Computer program

A computer program is a sequence or set[a] of instructions in a

programming language for a computer to execute. It is one
component of software, which also includes documentation and
other intangible components.[1]

A computer program in its human-readable form is called source

code. Source code needs another computer program to execute
because computers can only execute their native machine
Source code for a computer
instructions. Therefore, source code may be translated to machine
program written in the JavaScript
instructions using a compiler written for the language. (Assembly
language. It demonstrates the
language programs are translated using an assembler.) The appendChild method. The method
resulting file is called an executable. Alternatively, source code adds a new child node to an existing
may execute within an interpreter written for the language.[2] parent node. It is commonly used to
dynamically modify the structure of
If the executable is requested for execution, then the operating an HTML document.
system loads it into memory and starts a process.[3] The central
processing unit will soon switch to this process so it can fetch,
decode, and then execute each machine instruction.[4]

If the source code is requested for execution, then the operating system loads the corresponding
interpreter into memory and starts a process. The interpreter then loads the source code into memory to
translate and execute each statement. Running the source code is slower than running an executable.[5][b]
Moreover, the interpreter must be installed on the computer.

Example computer program

The "Hello, World!" program is used to illustrate a language's basic syntax. The syntax of the language
BASIC (1964) was intentionally limited to make the language easy to learn.[6] For example, variables are
not declared before being used.[7] Also, variables are automatically initialized to zero.[7] Here is an
example computer program, in Basic, to average a list of numbers:[8]

10 INPUT "How many numbers to average?", A

20 FOR I = 1 TO A
30 INPUT "Enter number:", B
40 LET C = C + B
50 NEXT I
60 LET D = C/A
70 PRINT "The average is", D
80 END
Once the mechanics of basic computer programming are learned, more sophisticated and powerful
languages are available to build large computer systems.[9]

History
Improvements in software development are the result of improvements in computer hardware. At each
stage in hardware's history, the task of computer programming changed dramatically.

Analytical Engine
In 1837, Jacquard's loom inspired Charles Babbage to attempt to
build the Analytical Engine.[10] The names of the components of
the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry. In
the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled.
The device had a store which consisted of memory to hold 1,000
numbers of 50 decimal digits each.[11] Numbers from the store
were transferred to the mill for processing. The engine was
programmed using two sets of perforated cards. One set directed
Lovelace's description from Note G
the operation and the other set inputted the variables.[10][12]
However, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully
worked together.[13]

Ada Lovelace worked for Charles Babbage to create a description of the Analytical Engine (1843).[14]
The description contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers
using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first computer
program.[13]

Universal Turing machine

In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal
Turing machine, a theoretical device that can
model every computation.[15] It is a finite-state
machine that has an infinitely long read/write
tape. The machine can move the tape back and
forth, changing its contents as it performs an
algorithm. The machine starts in the initial state,
goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when
it encounters the halt state.[16] All present-day computers are Turing complete.[17]

ENIAC
The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) was built between July 1943 and Fall 1945.
It was a Turing complete, general-purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create the circuits.
At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together.[18] Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied 1,800
square feet (167 m2), and consumed $650 per hour (in 1940s currency) in electricity when idle.[18] It had
20 base-10 accumulators. Programming the ENIAC took up to two months.[18] Three function tables
were on wheels and needed to be rolled to fixed function panels.
Function tables were connected to function panels by plugging
heavy black cables into plugboards. Each function table had 728
rotating knobs. Programming the ENIAC also involved setting
some of the 3,000 switches. Debugging a program took a
week.[19] It ran from 1947 until 1955 at Aberdeen Proving
Ground, calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting
weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery
guns.[20]
Glenn A. Beck changing a tube in
ENIAC
Stored-program computers
Instead of plugging in cords and turning switches, a stored-
program computer loads its instructions into memory just like it loads its data into memory.[21] As a
result, the computer could be programmed quickly and perform calculations at very fast speeds.[22]
Presper Eckert and John Mauchly built the ENIAC. The two engineers introduced the stored-program
concept in a three-page memo dated February 1944.[23] Later, in September 1944, John von Neumann
began working on the ENIAC project. On June 30, 1945, von Neumann published the First Draft of a
Report on the EDVAC, which equated the structures of the computer with the structures of the human
brain.[22] The design became known as the von Neumann architecture. The architecture was
simultaneously deployed in the constructions of the EDVAC and EDSAC computers in 1949.[24]

The IBM System/360 (1964) was a family of computers, each having the same instruction set
architecture. The Model 20 was the smallest and least expensive. Customers could upgrade and retain the
same application software.[25] The Model 195 was the most premium. Each System/360 model featured
multiprogramming[25]—having multiple processes in memory at once. When one process was waiting for
input/output, another could compute.

