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TECHNOLOGY IN AC TION™
Science and
Engineering Projects
Using the Arduino
and Raspberry Pi
Explore STEM Concepts with
Microcomputers
—
Paul Bradt
David Bradt
Science and
Engineering Projects
Using the Arduino
and Raspberry Pi
Explore STEM Concepts
with Microcomputers
Paul Bradt
David Bradt
Science and Engineering Projects Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi:
Explore STEM Concepts with Microcomputers
Paul Bradt David Bradt
Houston, TX, USA Houston, USA
v
Table of Contents
vi
Table of Contents
Mass�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Velocity and Acceleration������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Inertia������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
Momentum����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
Friction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
More Advanced Aspects of Calculus�������������������������������������������������������������������83
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84
vii
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
ix
Table of Contents
Astronomy Terms����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������228
Specifications of the Meade ETX-60AT�������������������������������������������������������������229
Setup, Updates, and Repairs�����������������������������������������������������������������������231
Helpful Books����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������232
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������233
x
About the Authors
Paul Bradt has a BS in Computer Science
from the University of Houston–Clear
Lake. He currently owns a small business
and writes books, develops code, and does
IT support work. He has experimented
with the Arduino and Raspberry Pi system
and believes them to be excellent tools for
developing an understanding of electronic
components and hardware interaction in
integrated systems. He believes they are very
useful as a teaching aid in learning computer
programming, science, and engineering. He likes to perform sophisticated
troubleshooting of computer problems and has found that online
resources can be a great help for novice users to get their experiments
operating quickly and effectively.
xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Sri Manikanta Palakollu is an undergraduate student pursuing his
bachelor’s degree in Computer Science and Engineering at SICET under
JNTUH. He is a founder of the OpenStack Developer Community in his
college. He started his journey as a competitive programmer. He always
loves to solve problems that are related to the data science field. His
interests include data science, app development, web development,
cybersecurity, and technical writing. He has published many articles
on data science, machine learning, programming, and cybersecurity in
publications like Hacker Noon, freeCodeCamp, Noteworthy, and DDI
through the Medium platform.
xiii
Acknowledgments
This book would not be possible without the authors’ gaining early
technical insight regarding the Raspberry Pi and Arduino from others.
Jared Brank and Dennis Pate provided a lot of basic information, key
insights, and Arduino hardware early in the process. The authors thank
the following individuals who listened to them on many occasions and
provided help, insight, and inspiration with their own experiences with
the Raspberry Pi and other projects: Jeff Dunehew, Todd Franke, and Fitz
Walker. Additionally, significant assistance with 3D printing was provided
by Mitch Long and David Thoerig.
Producing this book would not have been possible without the
excellent help and guidance regarding scope and early editorial reviews
by Joanna Opaskar and Ed Weisblatt. The authors also utilized many
ideas from Andrew Bradt and Laura Brank’s science fair experience. Most
important was the support and advice from Andrea Bradt.
xv
Introduction
The authors’ journey developing this book started in 2013 when they
discovered the Arduino microcontroller. It is interesting how something big
really starts with one step as they found the Arduino incredibly powerful.
Users are able to program it with computer code, and then it executes its
instructions for as long as it has power. The authors started evaluating
various applications of the Arduino around the house and in their hobby
endeavors. In 2017, they started experimenting with the Raspberry Pi
minicomputer which enables users to take projects to a whole new level
with a low-cost computer that interfaces with sensors. Since a Raspberry
Pi is very affordable, a real computer can now be dedicated to operating a
system permanently. While requiring some technical steps to set up, both
of these tools can be used to gather data, automate tasks, and provide a
lot of fun. The authors found it very satisfying to watch a device do several
tasks, especially when they set it up. This book chronicles some science
and engineering projects the authors developed over the past few years
and provides helpful hints, along with a few things to avoid.
There are two primary areas of focus or goals of this book. The first goal
is to help the reader explore the Arduino and Raspberry Pi. The second
goal is exploring science and engineering in interesting and fun ways.
The projects and concepts in this book are meant to accomplish
the first goal by providing information to get an Arduino or Raspberry
Pi system set up, running, and ready to capture data. The text provides
enough detail for users with average assembly or electrical skills to
complete them. Additionally, the goals of learning are to gain knowledge
and skills. When the reader engages in a project that requires them to
try new things, it reinforces how they learn and gain confidence and
encourages them to try even more complex tools and techniques.
xvii
Introduction
What Is STEM?
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) is a program
based on educating students in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics in an integrated, interdisciplinary approach to learning.
