Unit -3

Getting Started With CSS

Learning objectives:
After the Completion of this unit you should be able to know
 What a style sheet is and how it actually styles a web page
 The importance of CSS.
 How to create a style sheet and link an html document to the style sheet.
 The basic building blocks of any style sheet: rules, selectors, properties
and values.
 How External Style Sheets are stored in CSS files
 Three ways of inserting a style sheet
 Different selectors using CSS
 Define background properties ,Background colour & images handling
 Font family, Style and Size using CSS
 Designing Tables using CSS
Structure

3.1 Introduction of CSS

3.1.1 Definition
3.1.2 Advantages
3.1.3 Parts of CSS
3.2 CSS Syntax
3.2.1 Rules / Principle of CSS
3.2.2 Parts of style sheet
3.3 CSS Selectors
3.3.1 The element selectors
3.2.2 The ID selectors
3.2.3 The Class selectors
3.3.4 Universal Selector
3.3.5 Attribute Selector
3.4 Ways to Insert CSS
3.4.1 External style sheet
3.4.2 Internal style sheet
3.4.3 Inline style
3.5 Background image handling
3.5.1 Repeat the Background Image
3.5.2 Set the background image position
3.6 Background colour management using CSS
3.6.1 CSS color hex code
3.6.2 CSS color -short hex code
3.6.3 CSS color RGB value
3.7 Text management using CSS
3.7.1 Set the text color
 3.7.2 Set the text direction
3.7.3 Set the space between character
3.7.4 Set the space between word
3.7.5 Set the text indent
3.7.6 Set the text alignment
3.7.7 Decorating the text
3.7.8 Set the text cases
3.8 Font management using CSS
3.81. Set the font family
3.8.2 Set the style
3.8.3 Set the font variant
3.8.4 Set the font weight
3.8.5 Set the Font size
3.9 Managing Hyperlinks using CSS
3.9.1 Set the color of Visited link
3.9.2 Change the Color of Links when Mouse is Over
3.9.3 Change the color of active link
3.10 Managing Lists using CSS
3.10.1 The list style type Property
3.10.2 The list-style-position Property
3.11 Designing Tables using CSS
3.11.1The empty cells Property
3.11.2 The border-spacing Property
3.12 Working with the BOX Model
3.12.1 The Height and Width Properties
3.12.2 The line height property
3.12.3 The max height property
3.12.4 The max width property
3.13 Designing Borders using CSS
3.13.1 The border color property
3.13.2 The border-style Property
3.14 Designing outline using CSS
3.14.1 The outline width property
3.14.2 The outline style
3.14.3 The outline-color property
3.15 Setting Page Margin using CSS
3.15.1 The Margin Property
3.15.2 The Margin Bottom Property
3.15.3 The Margin left Property
3.16 Let us sum up
3.17 Reference
3.18 Check Your Progress-possible answers
3.1 Introduction of CSS
CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets. It is a simple design language
intended to simplify the process of making web pages presentable. CSS handles
the look and feel part of a web page. Using CSS, you can control the color of the
text, the style of fonts, the spacing between paragraphs, how columns are sized
and laid out, what background images or colors are used, as well as a variety of
other effects.
CSS works with HTML and other Markup Languages (such as XHTML and
XML) to control the way the content is presented. Cascading Style Sheets is a
means to separate the appearance of a webpage from the content of a webpage.

3.1.1 Definition

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a simple mechanism used to format the

layout of Web Pages and adding style (e.g., fonts, colors, spacing...) to web
documents that previously could only be defined in a page's HTML.
CSS describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper, or in
other media. It can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once.

3.1.2 Advantages

The advantages of CSS are:

 CSS saves time - You can write CSS once and then reuse the same sheet
in multiple HTML pages.
 Pages load faster – Increases Download Speed
 Easy maintenance - To make a global change, all the elements in all the
web pages will be updated automatically.
 Superior styles to HTML – It is better look to your HTML page in
comparison to HTML attributes.
 Multiple Device Compatibility - Style sheets allow content to be
optimized for more than one type of device.
 Global web standards - Now HTML attributes are being deprecated and
it is being recommended to use CSS

3.1.3 What is the “Cascade” part of CSS?

The cascade part of CSS means that more than one style sheet can be
attached to a document, and all of them can influence the presentation. For
example, a designer can have a global style sheet for the whole site, but a local
one for say, controlling the link color and background of a specific page. Or, a
user can use own style sheet if s/he has problems seeing the page, or if s/he just
prefers a certain look.

Odisha State Open University Page 1

3.2 CSS Syntax

A CSS style rule is made of three parts:

1. Selector: A selector is an HTML tag at which a style will be applied. This
could be any tag like <h1>, <p> or <table> etc.
2. Property: A property is a type of attribute of HTML tag. Put simply, all
the HTML attributes are converted into CSS properties. They could be
color, border, bgcolor etc.
3. Value: Values are assigned to properties. For example, color property can
have the value either red or #F1F1F1 etc.

The format or syntax of CSS is:

Selector {property:
value}
Example:You can define a heading as follows:

h1 {color: red; font-size :15px}

Selector Property Value Property Value

Here h1 is a selector , color and font-size are properties and the

given value red, and 15px are the value of that property.
 The selector is normally the HTML element you want to style.
 Each declaration consists of a property and a value.
 The property is the style attribute you want to change. Each property has a
value.
3.2.1 Rules/ Principle of CSS
1. Every statement must have a selector and a declaration. The declaration
comes immediately after the selector and is contained in a pair of curly
braces.
2. The declaration is one or more properties separated by semicolons.
3. Each property has a property name followed by a colon and then the value
for that property. There are many different types of values, but any given
property can only take certain values as set down in the specification.
4. Sometimes a property can take a number of values, as in the font-family.
The values in the list should be separated by a comma and a space.
5. Sometimes a value will have a unit as well as the actual value, as in the
1.3em. You must not put a space between the value and its unit.
6. As with HTML, white space can be used to make your style sheet easier to
read and write.

Odisha State Open University Page 2

 3.2.2Parts of style sheet
A style sheet consists of one or more rules that describe how
document elements should be displayed. A rule in CSS has two parts: the
selector and the declaration. The declaration also has two parts, the
property and the value. Let's take a look at a rule for a heading 1 style: h1
{ font-family: verdana, "sans serif"; font-size: 1.3em } This expression is a
rule that says every h1 tag will be verdana or other sans-serif font and the
fontsize will be 1.3em. Let's take a look at the different parts of this rule.

Selector
{
property1: some value;
property2: some value;
}
The declaration contains the property and value for the selector. The property is
the attribute you wish to change and each property can take a value. The property
and value are separated by a colon and surrounded by curly braces:
body { background-color: black}
If the value of a property is more than one word, put quotes around that value:
body { font-family: "sans serif"; } If you wish to specify more than one property,
you must use a semi-colon to separate each property. This rule defines a
paragraph that will have blue text that is centered.
p { text-align: center; color: blue }
You can group selectors. Separate each selector with a comma. The example
below groups headers 1, 2, and 3 and makes them all yellow. h1, h2, h3 {
color: yellow}

Check your progress 1

Q1. Write the abbreviation of CSS?
Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Q2. Write the three parts of CSS syntax?
Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Odisha State Open University Page 3

3.3 CSS Selectors
You can define selectors in various simple ways based on your comfort. Let me
put these selectors one by one. Three types of CSS Selectors
1. The Element selectors
2. The ID Selectors
3. The Class Selectors
3.3.1 The Element selectors
A CSS declaration always ends with a semicolon, and declaration groups
are surrounded by curly brackets: example -
p {color:red;text-align:center;}
To make the CSS more readable, you can put one declaration on each line,
like this:
p
{
color:red;
text-align:center;
}
3.3.2 The ID selectors
The id selector is used to specify a style for a single, unique element.The
id selector uses the id attribute of the HTML element, and is defined with a
"#". Example –
Imagine within the body element of our html page, we have the following
paragraph element
<p id=”welcome”>Welcome to the 1st CSS
Document </p>
We can then create a CSS rule with the id selector:

#welcome
{
color:red;
text-align:center;
}
3.3.3 The Class selectors
The class selector is used to specify a style for a group of elements. Unlike
the id selector, the class selector is most often used on several elements.
This allows you to set a particular style for many HTML elements with the
same class. The class selector uses the HTML class attribute, and is
defined with a ".". In the example below, all HTML elements with
class="center" will be center-aligned:

Imagine within the body element of our html page, we have the following
header element
<h2 class=”center”>Summary</h2>
We can then create a CSS rule with the class selector:
.center {text-align:center;}

Odisha State Open University Page 4

 You can also specify that only specific HTML elements should be affected
by a class. In the example below, all p elements with class="center" will
be center-aligned: example
p.center {text-align:center;}
Some of the other selectors are used in CSS, they are :
3.3.3.1 Universal selector
An asterisk (*) is the universal selector for CSS. It matches a single
element of any type. Omitting the asterisk with simple selectors has the
same effect. For instance, *.warning and. warning are considered equal.
Rather than selecting elements of a specific type, the universal selector
quite simply matches the name of any element type: Example-
*
{
Color:#000000;
}
This rule renders the content of every element in our document in black.
3.3.3.2 Attribute Selector
You can also apply styles to HTML elements with particular attributes.
The style rule below will match all the input elements having a type
attribute with a value of text:
input[type="text"]
{
color: #000000;
}
The advantage to this method is that the <input type="submit" /> element
is unaffected, and the color applied only to the desired text fields.There are
following rules applied to attribute selector.
 p[lang] - Selects all paragraph elements with a lang attribute.
 p[lang="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute
has a value of exactly "fr".
 p[lang~="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute
contains the word "fr".
 p[lang|="en"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute
contains values that are exactly "en", or begin with "en-".