IBM planned for each model to be programmed using PL/1.[26] A committee was formed that included
COBOL, Fortran and ALGOL programmers. The purpose was to develop a language that was
comprehensive, easy to use, extendible, and would replace Cobol and Fortran.[26] The result was a large
and complex language that took a long time to compile.[27]

Computers manufactured until the 1970s had front-panel switches

for manual programming.[28] The computer program was written
on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a
configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration, an
execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated.
Computer programs also were automatically inputted via paper
tape, punched cards or magnetic-tape. After the medium was
loaded, the starting address was set via switches, and the execute
Switches for manual input on a Data
button was pressed.[28] General Nova 3, manufactured in
the mid-1970s

Very Large Scale Integration

A major milestone in software development was the invention of
the Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit (1964).[29]
Following World War II, tube-based technology was replaced with
point-contact transistors (1947) and bipolar junction transistors
(late 1950s) mounted on a circuit board.[29] During the 1960s, the
aerospace industry replaced the circuit board with an integrated
circuit chip.[29]

Robert Noyce, co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor (1957) and

Intel (1968), achieved a technological improvement to refine the
production of field-effect transistors (1963).[30] The goal is to alter
A VLSI integrated-circuit die
the electrical resistivity and conductivity of a semiconductor
junction. First, naturally occurring silicate minerals are converted
into polysilicon rods using the Siemens process.[31] The Czochralski process then converts the rods into a
monocrystalline silicon, boule crystal.[32] The crystal is then thinly sliced to form a wafer substrate. The
planar process of photolithography then integrates unipolar transistors, capacitors, diodes, and resistors
onto the wafer to build a matrix of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors.[33][34] The MOS
transistor is the primary component in integrated circuit chips.[30]

Originally, integrated circuit chips had their function set during manufacturing. During the 1960s,
controlling the electrical flow migrated to programming a matrix of read-only memory (ROM). The
matrix resembled a two-dimensional array of fuses.[29] The process to embed instructions onto the matrix
was to burn out the unneeded connections.[29] There were so many connections, firmware programmers
wrote a computer program on another chip to oversee the burning.[29] The technology became known as
Programmable ROM. In 1971, Intel installed the computer program onto the chip and named it the Intel
4004 microprocessor.[35]

The terms microprocessor and central processing unit (CPU) are

now used interchangeably. However, CPUs predate
microprocessors. For example, the IBM System/360 (1964) had a
CPU made from circuit boards containing discrete components on
ceramic substrates.[36]

Sac State 8008

The Intel 4004 (1971) was a 4-bit microprocessor designed to run
the Busicom calculator. Five months after its release, Intel
released the Intel 8008, an 8-bit microprocessor. Bill Pentz led a IBM's System/360 (1964) CPU was
not a microprocessor.
team at Sacramento State to build the first microcomputer using
the Intel 8008: the Sac State 8008 (1972).[37] Its purpose was to
store patient medical records. The computer supported a disk operating system to run a Memorex, 3-
megabyte, hard disk drive.[29] It had a color display and keyboard that was packaged in a single console.
The disk operating system was programmed using IBM's Basic Assembly Language (BAL). The medical
records application was programmed using a BASIC interpreter.[29] However, the computer was an
evolutionary dead-end because it was extremely expensive. Also, it
was built at a public university lab for a specific purpose.[37]
Nonetheless, the project contributed to the development of the Intel
8080 (1974) instruction set.[29]