School systems today strive to improve education in STEM. This goal is
an area where educators can use outside help developing and improving
students’ knowledge when they actively contribute, design, and build
hands-on projects. In many ways, the young mind is excited and motivated
building projects. They develop an in-depth understanding of what is
required and how it works. The authors believe this is the best way to learn
and remember these concepts, which results in a solid STEM foundation
for students.
A question not often understood is how the scientific method is different
from an engineering approach. Understanding the difference between
science and engineering can be seen in the original Star Trek series.
xviii
Introduction
Mr. Spock was the science officer, and Montgomery Scott (Scotty) was
the chief engineer. Their jobs and how they approached new scenarios
or problems really provide a great explanation about the differences
and similarities between science and engineering. Let’s examine some
examples.
Mr. Spock used the term fascinating when describing a new event
or phenomenon. The role of science is to expand knowledge and
investigate new events. This fascination with new and unique areas is
key for a scientist. Scotty, the engineer, on the other hand always had to
fix the warp engines, the transporter, or some other critical system. The
normal role of an engineer is to develop and implement solutions to
problems. In one of the episodes, Scotty indicated he would rather read
his engineering journals to learn about how others solved problems
than go on shore leave!
Science
Researchers use the scientific method as a tool to understand questions
in their area of interest. Based on the information they have initially,
they develop a hypothesis and then methods to test the validity of the
hypothesis. When sufficient test data are gathered and analyzed, the
researcher either accepts or rejects the hypothesis. In many cases, positive
or negative results point to the next step or direction of exploration and
contribute to the general body of scientific and engineering knowledge.
Engineering
The primary goal of engineering is to evaluate alternatives and choose
the optimal solution to minimize or eliminate specific problems or issues.
Solutions are not necessarily new, but may be repurposed concepts
applied to different problem areas. Other aspects of engineering include
xix
Introduction
xx
Introduction
Both Mr. Spock and Scotty realized they needed each other (science
and engineering) to accomplish the goals of exploration and keep
the Enterprise flying safely through space. In today’s complex world,
integrating science and engineering is key to researching problems and
developing solutions.
In the following chapters, the authors will demonstrate all of the
components of STEM needed to research scientific questions, use new
technology (Arduino and Raspberry Pi), employ engineering techniques,
and use mathematics to quantify the scientific data. As Star Trek boldly
went forth to explore new worlds, the authors hope the students of today
do the same!
xxi
CHAPTER 1
A
rduino Basics
The Arduino is a powerful microcontroller that is ready to program and
acts as an intermediary device between a personal computer and various
sensors. It is relatively new technology that is a great tool for gaining
insight into physical properties and other scientific parameters.
The Arduino board was first developed in Italy in 2004 as a tool to help
train students in programming. It is an open source tool and as such has
developed a large base of helpful web sites and user groups. It represents
a breakthrough as an easy-to-use, relatively inexpensive, programmable
interface between a computer and various sensors. The software
development package and all of the online resources help make this an
ideal data logging tool for science fair/college projects.
The Arduino, Adafruit, SparkFun, Hacktronics, and other web sites are
great places to start. There are also several introductory books to help the
researcher get started using this device. Getting started with Arduino by
Banzi is a very good beginner’s book on Arduino.
Other sources of information for the Arduino novice are maker faires
and user group activities.
© Paul Bradt and David Bradt 2020 1
P. Bradt and D. Bradt, Science and Engineering Projects Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5811-8_1
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
There are several versions and sizes, but for the projects in this book,
the Arduino Uno and the Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
version 1.89 were utilized. Figure 1-1 shows an example of the Arduino
Uno. The authors recommend for the person unfamiliar with Arduinos
to use an official version and not a clone. The authors have never
experienced a problem with an official Arduino, but there are many clones,
and the authors have experienced problems with one of them.
A
rduino Setup
Setting up an Arduino is relatively straightforward; the reader should
follow these basic steps to get the device running:
These steps sound basic, and after the reader completes these steps a few
times, they will see how easy it is to connect and run an Arduino. In many cases,
2
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
the challenges occur with the code. If the reader is copying code from a source,
it is important to type it in exactly as it looks. Even then there could be errors, but
that is part of the adventure, and it’s very rewarding when the code runs.
P
orts and Interfaces
Figure 1-3 shows the main ports of the Arduino Uno.
