and final positions
its motion. of body in a given direction.
2. Distance between two points may be 2. Displacement between two given
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same or different for different paths points is always same.

chosen. 3. It is a vector quantity.
3. It is a scalar quantity. 4. Displacement covered may be
4. Distance covered may be positive or positive, negative or zero.
zero

Distinguish between distance and displacement:

Speed Velocity

1. Speed is the distance travelled 1. Velocity is the displacement by

by a body in a unit time. a body in a unit time
2. It is a scalar quantity. 2. It is a vector quantity.
3. Speed may be positive or zero 3. Velocity may be positive,
but never negative. negative or zero.
 FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION
It may be defined as a push or a pull which changes or tends to change
the state of rest or of uniform motion or the direction of motion of a
body. Unit of Force is NEWTON.

Effects produced by a force:

1. Force can change speed of an object, making it to move slower or

faster.

2. Force can change the direction of motion of an object.

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3. Force can change the shape and size of an object. For example, if we
hold a rubber ball between our palms and push the two palms against
each other, the ball no longer remains round but gets oblong.

4. Initiate motion in a motionless object.

INERTIA AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES

Inertia: The natural tendency of object to resist a change in their state

of rest or of uniform motion called inertia.

The term inertia means resistance to change. This term was first used
by Galileo.
 Different types of inertia:
(i) Inertia of rest: The tendency of a body to remain in its position of
rest is called inertia of rest.

Example: A person standing in a bus falls backward when the bus

suddenly starts moving forward. When the bus moves, the lower part of
his body begins to move along with the bus while the upper part of his
body continues to remain at rest due to inertia. That is why, a person
falls backward when the bus starts.

(ii) Inertia of motion: The tendency of a body to remain in its state

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of uniform motion in a straight line is called inertia of motion.

Example: When a moving bus suddenly stops, person sitting in it falls

forward. As the bus stops, the lower part of his body comes to rest along
with the bus while the upper part of his body continues to remain in
motion due to inertia and falls forward.

(iii) Inertia of direction: The inability of a body to change by itself

its direction of motion is called inertia of direction.

Example: When a bus takes a sharp turn, a person sitting in the bus
experiences a force acting away from the centre of the curved path due
to his tendency to move in the original direction. He has to hold on to a
support to prevent himself from swaying away in the turning bus.

MASS AS THE MEASURES OF INERTIA: Mass of a body is the

measure of its inertia. If a body has more mass, it has more inertia i.e., it
is more difficult to change its state of rest or uniform motion. For
example, if we kick a football, it flies along way. If we kick a stone
opposes the change in its motion better than the football because of its
more mass. Thus stone has more inertia than football.
 MOMENTUM: Momentum of a body is the quantity of motion
possessed by the body. It is equal to the product of mass and velocity of
the body.
Momentum = Mass ×velocity
=m
Momentum is a vector quantity because the velocity is a vector and
mass m is a scalar. Its direction is same as the direction of the velocity
of the body. Its magnitude is given by
p = mv
 The SI unit of momentum is kg ms-1.
 The CGS unit of momentum is g cm s-1.
 The directional formula of momentum is [MLT-1]
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FRICTION (Necessary evil)

 It is a force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are

touching.
 It occurs because no surface is perfectly smooth. Surface which
appear smooth to eye may be rough or bumpy when viewed under
a microscope.
 Rougher surfaces has more friction.

TYPES OF FRICTION
 Static friction
 Sliding friction
 Rolling friction
 Fluid Friction
 LAWS OF MOTION
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION:
This law states that every body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by some
external force to change that state.
This law consists of three parts:

(i) First part says that a body at rest continues in its state of rest.
An external force has to be applied on it to make it move. A chair
lying on the floor will continue to remain there unless we
displace it.
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(ii) Second part says that a body in motion continues moving in a

straight path with a uniform speed. This part seems to be contrary
to our everyday experience.
Example: A rolling ball comes to rest on a rough ground. This is
because of force of friction. The ball moves through a larger
distance on a smooth floor. If the friction were zero, the ball would
continue its motion forever. This part also indicates that to increase
the speed of a body moving in a straight line, a force has to be
applied on it in the direction of motion or opposite to the direction
of motion.