x86 series
In 1978, the modern software development environment began when
Artist's depiction of Sacramento
Intel upgraded the Intel 8080 to the Intel 8086. Intel simplified the State University's Intel 8008
Intel 8086 to manufacture the cheaper Intel 8088.[38] IBM embraced microcomputer (1972)
the Intel 8088 when they entered the personal computer market
(1981). As consumer demand for personal computers increased, so
did Intel's microprocessor development. The succession of
development is known as the x86 series. The x86 assembly
language is a family of backward-compatible machine
instructions. Machine instructions created in earlier
microprocessors were retained throughout microprocessor
upgrades. This enabled consumers to purchase new computers
without having to purchase new application software. The major
categories of instructions are:[c] The original IBM Personal Computer
(1981) used an Intel 8088
Memory instructions to set and access numbers and microprocessor.
strings in random-access memory.
Integer arithmetic logic unit (ALU) instructions to perform
the primary arithmetic operations on integers.
Floating point ALU instructions to perform the primary arithmetic operations on real
numbers.
Call stack instructions to push and pop words needed to allocate memory and interface with
functions.
Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) instructions[d] to increase speed when multiple
processors are available to perform the same algorithm on an array of data.

Changing programming environment

VLSI circuits enabled the programming environment to advance
from a computer terminal (until the 1990s) to a graphical user
interface (GUI) computer. Computer terminals limited
programmers to a single shell running in a command-line
environment. During the 1970s, full-screen source code editing
became possible through a text-based user interface. Regardless of
the technology available, the goal is to program in a programming
language.

The DEC VT100 (1978) was a

Programming paradigms and languages widely used computer terminal.

Programming language features exist to provide building blocks to

be combined to express programming ideals.[39] Ideally, a programming language should:[39]
 express ideas directly in the code.
express independent ideas independently.
express relationships among ideas directly in the code.
combine ideas freely.
combine ideas only where combinations make sense.
express simple ideas simply.
The programming style of a programming language to provide these building blocks may be categorized
into programming paradigms.[40] For example, different paradigms may differentiate:[40]

procedural languages, functional languages, and logical languages.

different levels of data abstraction.
different levels of class hierarchy.
different levels of input datatypes, as in container types and generic programming.
Each of these programming styles has contributed to the synthesis of different programming
languages.[40]

A programming language is a set of keywords, symbols, identifiers, and rules by which programmers can
communicate instructions to the computer.[41] They follow a set of rules called a syntax.[41]

Keywords are reserved words to form declarations and statements.

Symbols are characters to form operations, assignments, control flow, and delimiters.
Identifiers are words created by programmers to form constants, variable names, structure
names, and function names.
Syntax Rules are defined in the Backus–Naur form.
Programming languages get their basis from formal languages.[42] The purpose of defining a solution in
terms of its formal language is to generate an algorithm to solve the underlining problem.[42] An
algorithm is a sequence of simple instructions that solve a problem.[43]

Generations of programming language

The evolution of programming languages began when the EDSAC
(1949) used the first stored computer program in its von Neumann
architecture.[44] Programming the EDSAC was in the first
generation of programming language.

The first generation of programming language is

machine language.[45] Machine language requires the
programmer to enter instructions using instruction
numbers called machine code. For example, the ADD
operation on the PDP-11 has instruction number Machine language monitor on a
24576.[46] W65C816S microprocessor

The second generation of programming language is

assembly language.[45] Assembly language allows the
programmer to use mnemonic instructions instead of remembering instruction numbers. An
assembler translates each assembly language mnemonic into its machine language
number. For example, on the PDP-11, the operation 24576 can be referenced as ADD in the
source code.[46] The four basic arithmetic operations have assembly instructions like ADD,
 SUB, MUL, and DIV.[46] Computers also have instructions like DW (Define Word) to reserve
memory cells. Then the MOV instruction can copy integers between registers and memory.