3
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
There are five primary port groupings that are used to connect to the
Arduino:
4
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
There are other components and hardware that can be used with the
Arduino:
5
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
6
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
7
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
Raspberry Pi Basics
The Raspberry Pi 3 is a powerful minicomputer. This piece of technology
comes with a lot of features like any other modern computer. It is an
experimental/hobbyist device developed around 2011 in the United
Kingdom to teach programming. For its low cost, it has many capabilities
and allows the user to configure it in many ways. There are several models
on the market. For this book, the authors choose the Raspberry Pi 3
Model B V1.2 (Figures 1-4 and 1-5). There is a new Raspberry Pi 4 that
was recently released that has more features. The authors researched the
setup and use of the Raspberry Pi 4, and it appears to be the same as the
Raspberry Pi 3. We believe these projects will work the same if you have a
Raspberry Pi 4.
8
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
9
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
Raspberry Pi Setup
These are the general steps to set up the Pi:
1. Insert the SD card.
2. Plug in the monitor.
3. Plug in the keyboard.
4. Plug in the mouse.
10
Chapter 1 Key Technology Tools
For the purposes of this book, the authors will focus primarily on how
to connect sensors to the Raspberry Pi and get data out of them. There are
many other uses for the Raspberry Pi that will not be covered in this text.
Figure 1-7 shows the General-Purpose Input/Output or GPIO pins,
although it may not be easy to determine the pin number on the Raspberry Pi.
A ribbon cable is also shown that connects to a nice interface board made
by MCM. This interface board has pin numbers and makes it a lot easier to
connect sensors to the Raspberry Pi. More about this in the next chapter.
11
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
so that the power of the lever increases in proportion to its diminution
in length.
The wear and tear of the machinery was less than in an ordinary
locomotive, there being fewer working parts, whilst the centre of
gravity was considerably lowered.
The above advantages summarised amounted to the advantages
of the long-stroke crank without a long-stroke cylinder, and
consequently the absence of a high-piston velocity.
The leading engine wheels, together with the running wheels of the
carriage, were 3ft. in diameter. The carriage was divided into four
compartments, the two middle ones being for first-class and the two external
ones for second-class passengers. The guard’s seat was on the top of the
carriage head. A vertical shaft with a hand-wheel on its upper end passed
down the side of the head, and was connected beneath the framing with two
transverse rocking shafts, carrying the brake blocks, placed one on each
side of the driving wheels, thus giving the guard a ready means of control
over the speed of the engine.
To bring up the buffers to the line of those of ordinary carriages, separate
timber beams were passed across each end of the carriage, the front one
being supported by neat wrought-iron brackets, rising from the framing. The
total weight of the whole was not more than 10 tons, including its supply of
coke and water, and accommodation was afforded for 42 passengers, to
convey which, at 40 miles per hour, the calculated consumption of coke was
7lb. per mile.
Mr. Samuel stated that the accommodation provided by the combined
engine and carriage was not sufficient for the traffic, so two additional
carriages (one with a guard’s compartment) were added, the train thus
having accommodation for 150 passengers. The “Enfield” worked this train
regularly at 37 miles an hour speed.
From January 29th to September 9th, 1849, the train travelled 14,021
miles, and was in steam 15 hours daily, but only five of which were spent in
running. The total time in steam during the above period was 2,162 hours,
the total coke consumed being 1,437 cwt., of which 743 cwt. was consumed
in running, 408 in standing, and 286 in raising the steam. The average coke
consumption per mile was 11.48lb., but a considerable portion of this was
spent in standing, the actual consumption for running being only about 6lb.
per mile.
In addition to the passenger traffic, the “Enfield” hauled all the goods and
coal traffic on the branch, which, during the period under review, amounted
to 169 tons of goods and 1,241 tons of coal. On June 14th, 1849, the
“Enfield” took the 10 a.m. train from Shoreditch to Ely, 72 miles, the train
consisting of three passenger carriages and two horse-boxes; but the
“Enfield” arrived eight minutes before time, and the coke consumed only
amounted to 8¾lb. per mile for the trip, including that used in raising steam.
When tried between Norwich and London, the “Enfield” performed the
journey of 126 miles in 3 hours 35 minutes, including stoppages. An ordinary
train had, at that time, never made the journey so quickly.
Although the “Enfield” appeared to use so little fuel, the broad-gauge
“Fairfield” does not seem to have been an economical machine. A special
trial was made between Gooch’s famous 8ft. single “Great Britain” and
“Fairfield,” between Exeter and Bristol. A loaded wagon weighing 10 tons
was drawn by the “Fairfield,” making a total weight of 26½ tons, of which the
engine portion can be reckoned at 9½ tons and 17 tons for the weight of the
train. The distance is 76 miles, and the time allowed for the 8 a.m. train,
including ten stops, was 2 hours 35 minutes; but the “Fairfield” took 3 hours
17 minutes to cover the distance, and consumed 13lb. of coke per mile, only
6.3lb. of water being evaporated for each pound of coke.