(iii) Third part says that a body moving with a uniform speed in
a straight line cannot change itself its direction of motion. To
change its direction of motion, a force has to be applied normal to
this direction of motion. Consider the motion of the moon around
the earth. The direction of motion of the moon continuously
changes. The force needed to change the direction is provided by
the gravitational attraction of the earth on the moon.
  NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION: It states that the
rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the external force applied on the body and the change take place
in the direction of the applied force. This law can be divided into
two parts:

(i) The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the

applied force. The larger the force acting on a body, greater is the
change in its momentum. Since change in momentum is equal to
the product of mass and the change in velocity and the mass of the
body remains constant, so the rate of change of momentum is
directly proportional to the rate of change of velocity i.e.,
acceleration. Hence force F is proportional to both mass (m) and
acceleration (a).
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F ∝ ma

(ii) The change of momentum occurs in the direction of the force.

If a body is at rest, a force will set it in motion. If a body is moving
with a certain velocity, a force will increase or decrease this
velocity accordingly as the force acts in its same or opposite
direction.

 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

It states that to every action there is always an equal and opposite
reaction.
In simple terms, third law can be states as follows:

Forces in nature always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on

body A by body B is equal and opposite to the force on the body B
by A.
 As shown in fig., FBA is the force exerted by the body A on B and
FAB is the force exerted by B on A, then according to Newton’s
third law,

FAB = - FBA

Force on A by B = - Force on B by A

Eg. While swimming a man pushes water backward and in turn, he

is pushed forward, due to the reaction of water, Rocket, Recoil of
gun
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IMPORTANT POINTS:
 Two forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
 These forces act on different object and never on the same object
 Forces may not produce acceleration of equal magnitude
 ELECTRICITY
ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the elementary particle like
electrons, protons etc, of which all the objects are made up of. It is
because of these electric charges that various objects exert strong
electric forces of attraction or repulsion on each other.

 Electric charge is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is coulomb (C).

 A proton has a positive charge (+e) and an electrons has a
negative charge (-e), where
 e=1.6×10-9 coulomb
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 One Coulomb is that quantity of electric charge which exerts a

force of 9 X 109 newtons on an equal charge placed at a
distance of 1m from it.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
The flow of electric charges through a conductor (metal wire)
constitutes an electric current.

Quantitatively, electric current in a conductor across an area held

perpendicular to the direction of flow of charge is defined as the amount
of charge flowing across that area per unit time.

Electric current = Electric Charge

Time

Where Q is the charge that follows across the given area in time t

SI unit of current is ampere.

 If one coulomb of charge crosses an area in one second, then the
current through that area is one ampere (A).

1 ampere = 1 coulomb
1 second

or 1 A = 1 Cs-1

RESISTANCE

The resistance of a conductor is the property by virtue of which it

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opposes the flow of charges through it.

The more the resistance, the less is the current I for a given potential
difference.

It is equal to the ratio of the potential difference applied across the

conductor to the current flowing through it.

Thus, SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).

If the potential difference (V) is 1 volt and current (I) is 1 ampere,

then the resistance (R) is 1 ohm.

Therefore, 1 ohm = 1 volt

1 ampere
or

1 Ω = 1 VA-1
 Thus, the resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if a current of 1
ampere flows through it on applying a potential difference of 1 volt
across its ends.

OHMS LAW

At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is

directly proportional to the potential difference across its end.

V=IR
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Any material that has some resistance is called a resistor.

 FACTOR AFFECTING THE RESISTANCE :
RESISTIVITY
Factors affecting the resistance: At a constant temperature, the
resistance of conductor depends on the following factors:

1. Length: The resistance R of a conductor is directly proportional to the

length i.e.,
R∝ l

2. Area of cross-section: The resistance R of a uniform conductor

inversely proportional to its area of cross-section A, i.e.,
R∝ 1
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3. Nature of the material: The resistance of a conductor also depends

on the nature of its material. For example, the resistance of a nichrome
wire is 60 times that of a copper wire of equal length and cross-
section.

Combining the above factors, we get

R∝ l
A
or

R=ρ l
A

RESISTIVITY OR SPECIFIC RESISTANCE:

If in the above equation, we take

l = 1 unit and A= 1 square unit

 Then R = ρ . Thus the resistivity or specific resistance of the
material may be defined as the resistance of a conductor of that
material, having unit length and unit area of cross-section. Or, it is
the resistance offered by the unit cube of the material of a
conductor.

SI unit of resistivity. We can write

ρ= R x A
l

Therefore, SI unit of ρ= ohm × metre2

metre
= ohm meter ( Ω m)
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Thus, the SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre ( Ω m).