Check your progress 2

Q1. What are the 3 types of selectors?.
Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Q2. What is universal selector ?.
Answer:___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Odisha State Open University Page 5

3.4 Ways to insert CSS

There are three ways of inserting a style sheet:

1. External style sheet
2. Internal style sheet
3. Inline style
3.4.1 External style sheet
An external style sheet is ideal when the style is applied to many pages.
With an external style sheet, you can change the look of an entire Web site by
changing one file. Each page must link to the style sheet using the <link> tag. The
<link> tag goes inside the head section:
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css" />
</head>

An external style sheet can be written in any text editor. The file should not
contain any html tags. Your style sheet should be saved with a .css extension. An
example of a style sheet file is shown below:
hr {color:sienna;}
p {margin-left:20px;}
body {background-image:url("images/back40.gif");}

Notes : Do not leave spaces between the property value and the units! "margin-
left:20 px" (instead of "margin- left:20px") will work in IE, but not in Firefox or
Opera.

3.4.2 Internal style sheet

An internal style sheet should be used when a single document has a
unique style. You define internal styles in the head section of an HTML page, by
using the <style> tag, like this:
<head>
<style type="text/css">
hr {color:sienna;}
p {margin-left:20px;}
body {background-image:url("images/back1.gif");}
</style>
</head>
3.4.3 Inline style sheet
An inline style loses many of the advantages of style sheets by mixing content
with presentation. Use this method sparingly! To use inline styles you use the style
attribute in the relevant tag. The style attribute can contain any CSS property. The
example shows how to change the color and the left margin of a paragraph:

Odisha State Open University Page 6

 <p style="color:sienna;margin-left:20px">This is a
paragraph.</p>
3.5 Background image handling
The background-image property specifies an image to use as the background of an
element. By default, the image is repeated so it covers the entire element. The
background image for a page can be set like this:body {background-
image:url('paper.gif');}
Example
<html>
<head>
<Title>This is my Internal css page</Title>
<style type="text/css">
body
{
background-image:url
("C:/Users/SAI/Desktop/Desktop/100MSDCF/11.
jpg");
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
Background Image
</body>
</html>

The output of the above example is :

Odisha State Open University Page 7

You can set the following background properties of an element:
 The background-image property is used to set the background image of
an element.
 The background-repeat property is used to control the repetition of an
image in the background.
 The background-position property is used to control the position of an
image in the background.
 The background-attachment property is used to control the scrolling of
an image in the background.
 The background property is used as shorthand to specify a number of other
background properties.
3.5.1 Repeat the Background Image
The following example demonstrates how to repeat the background image
if an image is small. You can use no-repeat value for the background-repeat
property if you don't want to repeat an image. In this case, the image will display
only once. By default, the background-repeat property will have a repeat value.
<table style="background-image:url(/https/www.scribd.com/images/pattern1.gif); background-repeat:
repeat;">
<tr><td>
This table has background image which repeats multiple times.
</td></tr>
</table>
The following example which demonstrates how to repeat the background image
vertically.
<table style="background-image:url(/https/www.scribd.com/images/pattern1.gif); background-repeat:
repeat-y;">
<tr><td>
This table has background image set which will repeat vertically. </td></tr>
</table>
The following example demonstrates how to repeat the background image
horizontally.
<table style="background-image:url(/https/www.scribd.com/images/pattern1.gif); background-repeat:
repeat-x;">
<tr><td>
This table has background image set which will repeat horizontally. </td></tr>
</table>
3.5.2 Set the Background Image Position
The following example demonstrates how to set the background image position
100 pixels away from the left side.
<table style="background-image:url(/https/www.scribd.com/images/pattern1.gif);
background-position:100px;">
<tr><td>
Background image positioned 100 pixels away from the left.
</td></tr>
</table>

Odisha State Open University Page 8

Check your progress 3

Q1. How many ways to build style sheet ? what are they ?
Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q2. Write the background properties of CSS.

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3.6 Background colour Management using CSS

The background-color property specifies the background color of an
element. The background color of a page is defined in the body selector: Example

body {background-color:#b0c4de;}
<p style="background-color:yellow;">
This text has a yellow background color. </p>

With CSS, a color is most often specified by:

1. a HEX value - like "#ff0000"
2. an RGB value - like "rgb(255,0,0)"
3. a color name - like "red"
In the example below, the h1, p, and div elements have different background
colors:
h1 {background-color:#6495ed;}
p {background-color:#e0ffff;}
div {background-color:#b0c4de;}
Example

Odisha State Open University Page 9

3.6.1 CSS Colors - Hex Codes
A hexadecimal is a 6 digit representation of a color. The first two digits
(RR) represent a red value, the next two are a green value (GG), and the last are
the blue value (BB). Each hexadecimal code will be preceded by a pound or hash
sign ‘#’. Following are the examples to use Hexadecimal notation.

3.6.2 CSS Colors - Short Hex Codes

This is a shorter form of the six-digit notation. In this format, each digit is
replicated to arrive at an equivalent six-digit value. For example: #6A7 becomes
#66AA77.

Odisha State Open University Page 10

3.6.3 CSS Colors - RGB Values

This color value is specified using the rgb( ) property. This property takes
three values, one each for red, green, and blue. The value can be an integer
between 0 and 255 or a percentage. NOTE: All the browsers does not support
rgb() property of color, so it is recommended not to use it.

3.7 Text Management using CSS

CSS is a language that describes the style of an HTML document. You can set the
following text properties of an element:

 The color property is used to set the color of a text.

 The direction property is used to set the text direction.
 The letter-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the
letters that make up a word.
 The word-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the
words of a sentence.
 The text-indent property is used to indent the text of a paragraph.
 The text-align property is used to align the text of a document.
 The text-decoration property is used to underline, overline, and
strikethrough text.
Odisha State Open University Page 11
  The text-transform property is used to capitalize text or convert text to
uppercase or lowercase letters.
 The white-space property is used to control the flow and formatting of
text.
 The text-shadow property is used to set the text shadow around a text.

3.7.1 Set the Text Color

The following example demonstrates how to set the text color. Possible
value could be any color name in any valid format.
<p style="color:red;">This text will be written in red. </p>

3.7.2 Set the Text Direction

The following example demonstrates how to set the direction of a text.
Possible values are ltr or rtl.
<p style="direction:rtl;">This text will be rendered from right to left </p>

3.7.3. Set the Space between Characters

The following example demonstrates how to set the space between

characters. Possible values are normal or a number specifying space.

<p style="letter-spacing:5px;">This text is having space between letters.

</p>

3.7.4 Set the Space between Words

The following example demonstrates how to set the space between words.
Possible values are normal or a number specifying space.

<p style="word-spacing:5px;">This text is having space between words.

</p>

3.7.5 Set the Text Indent

The following example demonstrates how to indent the first line of a
paragraph. Possible values are % or a number specifying indent space.

<p style="text-indent:1cm;">
This text will have first line indented by 1cm and this line will
remain at its actual position this is done by CSS text-indent
property.
</p>

3.7.6 Set the Text Alignment

The following example demonstrates how to align a text. Possible values

are left, right, center, justify.

<p style="text-align:right;"> This will be right aligned. </p>

<p style="text-align:center;"> This will be center aligned. </p>
<p style="text-align:left;"> This will be left aligned. </p>

Odisha State Open University Page 12

3.7.7 Decorating the Text

The following example demonstrates how to decorate a text. Possible

values are none, underline, overline, line-through, blink.

<p style="text-decoration:underline;"> This will be underlined </p>

<p style="text-decoration:line-through;"> This will be striked through.
</p>
<p style="text-decoration:overline;"> This will have a over line. </p>
<p style="text-decoration:blink;">This text will have blinking effect </p>

3.7.8 Set the Text Cases

The following example demonstrates how to set the cases for a text.
Possible values are none, capitalize, uppercase, lowercase.

<p style="text-transform:capitalize;"> This will be capitalized </p>

<p style="text-transform:uppercase;"> This will be in uppercase </p>
<p style="text-transform:lowercase;"> This will be in lowercase </p>

Example
:

Odisha State Open University Page 13

The output of the above program is :

3.8 Font Management using CSS

A font is the combination of typeface and other qualities, such as size, pitch,
and spacing. For example, Times Roman is a typeface that defines the shape
of each character. Within Times Roman, however, there are many fonts to
choose from -- different sizes, italic, bold, and so on.You can set the following
font properties of an element:

 The font-family property is used to change the face of a font.