The basic structure of an assembly language statement is a label, operation, operand,

and comment.[47]

Labels allow the programmer to work with variable names. The assembler will
later translate labels into physical memory addresses.
Operations allow the programmer to work with mnemonics. The assembler will
later translate mnemonics into instruction numbers.
Operands tell the assembler which data the operation will process.
Comments allow the programmer to articulate a narrative because the
instructions alone are vague.
The key characteristic of an assembly language program is it forms a one-to-one
mapping to its corresponding machine language target.[48]

The third generation of programming language uses compilers and interpreters to execute
computer programs. The distinguishing feature of a third generation language is its
independence from particular hardware.[49] Early languages include Fortran (1958), COBOL
(1959), ALGOL (1960), and BASIC (1964).[45] In 1973, the C programming language
emerged as a high-level language that produced efficient machine language instructions.[50]
Whereas third-generation languages historically generated many machine instructions for
each statement,[51] C has statements that may generate a single machine instruction.[e]
Moreover, an optimizing compiler might overrule the programmer and produce fewer
machine instructions than statements. Today, an entire paradigm of languages fill the
imperative, third generation spectrum.
The fourth generation of programming language emphasizes what output results are
desired, rather than how programming statements should be constructed.[45] Declarative
languages attempt to limit side effects and allow programmers to write code with relatively
few errors.[45] One popular fourth generation language is called Structured Query Language
(SQL).[45] Database developers no longer need to process each database record one at a
time. Also, a simple statement can generate output records without having to understand
how they are retrieved.

Imperative languages
Imperative languages specify a sequential algorithm using declarations, expressions, and statements:[52]

A declaration introduces a variable name to the computer program and assigns it to a

datatype[53] – for example: var x: integer;
An expression yields a value – for example: 2 + 2 yields 4
A statement might assign an expression to a variable or use the value of a variable to alter
the program's control flow – for example: x := 2 + 2; if x = 4 then
do_something();

Fortran
FORTRAN (1958) was unveiled as "The IBM Mathematical
FORmula TRANslating system". It was designed for scientific
calculations, without string handling facilities. Along with
declarations, expressions, and statements, it supported:

arrays.
subroutines.
"do" loops.
It succeeded because:

programming and debugging costs were below computer

running costs.
it was supported by IBM. A computer program written in an
imperative language
applications at the time were scientific.[54]
However, non-IBM vendors also wrote Fortran compilers, but
with a syntax that would likely fail IBM's compiler.[54] The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) developed the first Fortran standard in 1966. In 1978, Fortran 77 became the standard until 1991.
Fortran 90 supports:

records.
pointers to arrays.

COBOL
COBOL (1959) stands for "COmmon Business Oriented Language". Fortran manipulated symbols. It was
soon realized that symbols did not need to be numbers, so strings were introduced.[55] The US
Department of Defense influenced COBOL's development, with Grace Hopper being a major contributor.
The statements were English-like and verbose. The goal was to design a language so managers could read
the programs. However, the lack of structured statements hindered this goal.[56]

COBOL's development was tightly controlled, so dialects did not emerge to require ANSI standards. As a
consequence, it was not changed for 15 years until 1974. The 1990s version did make consequential
changes, like object-oriented programming.[56]

Algol
ALGOL (1960) stands for "ALGOrithmic Language". It had a profound influence on programming
language design.[57] Emerging from a committee of European and American programming language
experts, it used standard mathematical notation and had a readable, structured design. Algol was first to
define its syntax using the Backus–Naur form.[57] This led to syntax-directed compilers. It added features
like:

block structure, where variables were local to their block.

arrays with variable bounds.
"for" loops.
functions.
recursion.[57]
Algol's direct descendants include Pascal, Modula-2, Ada, Delphi and Oberon on one branch. On another
branch the descendants include C, C++ and Java.[57]

Basic
BASIC (1964) stands for "Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code". It was developed at
Dartmouth College for all of their students to learn.[8] If a student did not go on to a more powerful
language, the student would still remember Basic.[8] A Basic interpreter was installed in the
microcomputers manufactured in the late 1970s. As the microcomputer industry grew, so did the
language.[8]

Basic pioneered the interactive session.[8] It offered operating system commands within its environment:

The 'new' command created an empty slate.