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
So the potential difference between two points in an electric field
may be defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit
positive charge form one point to the other against the electrostatic
forces.

V=VB-VA= WAB
q0

SI unit of potential difference is volt (V). It has been named after the
Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.

1 volt = 1 joule
1 coulomb

Or 1 V = 1 Nm C-1 = 1 JC-1
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: Electric potential at a point in an
electric field is the amount of work done in moving a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point against the electrostatic forces.

Electric Potential = Work done

Charge

SI unit of electric potential is volt (V).

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 ENERGY
Energy is an essential requirement of our lives. No activity in our daily
lives can be undertaken without the use of energy. Energy in one or in
the other form has been used by a man since long time.

Any system which is capable of providing useful energy in a

convenient form at a steady rate over a long period of time is called
source of energy.

 In daily life, various sources of energy are used for doing work.

 Conversion of one form of energy into other is called

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transformation of energy.

 According to law of conservation of energy, energy can neither

be created not be destroyed, it can only be transformed from one
form to other form.

Example: Diesel to run the trains, electricity to run different electrical

appliances etc.

Characteristics of good source of energy:

A good source of energy can be characterised by the following factors:
(i) Safe and convenient to use

(ii) Easy to transport

(iii) Easy to store

(iv) Large amount of work per unit volume or mass

 (v) Economical

CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCE OF ENERGY:

Different sources of energy can be classified as:

1. Renewable source of energy: These are those sources of energy

which are being produced continuously in nature and are inexhaustible.
These are also called non-conventional or alternative sources of
energy.

Example: Solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy, bio fuels (such
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as wood, bio-gas and alcohol), hydro energy from ocean (tidal

energy, sea waves energy and ocean thermal energy).

Advantages of renewable sources of energy are given as below:

(i) These sources will last as long as the Earth receives light from the
Sun.

(ii) These sources are freely available in nature.

(iii) These sources do not cause any pollution.

2. Non-renewable source of energy: These are those sources of energy

which have accumulated in nature over a long time and cannot be
quickly replaced. These sources of energy will be exhausted one day.
These are also called conventional sources of energy.

Example: Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, and

fissionable materials.
 Disadvantages of non-renewable sources of energy are given below:

(i) Due to their extensive use, these sources are depleting fastly.

(ii) It is difficult to discover and exploit new deposits of these sources.

(iii) These sources are a major cause of environmental pollution,

global warming, ozone hole and all other consequences.

FOSSIL FUELS: The remaining of prehistoric plants and animals

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which got buried deep inside the Earth, millions of years ago and
changed into fuel due to excess of heat and high pressure inside the
earth are called fossil fuels.

These are the sources of energy used for different household and
commercial purpose, e.g. coal, LPG, bio-gas, CNG etc.

Features of ideal or good fuel are given below:

 It should have a high calorific or heat value ( the amount of heat

produced by unit mass or unit volume of a fuel is called its
calorific value), so that it can produce maximum energy by low
fuel consumption.
 It should have a proper ignition temperature (the temperature at
which a fuel starts producing energy is called ignition temperature
of fuel), so that it can burn easily.
 During combustion, fuel should not produce harmful gases.
 Fuel should be cheap in cost and easily available in plenty for
everyone.
  It should be easy to handle, safe to transport and convenirnt to
store.
 It should not leave mush ash behind after burning

1. COAL:
Coal is a naturally occurring black material which is mixture of carbon
and compounds of carbon containing hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur. It is a major source of energy.

Uses of Coal:
 It is used as a fuel for heating purposes in homes and in industry.
 It is used as a fuel in thermal power plants for producing
electricity.
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 It is used in the manufacture of coke, fuel gases like coal gas,

synthetic petrol and synthetic natural gas.

2. PETROLEUM:

 Petroleum is derived from two words petra (in Greek) means

rock and oleum means oil. Therefore, petroleum means rock oil.

 It is a dark coloured, viscous and foul smelling crude oil which is

a mixture of several solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons mixed
with water, salt and Earth particles. It also contains small amounts
of other compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

 After refining (fractional distillation) many major fractions are

obtained such as petroleum gas, petrol, kerosene oil, diesel,
lubricating oil, paraffin wax and bitumen (asphalt).