 The font-style property is used to make a font italic or oblique.
 The font-variant property is used to create a small-caps effect.
 The font-weight property is used to increase or decrease how bold or light
a font appears.
 The font-size property is used to increase or decrease the size of a font.
 The font property is used as shorthand to specify a number of other font
properties.

3.8.1 Set the Font Family

Following is the example, which demonstrates how to set the font family
of an element. Possible value could be any font family name.

Odisha State Open University Page 14

 <p style="font-family:georgia,garamond,serif;">
This text is rendered in either georgia, garamond, or the default serif font
depending on which font you have at your system. </p>

3.8.2 Set the Font Style

The following example demonstrates how to set the font style of an

element. Possible values are normal, italic and oblique.

<p style="font-style:italic;">This text will be rendered in italic

style </p>
3.8.3 Set the Font Variant
The following example demonstrates how to set the font variant of an
element. Possible values are normal and small-caps.

<p style="font-variant:small-caps;"> This text will be rendered as small

caps </p>
3.8.4 Set the Font Weight
The following example demonstrates how to set the font weight of an
element. The font-weight property provides the functionality to specify
how bold a font is. Possible values could be normal, bold, bolder, lighter,
100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900.
<p style="font-weight:bold;"> This font is bold. </p>
<p style="font-weight:bolder;"> This font is bolder. </p>
<p style="font-weight:900;"> This font is 900 weight. </p>

3.8.5 Set the Font Size

The following example demonstrates how to set the font size of an
element. The font-size property is used to control the size of fonts.
Possible values could be xx-small, x-small, small, medium, large, x-large,
xx-large, smaller, larger, size in pixels or in %.

<p style="font-size:20px;"> This font size is 20 pixels </p>

<p style="font-size:small;"> This font size is small </p>
<p style="font-size:large;"> This font size is large </p>

3.8.6 Set the Font Size Adjust

The following example demonstrates how to set the font size adjust of an
element. This property enables you to adjust the x-height to make fonts
more legible. Possible value could be any number.

<p style="font-size-adjust:0.61;">This text is using a font-size-adjust

value. </p>
3.8.7 Set the Font Stretch

The following example demonstrates how to set the font stretch of

an element. This property relies on the user's computer to have an
expanded or condensed version of the font being used.

Odisha State Open University Page 15

 Possible values could be normal, wider, narrower, ultra-condensed,
extra-condensed, condensed, semi-condensed, semi-expanded,
expanded, extra-expanded, ultra-expanded.
<p style="font-stretch:ultra-expanded;">
If this doesn't appear to work, it is likely that your computer
doesn't have a condensed or expanded version of the font being
used. </p>
Example:-

The output of the above program is :

Odisha State Open University Page 16

3.9 Managing hyperlinks using CSS
An element in an electronic document that links to another place in the same
document or to an entirely different document. A hyperlink, or simply a link, is a
reference to data that the reader can directly follow either by clicking, tapping, or
hovering. A hyperlink points to a whole document or to a specific element within
a document. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks. The text that is linked is called
anchor text. You can set the following properties of a hyperlink:

 The :link signifies unvisited hyperlinks.

 The :visited signifies visited hyperlinks.
 The :hover signifies an element that currently has the user's mouse pointer
hovering over it.
 The :active signifies an element on which the user is currently clicking.

Usually, all these properties are kept in the header part of the HTML document.
Remember a:hover MUST come after a:link and a:visited in the CSS definition in
order to be effective. Also, a:active MUST come after a:hover in the CSS
definition as follows:

<style type="text/css">
a:link {color: #000000}
a:visited {color: #006600}
a:hover {color: #FFCC00}
a:active {color: #FF00CC}
</style>

3.9.1 Set the Color of Links

The following example demonstrates how to set the link color. Possible
values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:link {color:#000000}
</style>

<a href="/html/index.htm">Black Link</a>

3.9.2 Set the Color of Visited Links

The following example demonstrates how to set the color of the visited
links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:visited {color: #006600}
</style>
<a href="/html/index.htm">Click this link</a>

Odisha State Open University Page 17

3.9.3 Change the Color of Links when Mouse is Over
The following example demonstrates how to change the color of links
when we bring a mouse pointer over that link. Possible values could be
any color name in any valid format.
<style type="text/css">
a:hover {color: #FFCC00}
</style>

<a href="/html/index.htm">Bring Mouse Here</a>

3.9.4 Change the Color of Active Links

The following example demonstrates how to change the color of active

links. Possible values could be any color name in any valid format.

<style type="text/css">
a:active {color: #FF00CC}
</style>

<a href="/html/index.htm">Click This Link</a>

Check your progress 4

Q1. What is the representation of 6 digit Hexa code ?
Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q2. What are the different properties of Font ?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q3. Write the different properties of Hyperlink ?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3.10 Managing List using CSS

Lists are very helpful in conveying a set of either numbered or bulleted points.
This chapter teaches you how to control list type, position, style, etc., using CSS.
We have the following five CSS properties, which can be used to control lists:

 The list-style-type allows you to control the shape or appearance of the

marker.
 The list-style-position specifies whether a long point that wraps to a
second line should align with the first line or start underneath the start of
the marker.
 The list-style-image specifies an image for the marker rather than a bullet
point or number.
 The list-style serves as shorthand for the preceding properties.

Odisha State Open University Page 18

  The marker-offset specifies the distance between a marker and the text in
the list.

3.10.1 The list-style-type Property

The list-style-type property allows you to control the shape or style of a bullet
point (also known as a marker) in case of unordered lists and the style of
numbering characters in ordered lists. Here are the values, which can be used for
an unordered list:

Value Description
None NA
disc A filled-in
(default) circle
Circle An empty
circle
Square A filled-in
square

Here are the values, which can be used for an ordered list:

Value Description Example

Decimal Number 1,2,3,4…..
decimal- 0 before the number 01, 02,
leading- …..
zero
lower- Lowercase alphanumeric a, b, c, ….
alpha characters
upper- Uppercase alphanumeric A, B, C,
alpha characters D, E..
lower- Lowercase Roman i, ii, iii, iv,
roman numerals v
upper- Uppercase Roman I, II, III,
roman numerals IV, V

Here is an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 19

The output of the above program is :

3.10.2 The list-style-position Property

The list-style-position property indicates whether the marker should
appear inside or outside of the box containing the bullet points. It can have
one of the two values:

Value Description
None NA
Inside If the text goes onto a second line, the text will wrap
underneath the marker. It will also appear indented to where
the text would have started if the list had a value of outside.
Outside If the text goes onto a second line, the text will be aligned
with the start of the first line (to the right of the bullet).

Odisha State Open University Page 20

Example :
<html>
<head>
<Title>This is my inline css page</Title>
</head>
<body>
<ul style="list-style-type:circle; list-stlye-
position:outside;"><li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>
<ul style="list-style-type:square;list-style-
position:inside;"><li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ul>
<ol style="list-style-type:decimal;list-stlye-
position:outside;"><li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li>
<li>Physics</li>
</ol>
<ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha;list-style-position:inside;">

<li>Maths</li>
<li>Social Science</li><li>Physics</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>

The output of the above program is :

Odisha State Open University Page 21

3.11 Designing Tables using CSS
Tables are an excellent way to organize and display information on a page. You
can set the following properties of a table:

 The border-collapse specifies whether the browser should control the

appearance of the adjacent borders that touch each other or whether each
cell should maintain its style.
 The border-spacing specifies the width that should appear between table
cells.
 The caption-side captions are presented in the <caption> element. By
default, these are rendered above the table in the document. You use the
caption-side property to control the placement of the table caption.
 The empty-cells specify whether the border should be shown if a cell is
empty.
 The table-layout allows browsers to speed up the layout of a table by
using the first width properties it comes across for the rest of a column
rather than having to load the whole table before rendering it.