The duty performed by the two locomotives is thus tabulated:—
Consumption
Load in Coke per
of Coke per
tons. mile.
ton per mile.
“Great Britain” 100 26 lb. 0.26 lb.
“Fairfield” 17 13 lb. 0.76 lb.
But, in comparison with the old “Venus,” the “Fairfield” comes out no
better.
The “Venus,” it will be remembered, was one of the original broad-gauge
engines built for the Great Western Railway by the Vulcan Foundry
Company, with 8ft. driving wheels. This engine had her driving wheels
reduced to 6ft. diameter, and a small water-tank fitted on the foot-plate in
place of a tender, thus being converted into a six-wheel “single” tank engine.
The “Venus” only used 14lb. of coke per mile in working the Tiverton branch;
while the “Fairfield” consumed 19lb. of coke per mile on the same work. The
evaporating powers of the “Venus” had been greatly improved since N.
Wood’s experiments in 1838, as at that time she consumed 52.7lb. of coke
per mile run.
At this period a fashion for “tank” engines had become prevalent, and
most of the locomotive builders produced designs, each having
characteristic features. Thus Sharp Brothers and Company’s “tank” engines
had outside cylinders, with the tank between the frames and below the
boiler, whilst the coal was carried in a bunker affixed to an extension of the
foot-plate. Somewhat similar “single tank” engines were made by the same
firm for the Manchester and Birmingham Railway (London and North
Western Railway). The two engines in question were Nos. 33 and 34, and
were used in working the traffic between Manchester and Macclesfield, the
daily duty of each averaging 114½ miles. These engines commenced work
in May, 1847. They weighed 21 tons in working order; the driving wheels
were 5ft. 6in. diameter, and the leading and trailing 3ft. 6in. Two water-tanks
were provided, one between the leading and driving wheels, the other under
the coal bunker, at the rear of the trailing wheels. The two tanks contained
480 gallons of water. A wooden float attached to a vertical rod was fitted to
show the amount of water in the tanks! The bunker contained half a ton of
coals. These engines were fitted with sand-boxes; but these were placed in
front of the leading wheels only, although the locomotives were specially
constructed for running either bunker or chimney in front. However, the
introduction of the sand-box was a step in the right direction; yet Tredgold
only mentions the innovation in an apologetic manner. He says (after
describing the working of the apparatus) that “it is very seldom required on
the Macclesfield line, owing to the ballast between the rails being mostly
sand; but when the rails are moist it is necessary in starting a heavy train to
open the sand-cock.” Tredgold then proceeds to give a detailed explanation
of “how it is done.”
In September, 1849, Walter Neilson, of Glasgow, obtained a patent for
his design of tank engine.
The tank was of the now well-known “saddle” kind, and covered the
whole boiler, barrel, and smoke-box; the bottom of the saddle tank rested on
the frames on either side of the boiler, so that the tank was semi-circular in
shape, instead of being but an arc, as is the practice with modern “saddle
tanks.” Neilson was, however, sufficiently ingenious not to limit the design of
his saddle tank, for we find that “the tank may be supported from the boiler,
instead of the framing, if necessary, and its length may be made shorter
than that of the boiler, if required.” The boiler was fed with water drawn from
the smoke-box end of the tank, to obtain the advantage of the escaping
heat. The coal bunkers were placed at the sides of the fire-box, and
extended some distance towards the back buffer beam, but a bunker was
not provided at the end, so as to allow “of ready access to the couplings of
the wagons behind.” The engine in question had inside frames, underhung
springs, outside cylinders, single driving wheels, unprovided with flanges,
and small leading and trailing wheels. A short cylindrical dome was placed
over the fire-box, and on this were fixed two “Salter” pattern safety valves,
covered by a brass casing.
“Light locomotives” was the popular name of tank engines when the
general use of such engines was being urged as a method of reducing the
working expenses of unremunerative railways. We have previously alluded
to Mr. W. Bridges Adams and his combined engines and carriages. This
gentleman and Mr. England were the principal advocates of the “light”
locomotive, and both attained some success in connection therewith.
The engines in question would now be considered absurdly light, but
nearly fifty years ago far different ideas of “light” and “heavy,” as applied to
locomotive engines, obtained.