 Petroleum gas is a mixture of three hydrocarbons, i.e., butane

(C4H10), propane (C3H8) and ethane (C2H6).
 However, its main constituent is butane. Petroleum gas which is
liquefied under pressure is known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

Uses of LPG:
(i) It has very high calorific value, neat and clean domestic fuel.

(ii) It burns with smokeless flame and thus does not cause pollution.

(iii) It does not produce any poisonous gases on combustion.

(iv) It is easy to handle and convenient to store.

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3. NATURAL GAS:

Natural gas is another source of heat energy. It mainly consists of

methane (CH4, about 97%) and small quantities of ethane (C2H6) and
propane (C3H8).

Uses of Natural Gas:

(i) When natural gas in liquid form is subjected to high pressure, we get
compressed natural gas (CNG) which is used as fuel in vehicle like
scooters, cars, buses and trucks.

(ii) It is used for cooking food, heating water, manufacturing

fertilisers and to produce electricity.

(iii) It does not cause pollution.

 THERMAL POWER PLANT:
In thermal power plant, fuel is burnt to produce heat energy, which is
converted into electrical energy. Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt
in power stations to heat up water to produce stream which further runs
the turbine to generate electricity through dynamo (generator).

For thermal power plant, lot of fossil fuel i.e. coal is required.

ADVANTAGES

 Less initial cost

 Fuel cost is less
 Huge amount of power can be generated
 Cost of generation is less
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DISADVANTAGES

 POLLUTION
 Running and maintenance cost is more
 Land requirement is more for storage of coal and ash.
 Skilled persons are required

HYDRO POWER PLANT:

The kinetic energy of flowing water or the potential energy of water at
height is traditional source of energy. The power plants which convert
the potential energy of flowing water into electricity are called hydro
power plants.

 Electricity produced by hydro power plants is called

hydroelectricity.
  Flowing water possesses kinetic energy which can be used to rotate
flour mill wheels, to transport heavy logs of wood from forest in
hilly areas to the downstream area, to generate electricity, etc.

 As there are very less water falls which could be used as source of
potential energy, so hydro plants are mostly associated with dams.
A quarter of energy requirement in India is met by hydro power
plants.

Principle of Generating Hydroelectricity:

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The water flowing in a river is collected in a high rise dam, constructed

on the river to obstruct the flow of water and thereby collect water in
large reservoirs.
In this way, the kinetic energy of flowing water is converted into
potential energy of water stored behind the dam. This potential energy of
stored water in a dam is converted into kinetic energy of falling water.
The water from the high level is carried through the pope turbine located
near the bottom of the dam, which is connected to the electric generator.
When the water turbine rotates, then the armature of the generator also
rotates rapidly and produce electricity.

Advantages of Hydroelectricity:
The advantages of hydroelectricity are as follows:
o It does not cause any environment pollution.
o The moving water needed for the purpose is available free of
cost.
o Water is a renewable source of energy which will never get
exhausted. Each time when it rains, reservoir of dams get
refilled.
o The construction of dams on rivers, help in controlling flood
and also in irrigation.
 Disadvantages of Hydroelectricity:
The disadvantages of hydroelectricity are as follows:
o Construction of dams may lead to ecological damage.
o A large variety of plants, animals and their habitats get
submerged in water.
o It decreases the fertility of the soil in the downstream area
and affects crops.
o Dams can be constructed only at limited number of places
preferably in hilly terrains.

Important Hydroelectric Power Projects in India:

Some important hydroelectric power projects in India are given as
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below:
o Bhakrai-Nangal Project (on Satluj river)
o Uri Hydroelectric Project (on Jhelum river)
o Hirakund Project (on Mahanadi river)
o Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (on Krishna river)
o Gandhi Sagar Dam (on Chambal river)
o Ranjit Sagar Dam (or Ravi river)

WIND ENERGY:
Moving air is called wind. As the moving objects possess kinetic energy,
so that are capable of doing mechanical work by virtue of their motion.
The energy possessed by the wind is due to its high speed.

The kinetic energy of wind is utilised for doing works like

o Generating electricity.
o Propelling sail boats in rivers and seas.
 o Rotatory motion of windmill is used to lift water from a
well.

Windmill: It is a machine which works with the energy of blowing air

or wind.
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Wind Generator: Windmill used for generating is called wind turbine

and the complete set up of generating electricity by using wind energy is
called wind generator. The wind rotates the blades of a wind turbine
which in turn rotates the armature or coil of a small electric generator to
produce electricity.