3.11.1 The order-collapse Property

This property can have two values collapse and separate. The following
example uses both the values:

<html>
<head>
<Title>This is my inline css page</Title>
</head>
<body>
<style type="text/css">
table.one
{border-collapse:collapse;}
table.two
{border-collapse:separate;}
td.a
{
border-style:dotted;
border-width:3px;
border-color:#000000;
padding: 10px;
}
td.b
{
border-style:solid;
border-width:3px;
border-color:#333333;
padding:10px;
}

Odisha State Open University Page 22

 </style>
<table class="one">
<caption>Collapse Border Example</caption>
<tr><td class="a"> Cell A Collapse Example</td></tr>
<tr><td class="b"> Cell B Collapse Example</td></tr>
</table><br />
<table class="two">
<caption>Separate Border Example</caption>
<tr><td class="a"> Cell A Separate Example</td></tr>
<tr><td class="b"> Cell B Separate Example</td></tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

The output of the above program is :

3.11.2 The border-spacing Property

The border-spacing property specifies the distance that separates the

adjacent cells’ borders. It can take either one or two values; these should be units
of length. If you provide one value, it applies to both vertical and horizontal
borders. Or you can specify two values, in which case, the first refers to the
horizontal spacing and the second to the vertical spacing:
NOTE: Unfortunately, this property does not work in Netscape 7 or IE 6.
Now let's modify the previous example and see the effect:

Odisha State Open University Page 23

<style type="text/css">
table.one
{
border-collapse:separate; width:400px;
border-spacing:10px;
}
table.two
{
border-collapse:separate; width:400px;
border-spacing:10px 50px;
}
</style>
<table class="one" border="1">
<caption>Separate Border Example with border-spacing</caption>
<tr><td> Cell A Collapse Example</td></tr>
<tr><td> Cell B Collapse Example</td></tr>
</table><br />
<table class="two" border="1">
<caption>Separate Border Example with border-spacing</caption>
<tr><td> Cell A Separate Example</td></tr>
<tr><td> Cell B Separate Example</td></tr>
</table>

3.11.3 The empty-cells Property

The empty-cells property indicates whether a cell without any content should have
a border displayed. This property can have one of the three values - show, hide,
or inherit. Here is the empty-cells property used to hide borders of empty cells in
the <table> element.

Example:

<html>
<head>
<Title>This is my inline css page</Title>
</head>
<body>
<style type="text/css">
table.empty
{
width:350px;
border-collapse:separate;
empty-cells:hide;
}
td.empty
{
padding:5px;
border-style:solid;

Odisha State Open University Page 24

 border-width:1px;
border-color:#999999;}
</style>
<table class="empty">
<tr>
<th></th>
<th>Title one</th>
<th>Title two</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Row Title</th>
<td class="empty">value</td><td class="empty">value</td></tr>
<tr>
<th>Row Title</th>
<td class="empty">value</td><td class="empty"></td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

The output of the above program is :

Check your progress 5

Q1. What is the different properties of table in css ?

Answer:_________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Q2. What are the different values of ordered and unordered list in css ?
Answer:_________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Odisha State Open University Page 25

3.12 Working with Box Model
You have seen the border that surrounds every box i.e. element, the padding that
can appear inside each box, and the margin that can go around them. In this
chapter, we will learn how to change the dimensions of boxes. We have the
following properties that allow you to control the dimensions of a box.
 The height property is used to set the height of a box.
 The width property is used to set the width of a box.
 The line-height property is used to set the height of a line of text.
 The max-height property is used to set a maximum height that a box can
be.
 The min-height property is used to set the minimum height that a box can
be.
 The max-width property is used to set the maximum width that a box can
be.
 The min-width property is used to set the minimum width that a box can
be.

3.12.1 The Height and Width Properties

The height and width properties allow you to set the height and width for boxes.
They can take values of a length, a percentage, or the keyword auto. Here is an
example:

The output of the above program is:

Odisha State Open University Page 26

3.12.2 The line-height Property

The line-height property allows you to increase the space between lines of text.
The value of the line-height property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.
Here is an example:

The output of the above program is

3.12.3 The max-height Property

The max-height property allows you to specify the maximum height of a box. The
value of the max-height property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.

NOTE: This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.

Here is an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 27

The output of the above program is

3.12.4 The max-width Property

The max-width property allows you to specify the maximum width of a box. The
value of the max-width property can be a number, a length, or a percentage.
NOTE: This property does not work in either Netscape 7 or IE 6.
Here is an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 28

The output of the above program is

3.13 Designing borders using CSS

The border properties allow you to specify how the border of the box representing
an element should look. There are three properties of a border you can change:

 The border-color specifies the color of a border.

 The border-style specifies whether a border should be solid, dashed line,
double line, or one of the other possible values.
 The border-width specifies the width of a border.

3.13.1 The border-color Property

The border-color property allows you to change the color of the border
surrounding an element. You can individually change the color of the bottom, left,
top and right sides of an element's border using the properties:

 border-bottom-color changes the color of bottom border.

 border-top-color changes the color of top border.
 border-left-color changes the color of left border.
 border-right-color changes the color of right border.
Odisha State Open University Page 29
The following example shows the effect of all these properties:

The output of the above program is :

3.13.2 The border-style Property

The border-style property allows you to select one of the following styles of
border:
 none: No border. (Equivalent of border-width:0;)
 solid: Border is a single solid line.
 dotted: Border is a series of dots.
 dashed: Border is a series of short lines.
 double: Border is two solid lines.

Odisha State Open University Page 30

  groove: Border looks as though it is carved into the page.
 ridge: Border looks the opposite of groove.
 inset: Border makes the box look like it is embedded in the page.
 outset: Border makes the box look like it is coming out of the canvas.
 hidden: Same as none, except in terms of border-conflict resolution for table
elements.

You can individually change the style of the bottom, left, top, and right borders of
an element using the following properties:

 border-bottom-style changes the style of bottom border.

 border-top-style changes the style of top border.
 border-left-style changes the style of left border.
 border-right-style changes the style of right border.

The following example shows all these border styles:

It will produce the following result:

Odisha State Open University Page 31

3.14 Designing outline using CSS
Outlines are very similar to borders, but there are few major differences as well:
 An outline does not take up space.
 Outlines do not have to be rectangular.
 Outline is always the same on all sides; you cannot specify different values
for different sides of an element.

NOTE: The outline properties are not supported by IE 6 or Netscape 7. You can
set the following outline properties using CSS.

 The outline-width property is used to set the width of the outline.

 The outline-style property is used to set the line style for the outline.
 The outline-color property is used to set the color of the outline.
 The outline property is used to set all the above three properties in a single
statement.

3.14.1 The outline-width Property

The outline-width property specifies the width of the outline to be added to the
box. Its value should be a length or one of the values thin, medium, or thick, just
like the border-width attribute. A width of zero pixels means no outline. Here is
an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 32

The above program will produce the following result:

3.14.2 The outline-style Property

The outline-style property specifies the style for the line (solid, dotted, or dashed)
that goes around an element. It can take one of the following values:
 none: No border. (Equivalent of outline-width:0;)
 solid: Outline is a single solid line.
 dotted: Outline is a series of dots.
 dashed: Outline is a series of short lines.
 double: Outline is two solid lines.
 groove: Outline looks as though it is carved into the page.
 ridge: Outline looks the opposite of groove.
 inset: Outline makes the box look like it is embedded in the page.
 outset: Outline makes the box look like it is coming out of the canvas.
 hidden: Same as none.

Odisha State Open University Page 33

Here is an example:

The above program will produce the following result:

3.14.3 The outline-color Property

The outline-color property allows you to specify the color of the outline. Its value
should either be a color name, a hex color, or an RGB value, as with the color and
border-color properties. Here is an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 34

The above program will produce the following result:

3.15 Setting Page Margin using CSS

The margin property defines the space around an HTML element. It is
possible to use negative values to overlap content. The values of the margin
property are not inherited by the child elements. Remember that the adjacent
vertical margins (top and bottom margins) will collapse into each other so that the
distance between the blocks is not the sum of the margins, but only the greater of
the two margins or the same size as one margin if both are equal.
We have the following properties to set an element margin.

Odisha State Open University Page 35

  The margin specifies a shorthand property for setting the margin
properties in one declaration.
 The margin-bottom specifies the bottom margin of an element.
 The margin-top specifies the top margin of an element.
 The margin-left specifies the left margin of an element.
 The margin-right specifies the right margin of an element.

3.15.1 The Margin Property

The margin property allows you to set all of the properties for the four
margins in one declaration. Here is the syntax to set margin around a paragraph:
<style type="text/css">
p {margin: 15px}
all four margins will be 15px

p {margin: 10px 2%}

top and bottom margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the total
width of the document.

p {margin: 10px 2% -10px}

top margin will be 10px, left and right margin will be 2% of the total width of the
document, bottom margin will be -10px

p {margin: 10px 2% -10px auto}

top margin will be 10px, right margin will be 2% of the total width of the
document, bottom margin will be -10px, left margin will be set by the browser
</style>

Here is an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 36

The above program will produce the following result:

3.15.2 The margin-bottom Property

The margin-bottom property allows you to set the bottom margin of an element. It
can have a value in length, %, or auto.
Here is an example:

The above program will produce the following result:

Odisha State Open University Page 37

3.15.3 The margin-left Property

The margin-left property allows you to set the left margin of an element. It can
have a value in length, %, or auto. Here is an example:

The above program will produce the following result

Odisha State Open University Page 38

Check your progress 6

Q1. Write the different properties of the dimensions of a box.

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Q2. Write the three properties of border.
Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q3. Write the few major difference of outline in CSS.

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q4. What is a margin property?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q5. Write the border-style property in CSS.

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3.16 Let us sum up

In this unit we have understood what is CSS, advantages of CSS,
Parts of CSS, CSS syntax, CSS selectors, ways to insert CSS, background
image handling, background colour management, text management,
font management, managing hyperlinks, managing lists, designing tables,
working with box model, designing borders, designing outline,
setting page margin

3.17 Reference

1. W3Schools.com
2. Google.com
3. Tutorialpoints.com

3.18 Check your progress possible answers

Check your progress 1

Q1. Write the abbreviation of CSS?