Statements evaluated immediately.
Statements could be programmed by preceding them with line numbers.[f]
The 'list' command displayed the program.
The 'run' command executed the program.
However, the Basic syntax was too simple for large programs.[8] Recent dialects added structure and
object-oriented extensions. Microsoft's Visual Basic is still widely used and produces a graphical user
interface.[7]

C
C programming language (1973) got its name because the language BCPL was replaced with B, and
AT&T Bell Labs called the next version "C". Its purpose was to write the UNIX operating system.[50] C
is a relatively small language, making it easy to write compilers. Its growth mirrored the hardware growth
in the 1980s.[50] Its growth also was because it has the facilities of assembly language, but uses a high-
level syntax. It added advanced features like:

inline assembler.
arithmetic on pointers.
pointers to functions.
bit operations.
freely combining complex operators.[50]
C allows the programmer to control which region of memory data is to be stored. Global variables and
static variables require the fewest clock cycles to store. The stack is automatically used for the standard
variable declarations. Heap memory is returned to a pointer variable from the malloc() function.

The global and static data region is located just above the program region. (The program
region is technically called the text region. It is where machine instructions are stored.)

The global and static data region is technically two regions.[58] One region is called the
initialized data segment, where variables declared with default values are stored. The
other region is called the block started by segment, where variables declared without
default values are stored.
Variables stored in the global and static data region have their addresses set at
compile-time. They retain their values throughout the life of the process.
 The global and static region stores the global
variables that are declared on top of (outside) the
main() function.[59] Global variables are visible to
main() and every other function in the source
code.

On the other hand, variable declarations inside of

main(), other functions, or within { } block delimiters
are local variables. Local variables also include formal
parameter variables. Parameter variables are
enclosed within the parenthesis of a function
definition.[60] Parameters provide an interface to the
function.

Local variables declared using the static prefix

are also stored in the global and static data
region.[58] Unlike global variables, static variables
are only visible within the function or block. Static
variables always retain their value. An example
usage would be the function int
increment_counter(){static int
Computer memory map
counter = 0; counter++; return
counter;}[g]

The stack region is a contiguous block of memory located near the top memory address.[61]
Variables placed in the stack are populated from top to bottom.[h][61] A stack pointer is a
special-purpose register that keeps track of the last memory address populated.[61]
Variables are placed into the stack via the assembly language PUSH instruction. Therefore,
the addresses of these variables are set during runtime. The method for stack variables to
lose their scope is via the POP instruction.

Local variables declared without the static prefix, including formal parameter
variables,[62] are called automatic variables[59] and are stored in the stack.[58] They are
visible inside the function or block and lose their scope upon exiting the function or
block.

The heap region is located below the stack.[58] It is populated from the bottom to the top.
The operating system manages the heap using a heap pointer and a list of allocated
memory blocks.[63] Like the stack, the addresses of heap variables are set during runtime.
An out of memory error occurs when the heap pointer and the stack pointer meet.

C provides the malloc() library function to allocate heap memory.[i][64] Populating

the heap with data is an additional copy function.[j] Variables stored in the heap are
economically passed to functions using pointers. Without pointers, the entire block of
data would have to be passed to the function via the stack.

C++
In the 1970s, software engineers needed language support to break large projects down into modules.[65]
One obvious feature was to decompose large projects physically into separate files. A less obvious feature
was to decompose large projects logically into abstract data types.[65] At the time, languages supported
concrete (scalar) datatypes like integer numbers, floating-point numbers, and strings of characters.
Abstract datatypes are structures of concrete datatypes, with a new name assigned. For example, a list of
integers could be called integer_list.

In object-oriented jargon, abstract datatypes are called classes. However, a class is only a definition; no
memory is allocated. When memory is allocated to a class and bound to an identifier, it is called an
object.[66]

Object-oriented imperative languages developed by combining the need for classes and the need for safe
functional programming.[67] A function, in an object-oriented language, is assigned to a class. An
assigned function is then referred to as a method, member function, or operation. Object-oriented
programming is executing operations on objects.[68]

Object-oriented languages support a syntax to model subset/superset relationships. In set theory, an

element of a subset inherits all the attributes contained in the superset. For example, a student is a person.
Therefore, the set of students is a subset of the set of persons. As a result, students inherit all the attributes
common to all persons. Additionally, students have unique attributes that other people do not have.
Object-oriented languages model subset/superset relationships using inheritance.[69] Object-oriented
programming became the dominant language paradigm by the late 1990s.[65]

C++ (1985) was originally called "C with Classes".[70] It was designed to expand C's capabilities by
adding the object-oriented facilities of the language Simula.[71]

An object-oriented module is composed of two files. The definitions file is called the header file. Here is
a C++ header file for the GRADE class in a simple school application:

// grade.h
// -------

// Used to allow multiple source files to include

// this header file without duplication errors.
// ----------------------------------------------
#ifndef GRADE_H
#define GRADE_H

class GRADE {
public:
// This is the constructor operation.
// ----------------------------------
GRADE ( const char letter );

// This is a class variable.