Wind Energy Farm: For commercial purposes, the number of

windmills are placed over a large area which is known as wind energy
farm.
 The wind power potential of India is estimated to be 15000 MW.
  The largest wind energy farm in India is established near
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu and can generate 380 MW
electricity.

Advantages of Wind Energy:

o It is environment-friendly and efficient source of renewable

energy.
o It requires no recurring expenses for the production of
electricity.
o It does not cause any pollution.
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Limitations of Harnessing Wind Energy:

o It can be established only at those places where wind blows

for most of the part of the year.
o The minimum wind speed necessary for satisfactory working
of a wind generator is 15 km/h, that is not always so.
o Wind energy farm requires quite large area of land, nearly 2
hectares land is needed for 1 MW generation of electricity.
o The setting up of wind energy farm is very expensive.
o Wind energy farms disturb rainfall pattern.

NOTE: In terms of output, Germany is the leader of generating

energy from wind power. Denmark is called the country of winds.

SOLAR ENERGY:
It is the energy obtained from the sun. It provides all of us heat and
light. The nuclear fusion reaction taking place inside the sun keeps on
liberating enormous amount of heat and light energy.
 Solar radiations consist mostly of ultraviolet rays, visible rays and
infrared rays. The value of solar constant is 1.4 kW/m2.

HARNESSING OF SOLAR ENERGY:

Solar energy can be harnessed directly as well as indirectly.

1. Direct Utilisation: The direct utilization of solar energy can be done

either by collecting it as heat (solar cooker, solar heater) or by
converting it to electricity (solar cells).

2. Indirect Utilisation: It can be done by converting solar energy into

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chemical energy like bio-mass of plants etc.

Traditional Uses of Solar Energy:

The uses of solar energy are as given below:

 For drying clothes

 For obtaining salt from sea.

 For reducing moisture content in food grains after harvesting.

 For the preservation of fruits, vegetables, fish etc., by Sun drying.

Advantages of Solar Energy:

The advantages of solar energy are as given below:

 It does not cause any pollution.

 It is available in abundance in a hot country like ours.
 It is available free of cost.
 It can be put to practical applications.
 Solar Energy Devices:
The various devices which are called solar energy used for harnessing
Sun’s energy are called solar energy devices.

Examples: Solar cooker, solar heater, solar concentrators and solar

cells.

Solar Heating Devices:

A device in which solar energy is collected as heat energy is called solar

heating device. They are designed in such a manner that they collect as
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much sunlight as possible.

They use the following components to work in efficient manner:

1. Use of Black Painted Surfaces: Black Surfaces are good absorber

of heat, so they are used in solar heating devices.

2. Use of glass sheet cover: The transparent glass sheet kept over the
open end of the heating devices allows the infrared rays and visible rays
to enter the device but does not allow the infrared radiations to move out
of the temperature of heating device rises appreciably.

3. Use of Reflector: In order to increase efficiency of a solar heating

device, a plane mirror as a reflector is also attached to it. It is used to
increase the area over which the solar energy is collected, so that more
rays enter the heating devices. Spherical reflectors, like concave
reflector and parabolic reflector are also used where high temperature is
required.
 SOLAR COOKER:
It is the device used to cook food utilising the energy radiated by the
Sun.

Construction: It consists of an insulated metal box or a wooden box

which is painted black from inside, so that it can absorb maximum solar
radiations. The box has a thick glass sheet as a cover the box. The
reflector is a plane mirror which is attached to the box.

Working: Whenever the food is required to be cooked, the solar cooker

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is kept in the Sun. It is so adjusted that its reflector receives a strong

beam of light and reflect it in the solar cooker.

The reflected rays pass through the glass-sheet and gets absorbed by the
black surface in the box. More and more solar radiations get trapped in
 the box due to greenhouse effect which increase the temperature to
about 1000C-1400C.

Solar Cell (Photovoltaic Cell): It converts solar energy into electrical.

These are made from semiconductors like Si, Ge, Ga. These are user
friendly because do not have moving parts, requires less maintenance.
These can be used in remote areas.

Solar Panel: When solar cells are arranged side by side, connecting
each other in such a way that the total potential difference and the total
capacity to provide electric current is much increased, then this
arrangement is called solar panel. It provides a much higher power for
many practical uses.
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NOTE: The largest solar furnace in the world is located in France.