Answer

CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets. It is a simple design language intended to
simplify the process of making web pages presentable.

Odisha State Open University Page 39

 Q2. Write the three parts of CSS syntax?
Answer
CSS style is made of three parts:
1. Selector: A selector is an HTML tag at which a style will be applied. This could
be any tag like <h1>, <p> or <table> etc.
2. Property: A property is a type of attribute of HTML tag. Put simply, all the
HTML attributes are converted into CSS properties. They could be color, border,
bgcolor etc.
3. Value: Values are assigned to properties. For example, color property can have
the value either red or #F1F1F1 etc.

Check your progress 2

Q1. What are the 3 types of selectors.

Answer

Three types of CSS Selectors

1. The Element selectors
2. The ID Selectors
3. The Class Selectors

Q2. What is universal selector ?.

Answer
Universal selector
An asterisk (*) is the universal selector for CSS. It matches a single element of any
type. Omitting the asterisk with simple selectors has the same effect. For
instance, *.warning and.warning are considered equal. Rather than selecting elements
of a specific type

Check your progress 3

Q1. How many ways to build style sheet ?what are they ?
Answer
There are three ways of inserting a style sheet:
1. External style sheet
2. Internal style sheet
3. Inline style

Odisha State Open University Page 40

 Q2. Write the background properties of CSS
Answer

You can set the following background properties of an element:

 The background-image property is used to set the background image of an element.

 The background-repeat property is used to control the repetition of an image in the
background.
 The background-position property is used to control the position of an image in the
background.
 The background-attachment property is used to control the scrolling of an image in
the background.
 The background property is used as shorthand to specify a number of other
background properties.
Check your progress 4

Q1. What is the representation of 6 digit Hexa code ?

Answer
A hexadecimal is a 6 digit representation of a color. The first two digits (RR)
represent a red value, the next two are a green value (GG), and the last are the blue
value (BB). Each hexadecimal code will be preceded by a pound or hash sign ‘#’.
Following are the example to use Hexadecimal notation.
#66AA77

Q2. What are the different properties of Font ?

Answer
Font properties of an element:
 The font-family property is used to change the face of a font.
 The font-style property is used to make a font italic or oblique.
 The font-variant property is used to create a small-caps effect.
 The font-weight property is used to increase or decrease how bold or light a font
appears.
 The font-size property is used to increase or decrease the size of a font.
 The font property is used as shorthand to specify a number of other font properties.

Q3. Write the different properties of Hyperlink ?

Answer
Properties of a hyperlink:
 The :link signifies unvisited hyperlinks.
 The :visited signifies visited hyperlinks.
 The :hover signifies an element that currently has the user's mouse pointer hovering
over it.
 The :active signifies an element on which the user is currently clicking.

Odisha State Open University Page 41

 Check your progress 5

Q1. What is the different properties of table in css ?

Answer
Following properties of a table:

 The border-collapse specifies whether the browser should control the appearance of
the adjacent borders that touch each other or whether each cell should maintain its
style.
 The border-spacing specifies the width that should appear between table cells.
 The caption-side captions are presented in the <caption> element. By default, these
are rendered above the table in the document. You use the caption-side property to
control the placement of the table caption.
 The empty-cells specify whether the border should be shown if a cell is empty.
 The table-layout allows browsers to speed up the layout of a table by using the first
width properties it comes across for the rest of a column rather than having to load the
whole table before rendering it.

Q2. What are the different values of ordered and unordered list in CSS ?
Answer

The values, for an unordered list:

disc (default),Circle,Square.

The values, for an ordered list:

Decimal,decimal-leading-zero,lower-alpha,upper-alpha,lower-roman,upper-roman.

Check your progress 6

Q1. Write the different properties of the dimensions of a box.

Answer
Properties of dimensions of a box.

 The height property is used to set the height of a box.

 The width property is used to set the width of a box.
 The line-height property is used to set the height of a line of text.
 The max-height property is used to set a maximum height that a box can be.
 The min-height property is used to set the minimum height that a box can be.
 The max-width property is used to set the maximum width that a box can be.
 The min-width property is used to set the minimum width that a box can be.

Odisha State Open University Page 42

 Q2. Write the three properties of border.
Answer
There are three properties of a border:

 The border-color specifies the color of a border.

 The border-style specifies whether a border should be solid, dashed line, double line,
or one of the other possible values.
 The border-width specifies the width of a border

Q3. Write the few major difference of outline in CSS.

Answer
There are few major differences are :
 An outline does not take up space.
 Outlines do not have to be rectangular.
 Outline is always the same on all sides; you cannot specify different values for
different sides of an element.
Q4. What is a margin property?
Answer
Following properties to set an element margin.

1. The margin specifies a shorthand property for setting the margin properties in
one declaration.
2. The margin-bottom specifies the bottom margin of an element.
3. The margin-top specifies the top margin of an element.
4. The margin-left specifies the left margin of an element.
5. The margin-right specifies the right margin of an element
Q5. Write the border-style property in CSS.
Answer
The border-style property :
 none: No border. (Equivalent of border-width:0;)
 solid: Border is a single solid line.
 dotted: Border is a series of dots.
 dashed: Border is a series of short lines.
 double: Border is two solid lines.
 groove: Border looks as though it is carved into the page.
 ridge: Border looks the opposite of groove.
 inset: Border makes the box look like it is embedded in the page.
 outset: Border makes the box look like it is coming out of the canvas.
 hidden: Same as none, except in terms of border-conflict
resolution for table elements.

Odisha State Open University Page 43

Unit -4
CSS Advanced
Learning objectives:
After the Completion of this unit you should be able to know
 Paragraph Padding
 Image height and width setting
 Block level and inline elements
 Pseudo-class and elements
 Various attribute of image
 Different attribute values of selectors

Structure

4.1 Padding using CSS

4.1.1 The padding-bottom Property
4.1.2 The padding-top Property
4.2 Setting Display Using CSS
4.2.1 Block-level Elements
4.2.2 Inline element
4.3 Setting Width And Max Width using CSS
4.4 Setting Position using CSS
4.4.1 Relative Positioning
4.4.2 Absolute Positioning
4.4.3 Fixed Positioning
4.5 Setting the Float Property using CSS
4.5.1 Element float
4.5.2 Turning off Float - Using Clear
4.5.3 All CSS float
4.6 Inline Block property
4.7 Horizontal Alignment in CSS
4.7.1 Center Align Elements
4.7.2 Center alignment Text
4.7.3 Center an image
4.7.4 Left and Right Align - Using position
4.8 Working With Combinatory
4.8.1 Descendant Selector
4.8.2 Child Selector
4.8.3 Adjacent Sibling Selector
4.8.4 General sibling selector

Odisha State Open University Page 44

 4.9 Working with Pseudo-class
4.9.1 Anchor Pseudo-classes
4.9.2 Pseudo classes and CSS classes
4.9.3 Simple Tooltip Hover
4.3.4 The first child pseudo classes
4.3.5 Match the first <p> element
4.10 working with Pseudo-elements
4.10.1 The: first-line pseudo-element
4.10.2 The: first-letter pseudo-element
4.10.3 The: before pseudo-element
4.10.4 The: after pseudo-element
4.10.5 The: selection pseudo-element
4.11 Creating a navigation bar
4.11.1 Navigation Bar = List of Links
4.11.2Vertical navigation bar
4.11.3 Center Links & Add Borders
4.11.4 Horizontal Navigation Bar
4.12 Working with images
4.12.1 The Image Border Property
4.12.2 The Image width Property
4.13 Working with Attribute selectors
4.13.1Multiple style rules
4.13.2 CSS [attribute] Selector
4.13.3 CSS [attribute="value"] Selector
4.13.4 CSS [attribute ~ ="value"] Selector
4.13.5 CSS [attribute |="value"] Selector
4.13.6 CSS [attribute ^="value"] Selector
4.13.7 CSS [attribute $="value"] Selector
4.13.8 CSS [attribute *="value"] Selector
4.14 Check Your Progress Possible answer
4.15 Reference

Odisha State Open University Page 45

4.1 Padding using CSS
The padding property allows you to specify how much space should appear
between the content of an element and its border: The value of this attribute
should be either a length, a percentage, or the word inherits. If the value is inherit,
it will have the same padding as its parent element. If a percentage is used, the
percentage is of the containing box. The following CSS properties can be used to
control lists. You can also set different values for the padding on each side of the
box using the following properties:
 The padding-bottom specifies the bottom padding of an element.
 The padding-top specifies the top padding of an element.
 The padding-left specifies the left padding of an element.
 The padding-right specifies the right padding of an element.
 The padding serves as shorthand for the preceding properties.