// -------------------------
char letter;

// This is a member operation.

// ---------------------------
int grade_numeric( const char letter );

// This is a class variable.

// -------------------------
int numeric;
};
#endif

A constructor operation is a function with the same name as the class name.[72] It is executed when the
calling operation executes the new statement.
A module's other file is the source file. Here is a C++ source file for the GRADE class in a simple school
application:

// grade.cpp
// ---------
#include "grade.h"

GRADE::GRADE( const char letter )

{
// Reference the object using the keyword 'this'.
// ----------------------------------------------
this->letter = letter;

// This is Temporal Cohesion

// -------------------------
this->numeric = grade_numeric( letter );
}

int GRADE::grade_numeric( const char letter )

{
if ( ( letter == 'A' || letter == 'a' ) )
return 4;
else
if ( ( letter == 'B' || letter == 'b' ) )
return 3;
else
if ( ( letter == 'C' || letter == 'c' ) )
return 2;
else
if ( ( letter == 'D' || letter == 'd' ) )
return 1;
else
if ( ( letter == 'F' || letter == 'f' ) )
return 0;
else
return -1;
}

Here is a C++ header file for the PERSON class in a simple school application:

// person.h
// --------
#ifndef PERSON_H
#define PERSON_H

class PERSON {
public:
PERSON ( const char *name );
const char *name;
};
#endif

Here is a C++ source file for the PERSON class in a simple school application:

// person.cpp
// ----------
#include "person.h"

PERSON::PERSON ( const char *name )

{
this->name = name;
}

Here is a C++ header file for the STUDENT class in a simple school application:
 // student.h
// ---------
#ifndef STUDENT_H
#define STUDENT_H

#include "person.h"
#include "grade.h"

// A STUDENT is a subset of PERSON.

// --------------------------------
class STUDENT : public PERSON{
public:
STUDENT ( const char *name );
GRADE *grade;
};
#endif

Here is a C++ source file for the STUDENT class in a simple school application:

// student.cpp
// -----------
#include "student.h"
#include "person.h"

STUDENT::STUDENT ( const char *name ):

// Execute the constructor of the PERSON superclass.
// -------------------------------------------------
PERSON( name )
{
// Nothing else to do.
// -------------------
}

Here is a driver program for demonstration:

// student_dvr.cpp
// ---------------
#include <iostream>
#include "student.h"

int main( void )

{
STUDENT *student = new STUDENT( "The Student" );
student->grade = new GRADE( 'a' );

std::cout
// Notice student inherits PERSON's name
<< student->name
<< ": Numeric grade = "
<< student->grade->numeric
<< "\n";
return 0;
}

Here is a makefile to compile everything:

# makefile
# --------
all: student_dvr

clean:
rm student_dvr *.o

student_dvr: student_dvr.cpp grade.o student.o person.o

c++ student_dvr.cpp grade.o student.o person.o -o student_dvr
 grade.o: grade.cpp grade.h
c++ -c grade.cpp

student.o: student.cpp student.h

c++ -c student.cpp

person.o: person.cpp person.h

c++ -c person.cpp

Declarative languages
Imperative languages have one major criticism: assigning an expression to a non-local variable may
produce an unintended side effect.[73] Declarative languages generally omit the assignment statement and
the control flow. They describe what computation should be performed and not how to compute it. Two
broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages.