The entire process of manufacturing solar panel is very expensive
because silver is used for interconnection of the cell in the panel.

ENERGY FROM THE SEA:

Sea acts as a renewable source of energy. The energy from sea is
available in different forms. These are explained below:

1. TIDAL ENERGY: Due to gravitational attraction of moon on sea

water, water surface rises and falls, thus the waves are formed. These
waves are called tidal waves and energy possessed by rising and falling
water tides is known as tidal energy.

The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage or tidal

dam across a narrow opening to the sea.
 LIMITATION OF TIDAL ENERGY:

The rise and fall of water during tides is not high enough to generate
electrical energy on a large scale. There are very few places suitable for
building dams. That is why tidal energy is not likely to be a major source
of energy.

2. WAVE ENERGY: Due to the blowing of wind on the surface of

ocean very fast sea waves are generated, which have a lot of kinetic
energy in them. This energy with the help of various devices can be used
to rotate the turbine of generator and electricity is generated.

Limitation of Wave Energy:

Energy of waves can be used only if strong winds blow all the times
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across the sea or ocean and there are high water waves generating in the
sea. But, as soon as winds stop blowing, electric generator stops
producing electricity. Thus we cannot depend much on the energy of
waves.

3. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:

The heat from interior of the Earth can be utilised as a source of energy
under certain favourable conditions that are created by natural processes.
This is known as geothermal energy.

4. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY: The water at the surface of the

sea or ocean is heated by the Sun, while the water in deeper sections is
relatively cold. This difference in temperature is utilised to obtain
energy and is known as ocean thermal energy.

 The temperature difference between the surface water and water at

depths upto 2 km is more than 200C, which can be utilised.
  The devices used to harness this form of ocean energy are known
as Ocean Thermal Energy Conservation (OTEC) power plants.

NUCLEAR ENERGY:
Energy contained in the nucleus of atom is called nuclear energy. It is
released during nuclear reaction.

A reaction in which composition of the reacting nuclei changes to

form new elements with a simultaneous release of large amount of
energy is called a nuclear reaction.

Nuclear reactions occur in the following two ways.

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1. Nuclear Fission:

The reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into two or more smaller
nuclei, with the evolution of large amount of energy when it is
bombarded with slow moving neutron is called nuclear fission.

 The phenomenon was discovered in the year 1939 by two German

scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman.

 They bombarded U-235 with low energy neutrons, called thermal

neutrons, just as a glass ball when hit with a hammer may shatter
in different ways to form pieces of different sizes, U-235 nucleus
splits up broadly into two groups of nuclei.

(i) A heavy group of nuclei with mass number in the range A = 130 to A
= 149.

(ii) A light group of nuclei with mass number in the range A = 85 to A =

104.
 In the form of a nuclear reaction we represent nuclear fission of U-235
as follows:
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 The materials which can be fissioned even with low energy

neutrons are called fissile material.

 These materials are used as fuels for nuclear power plants and
also for production of atom bombs.

In all fission reactions, a small quantity of matter is lost. This lost matter
gets converted into energy which is released in any nuclear fission
reaction.

The energy (E) obtained due to loss of matter of mass (Δm) is given by
the famous Einstein equation in 1905.
 E = Δmc2
where, c = velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s

Nuclear Chain Reaction: A nuclear is which the bombarding particle is

obtained as one of the products, due to which the reaction once initiated
proceeds on its own is called a chain reaction.

2. Nuclear Fusion:

A reaction in which two or more lighter nuclei fuse to form a heavy

nucleus and large amount of energy is given out is called nuclear
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fusion reaction.

Conditions for fusion reaction to take place are as given below:

(i) High temperature (~4-15 million Kelvin)

(ii) High pressure (~1 million atmosphere)

Because these reactions require a very high temperature therefore they

are called THERMO NUCLEAR REACTIONS.

The cause of high heat energy on the Sun is due to fusion of

hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei.
 BIO-MASS:
The waste material of living things (cattle dung) and dead parts of
plants and animals residue of crops is called bio-mass.

BIO-MASS AS FUEL
Wood and cow-dung are popular bio-mass used as fuel in our
country. These fuels do not produce much heat on burning and
produce lot of smoke, so technological inputs are required to improve
the efficiency of these fuels.
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CHARCOAL:
It is obtained by heating the wood in the limited supply of air
(destructive distillation of wood). During this process, water and
volatile materials present in wood are removed and charcoal (a black
mass) is left behind.