4.1.1 The padding-bottom Property

The padding-bottom property sets the bottom padding (space) of an element. This
can take a value in terms of length of %. Here is an example:

The above program will produce the following result

Odisha State Open University Page 46

4.1.2 The padding-top Property
The padding-top property sets the top padding (space) of an element. This can take a
value in terms of length of %. Here is an example:

The above program will produce the following result:

Odisha State Open University Page 47

4.2 Setting Display Using CSS
The display property is the most important CSS property for controlling layout.
The display property specifies if/how an element is displayed. Every HTML
element has a default display value depending on what type of element it is. The
default display value for most elements is block or inline. A block element is
often called a block-level element. An inline element is always just called an
inline element.

4.2.1 Block-level Elements

A block-level element always starts on a new line and takes up the full width
available (stretches out to the left and right as far as it can).

The <div> element is a block-level element.

Examples of block-level elements:

 <div>
 <h1> - <h6>
 <p>
 <form>
 <header>
 <footer>
 <section>
<div>
div is the standard block-level element. A block-level element
starts on a new line and stretches out to the left and right as far as it
can. Other common block-level elements are p and form, and new
in HTML5 are header, footer, section, and more.
</div>
4.2.2 Inline Elements
An inline element does not start on a new line and only takes
up as much width as necessary. This is an inline <span>
element inside a paragraph.
Span is the standard inline element. An inline element can wrap
some text inside a paragraph <span> like this </span> without
disrupting the flow of that paragraph. The a element is the most
common inline element, since you use them for links.
Examples of inline elements:
 <span>
 <a>
 <img>

Odisha State Open University Page 48

CSS Syntax
Display: value;

The values of display property have the following meanings:

 Block -This value causes an element to generate a block box.

 Inline-block - This value causes an element to generate an inline-level
block container. The inside of an inline-block is formatted as a block box,
and the element itself is formatted as an atomic inline-level box.
 Inline - This value causes an element to generate one or more
inline boxes.
 list-item - This value causes an element (e.g., LI in HTML) to
generate a principal block box and a marker box.
 None - This value causes an element to not appear in the
formatting structure

Here are some examples of the display property:

p { display: block }
em {display: inline }
li { display: list-item }
4.3 Setting width and Maxwidth using CSS
Setting the width of a block-level element will prevent it from stretching out to the
edges of its container. Then, you can set the margins to auto, to horizontally center
the element within its container. The element will take up the specified width, and
the remaining space will be split equally between the two margins:

This <div> element has a width of 500px, and margin set to

auto.

Note: The problem with the <div> above occurs when the browser window is
smaller than the width of the element. The browser then adds a horizontal
scrollbar to the page.

Using max-width instead, in this situation, will improve the browser's handling of
small windows. This is important when making a site usable on small devices:

This <div> element has a max-width of 500px, and margin

set to auto.

Tip: Resize the browser window to less than 500px wide, to see the difference
between the two divs!

Here is an example of the two divs above:

Odisha State Open University Page 49

The output of the above program is following bellow:

4.4 Setting Position using CSS

CSS helps you to position your HTML element. You can put any HTML element
at whatever location you like. You can specify whether you want the element
positioned relative to its natural position in the page or absolute based on its
parent element. Now, we will see all the CSS positioning related properties with
examples.

4.4.1 Relative Positioning

Relative positioning changes the position of the HTML element relative to where
it normally appears. So "left:20" adds 20 pixels to the element's LEFT position.
You can use two values top and left along with the position property to move an
HTML element anywhere in an HTML document.

 Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

 Move Right - Use a positive value for left.
 Move Up - Use a negative value for top.
 Move Down - Use a positive value for top.

NOTE: You can use the bottom or right values as well in the same way as top and
left.

Odisha State Open University Page 50

Here is an example:

The above program will produce the following result:

4.4.2 Absolute Positioning

An element with position: absolute is positioned at the specified coordinates

relative to your screen top-left corner. You can use two values top and left along
with the position property to move an HTML element anywhere in HTML
document.

 Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

 Move Right - Use a positive value for left.
 Move Up - Use a negative value for top.
 Move Down - Use a positive value for top.

NOTE: You can use bottom or right values as well in the same way as top and
left.
Here is an example:
<div style="position: absolute; left: 80px; top: 20px; background-color:
yellow ;">
This div has absolute positioning.
Odisha State Open University Page 51
 </div>
4.4.3 Fixed Positioning
Fixed positioning allows you to fix the position of an element to a particular spot
on the page, regardless of scrolling. Specified coordinates will be relative to the
browser window. You can use two values top and left along with the position
property to move an HTML element anywhere in the HTML document.

 Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

 Move Right - Use a positive value for left.
 Move Up - Use a negative value for top.
 Move Down - Use a positive value for top.

NOTE: You can use bottom or right values as well in the same way as top and
left.

Here is an example:

<div style="position:fixed;left:80px;top:20px; background-

color:yellow;">
This div has fixed positioning.
</div>

4.5 Setting the float property using CSS

A float is a box that is shifted to the left or right on the current line. The most
interesting characteristic of a float (or "floated" or "floating" box) is that content
may flow along its side (or be prohibited from doing so by the property).

With CSS float, an element can be pushed to the left or right, allowing other
elements to wrap around it. Float is very often used for images, but it is also
useful when working with layouts.

A line box is next to a float when there exists a vertical position that satisfies all
of these four conditions:
(a) At or below the top of the line box,
(b) At or above the bottom of the line box
(c) Below the top margin edge of the float, and
(d) Above the bottom margin edge of the float.

4.5.1 Elements Float

Elements are floated horizontally; this means that an element can only be
floated left or right, not up or down. A floated element will move as far to the left
or right as it can. Usually this means all the way to the left or right of the
containing element. The elements after the floating element will flow around it.
The elements before the floating element will not be affected. If an image is
floated to the right, a following text flows around it, to the left:

Odisha State Open University Page 52

Example:

img { float:right; }

If you place several floating elements after each other, they will float next to each
other if there is room. Here we have made an image gallery using the float
property:

Example

.thumbnail { float:left; width:110px; height:90px; margin:5px; }

4.5.2 Turning off Float - Using Clear

Elements after the floating element will flow around it. To avoid this, use
the clear property. The clear property specifies which sides of an element
other floating elements are not allowed. Add a text line into the image
gallery, using the clear property:

Example:
.text_line { clear:both; }

4.5.3 All CSS Float Properties

The number in the "CSS" column indicates in which CSS version the
property is defined (CSS1 or CSS2).

Property Description Values CSS

clear Specifies which sides of left right 1
an element where other both none
floating elements are not inherit
allowed
float Specifies whether or not left right 1
a box should float none
inherit
Example:

The above program will produce the following result:

Odisha State Open University Page 53

Odisha State Open University Page 54
Check your progress 1

Q1. What is Float ?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q2. Write the different properties of position?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q3. What is padding?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q4. Write the use of Display properties?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

4.6 Inline Block Properties

It has been possible for a long time to create a grid of boxes that fills the
browser width and wraps nicely (when the browser is resized), by using
the float property. However, the inline-block value of the display property makes
this even easier. Inline-block elements are like inline elements but they can have a
width and a height.

Examples
The old way - using float (notice that we also need to specify a clear property for
the element after the floating boxes):
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
.floating-box
{
float: left;
width: 150px;
height: 75px;
margin: 10px;
border: 3px solid #73AD21;
}

.after-box
{
clear: left;
border: 3px solid red;
}

Odisha State Open University Page 55

</style>
</head>
<body>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="floating-box">Floating box</div>
<div class="after-box">Another box, after the floating boxes...</div>
</body>
</html>
The above program will produce the following result

4.7 Horizontal Alignment in CSS

In CSS, several properties can be used to align elements horizontally and

vertically.

4.7.1 Center Align Elements

To horizontally center a block element (like <div>), use margin: auto;

Setting the width of the element will prevent it from stretching out to the edges of
its container. The element will then take up the specified width, and the remaining
space will be split equally between the two margins:

Odisha State Open University Page 56

 Example:

.center
{
margin: auto;
width: 50%;
border: 3px solid green;
padding: 10px;
}

Note: Center aligning has no effect if the width property is not set (or set to
100%).

4.7.2 Center Align Text

To just center the text inside an element, use text-align: center;

Example:

.center
{
text-align: center;
border: 3px solid green;
}
4.7.3 Center an Image

To center an image, use margin: auto; and make it into a block element:
img
{
display: block;
margin: auto;
width: 40%;
}

4.7.4 Left and Right Align - Using position

One method for aligning elements is to use position: absolute;:

Example:

.right {
position: absolute;
right: 0px;
width: 300px;
border: 3px solid #73AD21;
padding: 10px;
}

Note: Absolute positioned elements are removed from the normal flow,
and can overlap elements.