This “Little England” was tried in competition with the “Sirius,” the coke
consumption of the former being 8lb. 3oz. per mile against 29lb. 1oz. of the
“Sirius,” both performing exactly the same work. The “Little England” so
frequently ran in before her time that the driver had to be ordered to take
longer time on the trips for fear of an accident happening in consequence of
the train arriving before it was expected. The speed of this light engine
frequently exceeded 60 miles an hour, and during the heavy winds and
gales of January, 1851, the “Little England” was the only locomotive on the
line that kept time. With a train of five carriages the coke consumption only
amounted to 6½lb. per mile. On the Campsie Junction line, the “Little
England” hauled a train of seven carriages and a brake-van, all of which
were overloaded with passengers, over the several gradients of Nebrand, at
30 miles an hour. Although the train stopped at a station on the incline, the
light engine successfully started from the station and continued the ascent.
An ordinary engine was sent to assist the train at the rear, in case the “Little
England” proved unequal to the task, but it is said that the bank engine was
unable to keep up with the train!
The following table shows the result of the trial of the “Little England” on
the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway:—
The engine in question was built by Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, for the
London and North Western Railway, in 1848. The one good point about the
engine was the immense heating surface, which amounted to 2,290 sq. ft.
When our locomotive superintendents make up their minds to construct
express locomotives with such an amount of heating surface, we shall hear
no more of “double engine running,” and our express trains may be
expected to average a speed of over 50 miles an hour from start to finish
(including stops) on all trips.
The general arrangement of the “Liverpool” was similar to the engines on
Crampton’s system already described—viz., the driving wheels at the back
of the fire-box and outside cylinders fixed about the centre of the frames.
This engine had three pairs of carrying wheels under the boiler, in addition to
the driving wheels. The cylinders were outside, fixed upon transverse
bearers, formed of iron plates 1¼in. thick, curved to the shape of the boiler
and passing below it. The cylinders were 18in. diameter, the stroke being
24in. Metallic packing, consisting of two concentric rings of cast-iron, each
with a wedge and circular steel spring, was used for the purpose of making
the pistons steam-tight. The valves were above the cylinders, and were
inclined, the eccentrics being of large size and outside the driving wheels.
The regulator was located in a steam-box on the top of the boiler barrel; the
steam reached the valves by means of curved vertical copper pipes outside
the boiler, whilst the exhaust was conveyed to the smoke-box by similar
horizontal “outside” pipes. The two exhaust pipes united within the smoke-
box beneath the bottom of the chimney, the blast orifice being 5½in.
diameter.
The leading wheels were 4ft. 3in. diameter, the two intermediate pairs
4ft., and the driving wheels 8ft. in diameter. The area of the fire-grate was
21.58ft. The tubes were of brass, 12ft. 6in. long; 292 were 2³/₁₆th in
diameter, the remaining eight being 1¾in. diameter. The heating surface
was:—Tubes, 2,136.117 sq. ft.; fire-box, 154.434 sq. ft. The pumps were
horizontal, fixed on the frames over the leading wheels; they were worked
by extension piston-rods, worked through the covers of the cylinders.
The engine weighed (loaded) 35 tons, of which weight 12 tons were on
the driving axle. The tender weighed 21 tons. With a light load the
“Liverpool” attained a speed of nearly 80 miles an hour, whilst on one
occasion she hauled the train conveying Franconi’s troupe and horses,
consisting of 40 vehicles, from Rugby to Euston under the schedule time.
Three engines had been engaged to haul the same train from Liverpool to
Rugby, when time was lost. The power of the “Liverpool” would, therefore,
appear to have exceeded that of three of the usual London and North
Western Railway locomotives of that date.
Adams’ idea of a straight driving shaft connected by means of outside
rods with the driving wheels soon attracted attention, and in 1849 Crampton
incorporated the principle in his patent locomotive specification of that year.
But it was some two years later before any engines were built under this
particular patent of Crampton’s. These locomotives will be described in due
sequence.
We will now give a few details of some engines that would have been
most interesting had we knowledge that they were ever built. We possess
drawings of the engines in question, but lack authentic details of their
performances, so we will mention the principal features of the designs, as
given in the patent specifications. George Taylor, of Holbeck, Leeds,
obtained his patent on June 3rd, 1847. The drawing shows the boiler to be
hung below the wheels, of which there are only four; these were to be 15ft.
diameter, and in addition the wheels were geared up 2 to 1, so that one
revolution of the cogged driving wheel would have propelled the engine six
times the distance of a driving wheel of 5ft. diameter. The cylinders were
inside the frames, over the boiler, and, of course, at the rear of the smoke-
box; the connecting-rods were attached to cranks on either side of a central
cog-wheel, which engaged with a cog-wheel of half its diameter, fixed on the
centre of the rear axle. The motion being conveyed to the centre of the axle,
instead of alternately on each side, as is usual, practically abolished the
oscillating motion so apparent in two-cylinder engines. An examination of
the drawing of this locomotive design of George Taylor shows with what
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