BIO-GAS:
Bio-gas is a mixture of methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen.
 It is produced by the decomposition of animal waste like animal
dung or plant waste in the absence of air (such degradation of
organic matter in absence of air is called anaerobic degradation).

 Since, the starting material is mainly cow-dung (gobar in

hindi), it is popularly known as gobar gas.
 BIO-GAS PLANT:

The set up used to produce bio-gas is known as bio-gas plant.

This plant has a dome-like structure built with bricks. There are two
types of bio-gas plants being used in our country to produce bio-gas as

o Floating gas holder type bio-gas plant.

o Fixed dome type bio-gas plant.
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 WAVE MOTION

PERIODIC MOTION:
A motion which repeats itself after equal interval of time is called as
periodic motion.

OSCILLATORY MOTION

A motion in which an object moves back of forth repeatedly about a

fixed position is called an oscillation motion.
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SIMPLE PENDULUM

A simple pendulum consists of a smell metal ball suspended by a long

thread from a rigid support, such as the bob is free to swing back and
forth.

 The distance of pendulum from its mean position is called

displacement

 The maximum displacement of the pendulum on either side of its

mean position is called the amplitude of oscillation.

 Time period is the time taken by pendulum to complete its one

oscillation.

 Frequency is the number of full oscillation completed by the

pendulum in one second.
 NOTE: The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite
length 84.6 min.

WAVE MOTION: Wave motion is a form of disturbance which

travels through a medium due to repeated vibrations of the particles of
the medium about their mean positions, the disturbance being handed
over from one particle to the next.

 A sudden and short duration disturbance is called a pulse

Note: In a wave, both information and energy propagate (in the

form of signals) from one point to another but there is no motion of
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matter as a whole through a medium.

Example: If we drop a pebble into a pond of still water, a circular

pattern of alternate crests and troughs spreads out from the point
where the pebble strikes the water surface. The kinetic energy of the
 pebble makes the particles oscillate which come in contact with it. These
particles, in turn, transfer energy to the particles of next layer which
also begin to oscillate. Energy is further transferred to the particles of
next layer which also begin to oscillate and so on. In this way energy is
transferred from one point to another.

Further, if we throw a piece of paper or a cork on the water surface, it

is found to oscillate up and down about the mean position and does not
move forward with the wave. This shows that it is the disturbance or the
wave which travels forward and not the particles of the medium.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVE MOTION:

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Some of the important characteristics of wave motion are as follows:

(i) In a wave motion, the disturbance travels through the medium due to
repeated periodic oscillations of the particles of the medium about
their mean positions.

(ii) The energy is transferred from one place to another without any
actual transfer of the particles of the medium.

(iii) Each particle receives disturbance at little later than its

preceding particles i.e., there is a regular phase difference between one
particle and the next.

(iv) The velocity with which a wave travels is different from the velocity
of the particles with which they vibrate about their mean positions.

(v) The wave velocity remains constant in a given medium while the
particle velocity changes continuously during its vibration about the
mean position. It is maximum at the mean position and zero at the
extreme position.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAVE MOTION:

Waves are broadly of 2 types:

a) Mechanical Wave

b) Electromagnetic waves

A) MECHANICAL WAVES: The waves which require a material

medium (solid, liquid, gas) for their propagation are called
mechanical waves. Such waves are also called elastic waves because
their propagation depends on the elastic properties of medium.
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Example: Water waves, sound waves, seismic waves /seismograph

(waves producing during earthquake) etc.
It is further of 2 types:
i) Transverse waves: These are the waves in which the individual
particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Eg. Water wave
  Each part of the string vibrates up and down while the wave travels
along the string. So the waves in the string are tranverse in nature.

 The points (C, C,….) of maximum displacement in the upward

direction are called crests.

 The points (T, T….) of maximum displacement in the downward

direction are called troughs.

 One crest and one trough together from one wave.

(ii) Longitudinal waves: These are the waves in which the individual
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particles of the medium oscillate along the direction of wave

propagation. E.g.: Sound waves etc.

Compression and Rarefraction

B. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The waves which do not require a material medium (solid, liquid, gas)
for their propagation i.e. which can propagate through the vaccum are
called are called electromagnetic waves.

Eg. Radiowaves, microwaves, gamma rays , UV rays, infrared, visisble

light , X rays.

SOUND WAVES

 It is a form of energy which produces the sensation of hearing.