Odisha State Open University Page 57

Tip: When aligning elements with position, always define margin and padding for
the <body> element. This is to avoid visual differences in different browsers.
There is also a problem with IE8 and earlier, when using position. If a container
element (in our case <div class="container">) has a specified width, and the
!DOCTYPE declaration is missing, IE8 and earlier versions will add a 17px
margin on the right side. This seems to be space reserved for a scrollbar. So,
always set the !DOCTYPE declaration when using position:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
body
{
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
.container
{
position: relative;
width: 100%;
}
.right
{
position: absolute;
right: 0px;
width: 300px;
background-color: #b0e0e6;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

<h2>Right Align</h2>

<div class="container">
<div class="right">
<p><b>Note: </b>When aligning using the position property,
always include the !DOCTYPE declaration! If missing, it can
produce strange results in IE browsers.</p>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>

The above program will produce the following result

Odisha State Open University Page 58

4.8 Working with Combinatory
A combinatory is something that explains the relationship between the selectors.
A CSS selector can contain more than one simple selector. Between the simple
selectors, we can include a combinatory.
There are four different combinatory in CSS:
 descendant selector (space)
 child selector (>)
 adjacent sibling selector (+)
 general sibling selector (~)
4.8.1 Descendant Selector

The descendant selector matches all elements that are descendants of a

specified element.

The following example selects all <p> elements inside <div> elements:

Example
div p
{
background-color: yellow;
}

Odisha State Open University Page 59

4.8.2 Child Selector

The child selector selects all elements that are the immediate children of a
specified element.

The following example selects all <p> elements that are immediate
children of a <div> element:

Example
<div > p {
background-color: yellow;
}
4.8.3 Adjacent Sibling Selector

The adjacent sibling selector selects all elements that are the adjacent
siblings of a specified element. Sibling elements must have the same
parent element, and "adjacent" means "immediately following". The
following example selects all <p> elements that are placed immediately
after <div> elements:

Example:
div + p {
background-color: yellow;
}

4.8.4 General Sibling Selector

The general sibling selector selects all elements that are siblings of a
specified element. The following example selects all <p> elements that are
siblings of <div> elements:
Example:
div ~ p {
background-color: yellow;
}

4.9 Working with Pseudo-class

A pseudo-class is used to define a special state of an element. For example, it
can be used to:
 Style an element when a user mouses over it
 Style visited and unvisited links differently
 Style an element when it gets focus

Syntax
The syntax of pseudo-classes:

selector: pseudo-class

Odisha State Open University Page 60

 {
property: value;
}
4.9.1 Anchor Pseudo-classes
Links can be displayed in different ways:
Example
/* unvisited link */
a:link {
color: #FF0000;
}

/* visited link */
a:visited {
color: #00FF00;
}

/* mouse over link */

a:hover {
color: #FF00FF;
}

/* selected link */
a:active {
color: #0000FF;
}
Note: a: hover MUST come after a: link and a:visited in the CSS
definition in order to be effective!a:active MUST come after a:hover in the
CSS definition in order to be effective! Pseudo-class names are not case-
sensitive.

4.9.2 Pseudo-classes and CSS Classes

Pseudo-classes can be combined with CSS classes: When you hover over
the link in the example, it will change color:
Example
a.highlight:hover
{
color: #ff0000;
}
Hover on <div>
An example of using the: hover pseudo-class on a <div> element:
Example
div:hover
{
background-color: blue;
}
4.9.3 Simple Tooltip Hover
Hover over a <div> element to show a <p> element (like a tooltip):
Hover over me to show the <p> element.
Example
Odisha State Open University Page 61
 p
{
display: none;
background-color: yellow;
padding: 20px;
}

div:hover p
{
display: block;
}
4.9.4 The: first-child Pseudo-class
The: first-child pseudo-class matches a specified element that is the first
child of another element.
4.9.5 Match the first <p> element
In the following example, the selector matches any <p> element that is the
first child of any element:

Example
p: first-child

{
color: blue;
}

Match the first <i> element in all <p> elements

In the following example, the selector matches the first <i> element in all
<p> elements:

Example
p i:first-child
{
color: blue;
}

Selector Example Example description

:active a:active Selects the active link

Selects every checked <input>

:checked input:checked
element

Selects every disabled <input>

:disabled input:disabled
element

Odisha State Open University Page 62

 Selects every <p> element that has
:empty p:empty
no children

Selects every enabled <input>

:enabled input:enabled
element

Selects every <p> elements that is

:first-child p:first-child
the first child of its parent

Selects every <p> element that is

:first-of-type p:first-of-type
the first <p> element of its parent

Selects the <input> element that

:focus input:focus
has focus

:hover a:hover Selects links on mouse over

Selects <input> elements with a

:in-range input:in-range
value within a specified range

Selects all <input> elements with

:invalid input:invalid
an invalid value

Selects every <p> element with a

:lang(language) p:lang(it) lang attribute value starting with
"it"

Selects every <p> elements that is

:last-child p:last-child
the last child of its parent

Selects every <p> element that is

:last-of-type p:last-of-type
the last <p> element of its parent

:link a:link Selects all unvisited links

Selects every element that is not a

:not(selector) :not(p)
<p> element

Selects every <p> element that is

:nth-child(n) p:nth-child(2)
the second child of its parent

Selects every <p> element that is

:nth-last- p:nth-last-
the second child of its parent,
child(n) child(2)
counting from the last child

Selects every <p> element that is

:nth-last-of- p:nth-last-of-
the second <p> element of its
type(n) type(2)
parent, counting from the last child

Selects every <p> element that is

p:nth-of-
:nth-of-type(n) the second <p> element of its
type(2)
parent

p:only-of- Selects every <p> element that is

:only-of-type
type the only <p> element of its parent

Selects every <p> element that is

:only-child p:only-child
the only child of its parent

:optional input:optional Selects <input> elements with no

Odisha State Open University Page 63

 "required" attribute

input:out-of- Selects <input> elements with a

:out-of-range
range value outside a specified range

input:read- Selects <input> elements with a

:read-only
only "readonly" attribute specified

input:read- Selects <input> elements with no

:read-write
write "readonly" attribute

Selects <input> elements with a

:required input:required
"required" attribute specified

:root root Selects the document's root element

Selects the current active #news

:target #news:target element (clicked on a URL
containing that anchor name)

Selects all <input> elements with a

:valid input:valid
valid value

:visited a:visited Selects all visited links

4.10 Working with Pseudo-elements

CSS pseudo-elements are used to add special effects to some selectors. You do
not need to use JavaScript or any other script to use those effects. A simple syntax
of pseudo-element is as follows:

selector: pseudo-element {property: value}

CSS classes can also be used with the pseudo-elements:

selector. class: pseudo-element {property: value}

The most commonly used pseudo-elements are as follows:

Value Description
:first-line Use this element to add special styles to the first
line of the text in a selector.
:first- Use this element to add special style to the first
letter letter of the text in a selector.
:before Use this element to insert some content before an
element.
:after Use this element to insert some content after an
element.

Odisha State Open University Page 64

4.10.1 The: first-line pseudo-element

The following example demonstrates how to use the: first-line element to add
special effects to the first line of elements in a document.

The above program will produce the following result :

4.10.2 The: first-letter pseudo-element

The following example demonstrates how to use the: first-letter element to add special
effect to the first letter of elements in the document.

Odisha State Open University Page 65

The above program will produce the following result:

Odisha State Open University Page 66

4.10.3 The: before pseudo-element

The : before pseudo-element can be used to insert some content before the
content of an element. The following example demonstrates how to use
:before element to add some content before any element.

<style type="text/css">
p:before
{
content: url(/https/www.scribd.com/images/bullet.gif)
}
</style>
<p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be preceded by a bullet.</p>

4.10.4 The: after pseudo-element

The :after pseudo-element can be used to insert some content after the
content of an element. The following example demonstrates how to use:
after element to add some content after any element.

<style type="text/css">
p:after
{
content: url(/https/www.scribd.com/images/bullet.gif)
}
</style>
<p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>
<p> This line will be succeeded by a bullet.</p>

4.10.5 The ::selection Pseudo-element

The: selection pseudo-element matches the portion of an element that is selected

by a user. The following CSS properties can be applied to:
selection: color, background, cursor, and outline. The following example makes
the selected text red on a yellow background: Here is an example:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
::-moz-selection { /* Code for Firefox */
color: red;
background: yellow;

Odisha State Open University Page 67

 }
::selection {
color: red;
background: yellow;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Select some text on this page:</h1>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
<div>This is some text in a div element.</div>
<p><strong>Note:</strong> ::selection is not supported in Internet
Explorer 8 and earlier versions.</p>
<p><strong>Note:</strong> Firefox supports an alternative, the ::-moz-
selection property.</p>
</body>
</html>
The above program will produce the following result:

Odisha State Open University Page 68

4.11 Creating a navigation bar
A navigation bar (or navigation system) is a section of a graphical user
interface intended to aid visitors in accessing information. Navigation bars are
implemented in file browsers, web browsers and as a design element of some web
sites. A set of buttons or images in a row or column that serves as a control point
to link the user to sections on a Web site. The navigation bar may also be a
single graphic image with multiple selections.

(Example of vertical and horizontal navigation bar)

4.11.1 Navigation Bar = List of Links

A navigation bar needs standard HTML as a base. In our examples we will build
the navigation bar from a standard HTML list. A navigation bar is basically a list
of links, so using the <ul> and <li> elements makes perfect sense: Example
<ul>
<li><a href="default.asp">Home</a></li>
<li><a href="news.asp">News</a></li>
<li><a href="contact.asp">Contact</a></li>
<li><a href="about.asp">About</a></li>
</ul>
Now let's remove the bullets and the margins and padding from the list:
ul
{
list-style-type:none;
margin:0;
padding:0;
}

Odisha State Open University Page 69

Example explained:
 list-style-type:none - Removes the bullets. A navigation bar does not need
list markers
 Setting margins and padding to 0 to remove browser default settings

The code in the example above is the standard code used in both vertical, and
horizontal navigation bars.
4.11.2 Vertical Navigation Bar
To build a vertical navigation bar we only need to style the <a> elements, in
addition to the code above:
Example
a { display:block; width:60px; }
Example explained:
 display:block - Displaying the links as block elements makes the whole
link area clickable (not just the text), and it allows us to specify the width
 width:60px - Block elements take up the full width available by default.
We want to specify a 60 px width .
Note: Always specify the width for <a> elements in a vertical navigation bar. If
you omit the width, IE6 can produce unexpected results. You can also set the
width of <ul>, and remove the width of <a>, as they will take up the full width
available when displayed as block elements. This will produce the same result as
our previous example:

ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
width: 60px;
}

li a {
display: block;
}

4.11.3 Center Links & Add Borders

Add text-align:center to <li> or <a> to center the links. Add the border property to
<ul> add a border around the navbar. If you also want borders inside the navbar,
add aborder-bottom to all <li> elements, except for the last one:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin: 0;

Odisha State Open University Page 70

 padding: 0;
width: 200px;
background-color: #f1f1f1;
border: 1px solid #555;
}

li a {
display: block;
color: #000;
padding: 8px 16px;
text-decoration: none;
}

li {
text-align: center;
border-bottom: 1px solid #555;
}
li:last-child {
border-bottom: none;
}

li a.active {
background-color: #4CAF50;
color: white;
}

li a:hover:not(.active) {
background-color: #555;
color: white;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

<h2>Vertical Navigation Bar</h2>

<p>In this example, we center the navigation links and add a border to the
navigation bar.</p>

<ul>
<li><a class="active" href="#home">Home</a></li>
<li><a href="#news">News</a></li>
<li><a href="#contact">Contact</a></li>
<li><a href="#about">About</a></li>
</ul>
</body>
</html>
Odisha State Open University Page 71
 The above program will produce the following result

4.11.4 Horizontal Navigation Bar

There are two ways to create a horizontal navigation bar. Using inline or
floating list items. Both methods work fine, but if you want the links to be the
same size, you have to use the floating method. Create a basic horizontal
navigation bar with a dark background color and change the
background color of the links when the user moves the mouse over
them:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
overflow: hidden;
background-color: #333;
}

li {
Odisha State Open University Page 72
 float: left;
}

li a {
display: block;
color: white;
text-align: center;
padding: 14px 16px;
text-decoration: none;
}

li a:hover {
background-color: #111;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

<ul>
<li><a class="active" href="#home">Home</a></li>
<li><a href="#news">News</a></li>
<li><a href="#contact">Contact</a></li>
<li><a href="#about">About</a></li>
</ul>

</body>
</html>

Odisha State Open University Page 73

4.12 Working with images

Images play an important role in any webpage. Though it is not recommended to

include a lot of images, but it is still important to use good images wherever
required. CSS plays a good role to control image display. You can set the
following image properties using CSS.

The border property is used to set the width of an image border.

 The height property is used to set the height of an image.
 The width property is used to set the width of an image.
 The -moz-opacity property is used to set the opacity of an image.


4.12.1 The Image Border Property

The border property of an image is used to set the width of an image border. This
property can have a value in length or in %. A width of zero pixels means no
border.

Here is an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 74

The above program will produce the following result:

4.12.2 The Image Width Property

The width property of an image is used to set the width of an image. This property
can have a value in length or in %. While giving value in %, it applies it in respect
of the box in which an image is available.

Here is an example:

Odisha State Open University Page 75

The above program will produce the following result:

Odisha State Open University Page 76

4.13 Working with attribute selectors

You can also apply styles to HTML elements with particular attributes. The style
rule below will match all the input elements having a type attribute with a value of
text:
input[type="text"]
{
color: #000000;
}
The advantage to this method is that the <input type="submit" /> element is
unaffected, and the color applied only to the desired text fields.
There are following rules applied to attribute selector.

 p[lang] - Selects all paragraph elements with a lang attribute.

 p[lang="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute has a
value of exactly "fr".
 p[lang~="fr"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute
contains the word "fr".
 p[lang|="en"] - Selects all paragraph elements whose lang attribute
contains values that are exactly "en", or begin with "en-".

4.13.1 Multiple Style Rules

You may need to define multiple style rules for a single element. You can define
these rules to combine multiple properties and corresponding values into a single
block as defined in the following example:
h1 {
color: #36C;
font-weight: normal;
letter-spacing: .4em;
margin-bottom: 1em;
text-transform: lowercase;
}
Here all the property and value pairs are separated by a semicolon (;). You can
keep them in a single line or multiple lines. For better readability, we keep them in
separate lines.

4.13.2 CSS [attribute] Selector

The [attribute] selector is used to select elements with a specified attribute. The
following example selects all <a> elements with a target attribute:
Example
a[target] {
background-color: yellow;
}

Odisha State Open University Page 77

4.13.3 CSS [attribute="value"] Selector

The [attribute="value"] selector is used to select elements with a specified

attribute and value.
The following example selects all <a> elements with a target="_blank" attribute:
Example

a[target="_blank"] {
background-color: yellow;
}
4.13.4 CSS [attribute~="value"] Selector

The [attribute~="value"] selector is used to select elements with an attribute value

containing a specified word. The following example selects all elements with a
title attribute that contains a space-separated list of words, one of which is
"flower":
Example
[title~="flower"] {
border: 5px solid yellow;
}
The example above will match elements with title="flower", title="summer
flower", and title="flower new", but not title="my-flower" or title="flowers".
4.13.5 CSS [attribute|="value"] Selector

The [attribute|="value"] selector is used to select elements with the specified

attribute starting with the specified value. The following example selects all
elements with a class attribute value that begins with "top": Note: The value has
to be a whole word, either alone, like class="top", or followed by a hyphen( - ),
like class="top-text"!
Example
[class|="top"] {
background: yellow;
}

4.13.6 CSS [attribute^="value"] Selector

The [attribute^="value"] selector is used to select elements whose attribute value

begins with a specified value.
The following example selects all elements with a class attribute value that begins
with "top":
Note: The value does not have to be a whole word!
Example
[class^="top"] {
background: yellow;
}

Odisha State Open University Page 78

4.13.7 CSS [attribute$="value"] Selector

The [attribute$="value"] selector is used to select elements whose attribute value

ends with a specified value.
The following example selects all elements with a class attribute value that ends
with "test":
Note: The value does not have to be a whole word!

Example
[class$="test"] {
background: yellow;
}

4.13.8 CSS [attribute*="value"] Selector

The [attribute*="value"] selector is used to select elements whose attribute value

contains a specified value. The following example selects all elements with a class
attribute value that contains "te":
Note: The value does not have to be a whole word!
Example:

[class*="te"] {
background: yellow;
}

Check your progress 2

Q1. Write the different properties of image ?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q2. What is Pseudo Class ?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Q3. What is navigation bar?

Answer:__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Odisha State Open University Page 79

4.14 Let us sum up
In this unit we have understood padding using CSS,setting display

using CSS,setting width and max width using CSS,setting float property

using CSS,inline block propertry,horizontal allignment in CSS,working

with combinatory,pseudo-class,pseudo-elements,creating a navigation bar,

working with images,attribute selectors.

4.15 Reference

1. W3Schools.com
2. Google.com
3. Tutorialpoints.com

4.16 Check Your Progress Possible answer

Check your progress 1

Q1. What is Float ?

Answer
A float is a box that is shifted to the left or right on the current line. The most
interesting characteristic of a float (or "floated" or "floating" box) is that content may
flow along its side (or be prohibited from doing so by the property).

Q2. Write the different properties of position?

Answer
Position property to move an HTML element anywhere in an HTML document.

 Move Left - Use a negative value for left.

 Move Right - Use a positive value for left.
 Move Up - Use a negative value for top.
 Move Down - Use a positive value for top.

Q3. What is padding?

Answer
The padding property allows you to specify how much space should appear between
the content of an element and its border
Q4. Write the use of Display properties?
Answer
The display property is the most important CSS property for controlling layout.
The display property specifies if/how an element is displayed

Odisha State Open University Page 80

 Check your progress 2

Q1. Write the different properties of image ?

Answer The border property is used to set the width of an image border.

The height property is used to set the height of an image.

The width property is used to set the width of an image.

Q2. What is Pseudo Class ?

Answer

A pseudo-class is used to define a special state of an element

Q3. What is navigation bar?

Answer

A navigation bar (or navigation system) is a section of a graphical user interface

intended to aid visitors in accessing information. Navigation bars are implemented in
file browsers, web browsers and as a design element of some web sites

Odisha State Open University Page 81