  These are longitudinal mechanical waves.

 It has low frequency and high wavelength.

 It cannot travel in vaccum.

 The rebounding back of sound when it strikes a hard surface is

called reflection of sound.

 The repetition of sound due to refelction of sound wave is called an

Echo.
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According to frequency range, longitudinal mechanical waves are

divided into the following categories:

a) Audible or sound waves: The longitudinal mechanical waves which

lie the frequency range 20Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible sound
waves. These waves are sensitive, to human par.

b) Infrasonic waves: less than 20 Hz. These waves are produced by

sources of bigger size such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, ocean
waves and by elephant and waves.

c) Ultrasonic waves: greater than 20000 Hz. Human ear cannot detect
these waves. But certain creatures like bat, mosquito, dog, cat. Bat not
only detect but also produces waves.

APPLICATION:

 For sending signals.

 For measuring the depth of the sea.
 For cleaning cloth, aeroplanes and machinery part of clocks.
 In ultrasonography.
 SOME DEFINITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH WAVE
MOTION

AMPLITUDE: It is the maximum displacement covered by the

particles of the medium about their mean positions. It is donated by A.

TIME PERIOD: The time period of a wave is the time in which a

particle of medium completes one vibration to and fro about its mean
position. It is denoted by T.

FREQUENCY: The frequency of a wave is the number of waves

produced per unit time in the given medium. It is equal to the number of
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oscillations completed per unit time by any particle of the medium. It is

equal to the reciprocal of the time period T of the particle and is donated
by v.(nu)
Thus, v = 1
T

SI unit of v is s-1 or hertz (Hz).

WAVELENGTH: It is the distance covered by a wave during the time

in which a particle of the medium completes one vibration to and fro
about its mean position. Or, it is the distance between two nearest
particles of the medium which are vibrating in the same phase. It is
denoted by .
It is generally measured in AO or nm
1 AO = 10 -10m = 10 -8 cm
1nm = 10 -9m = 10 -7 cm
 WAVE NUMBER: The number of waves presents in a unit distance of
the medium is called wave number. It is a equal to the reciprocal of
wavelength. Thus

Wave number, v= 1

SI unit of wave number is m-1.

WAVE VELOCITY OR PHASE VELOCITY: The distance covered

by a wave per unit time in its direction of propagation is called it wave
velocity or phase velocity. It is denoted by c
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 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Electric current flows in 2 ways as an Alternating current (AC) or Direct current
(DC).

 In alternating current, current keeps switching directions periodically-

forward and backward.
 While in the direct current it flows in a single direction steadily

ALTERNATING CURRENT

An electric current whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverses
periodically is called ALTERNATING CURRENT
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 It is denoted by A.C
 It was first tested, based on the principles of Michael Faraday in 1832
using a Dynamo Electric generator.
 It can be identified in waveform called a sine wave also referred as curved
lines. These curved lines represent electric cycles and are measured per
second.
 Sources of AC are hydroelectric generators, thermal power generators and
nuclear power generators.
 The most commonly used and most preferred electric power for household
equipment, office, and buildings etc. it is used for powering electric
motors which are used in refrigerator and washing machine.
 The measurment is read as Hertz or Hz.
 The number of cycles completed by the AC in one second is called the
frequency of AC.
 The frequency of AC in India is 50 Hz which means that AC changes its
direction after 1/100 second.
 DIRECT CURRENT

 An electric current whose magnitude is either constant or variable but the

direction remains the same is called Direct current.
 It is denoted by DC.
 The major use of DC is to supply power to electrical devices and also to
charge batteries. Example: Mobile phone batteries, flashlights, flat screen
television and electric vehicles.
 Sources of DC are voltaic cell, a dry cell, battery, DC generator.
 Everything that runs on a battery and uses an AC adapter while plugging
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into a wall or uses a USB cable for power relies on DC.

DIFFERENCES DC AC
Definition It cannot travel for a It can be transmitted
very long distance. It over very long
loses electric power distance(even between
two cities) with
negligible losses.
Conversible Easily convert into AC Easily convert into DC
Hazardous Dangerous Very dangerous
Application Electroplating, Factories, industries and
Electrolysis, for the domestic
Electronic equipment purpose
Frequency is 50 Hz or It has no frequency or
60 Hz zero frequency

It changes its direction It moves in one

– backward and direction – that is
forward forward