The principle behind a functional language is to use lambda calculus as a guide for a well defined
semantic.[74] In mathematics, a function is a rule that maps elements from an expression to a range of
values. Consider the function:

times_10(x) = 10 * x

The expression 10 * x is mapped by the function times_10() to a range of values. One value
happens to be 20. This occurs when x is 2. So, the application of the function is mathematically written
as:

times_10(2) = 20

A functional language compiler will not store this value in a variable. Instead, it will push the value onto
the computer's stack before setting the program counter back to the calling function. The calling function
will then pop the value from the stack.[75]

Imperative languages do support functions. Therefore, functional programming can be achieved in an

imperative language, if the programmer uses discipline. However, a functional language will force this
discipline onto the programmer through its syntax. Functional languages have a syntax tailored to
emphasize the what.[76]

A functional program is developed with a set of primitive functions followed by a single driver
function.[73] Consider the snippet:

function max( a, b ){/* code omitted */}

function min( a, b ){/* code omitted */}

function range( a, b, c ) {

return max( a, max( b, c ) ) - min( a, min( b, c ) );

The primitives are max() and min(). The driver function is range(). Executing:

put( range( 10, 4, 7) ); will output 6.

Functional languages are used in computer science research to explore new language features.[77]
Moreover, their lack of side-effects have made them popular in parallel programming and concurrent
programming.[78] However, application developers prefer the object-oriented features of imperative
languages.[78]

Lisp
Lisp (1958) stands for "LISt Processor".[79] It is tailored to process lists. A full structure of the data is
formed by building lists of lists. In memory, a tree data structure is built. Internally, the tree structure
lends nicely for recursive functions.[80] The syntax to build a tree is to enclose the space-separated
elements within parenthesis. The following is a list of three elements. The first two elements are
themselves lists of two elements:

((A B) (HELLO WORLD) 94)

Lisp has functions to extract and reconstruct elements.[81] The function head() returns a list containing
the first element in the list. The function tail() returns a list containing everything but the first
element. The function cons() returns a list that is the concatenation of other lists. Therefore, the
following expression will return the list x:

cons(head(x), tail(x))

One drawback of Lisp is when many functions are nested, the parentheses may look confusing.[76]
Modern Lisp environments help ensure parenthesis match. As an aside, Lisp does support the imperative
language operations of the assignment statement and goto loops.[82] Also, Lisp is not concerned with the
datatype of the elements at compile time.[83] Instead, it assigns (and may reassign) the datatypes at
runtime. Assigning the datatype at runtime is called dynamic binding.[84] Whereas dynamic binding
increases the language's flexibility, programming errors may linger until late in the software development
process.[84]

Writing large, reliable, and readable Lisp programs requires forethought. If properly planned, the program
may be much shorter than an equivalent imperative language program.[76] Lisp is widely used in artificial
intelligence. However, its usage has been accepted only because it has imperative language operations,
making unintended side-effects possible.[78]

ML
ML (1973)[85] stands for "Meta Language". ML checks to make sure only data of the same type are
compared with one another.[86] For example, this function has one input parameter (an integer) and
returns an integer:

fun times_10(n : int) : int = 10 * n;

ML is not parenthesis-eccentric like Lisp. The following is an application of times_10():

times_10 2

It returns "20 : int". (Both the results and the datatype are returned.)
Like Lisp, ML is tailored to process lists. Unlike Lisp, each element is the same datatype.[87] Moreover,
ML assigns the datatype of an element at compile-time. Assigning the datatype at compile-time is called
static binding. Static binding increases reliability because the compiler checks the context of variables
before they are used.[88]

Prolog
Prolog (1972) stands for "PROgramming in LOGic". It is a logic programming language, based on formal
logic. The language was developed by Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel in Marseille, France. It is
an implementation of Selective Linear Definite clause resolution, pioneered by Robert Kowalski and
others at the University of Edinburgh.[89]

The building blocks of a Prolog program are facts and rules. Here is a simple example:

cat(tom). % tom is a cat

mouse(jerry). % jerry is a mouse

animal(X) :- cat(X). % each cat is an animal

animal(X) :- mouse(X). % each mouse is an animal

big(X) :- cat(X). % each cat is big

small(X) :- mouse(X). % each mouse is small

eat(X,Y) :- mouse(X), cheese(Y). % each mouse eats each cheese

eat(X,Y) :- big(X), small(Y). % each big animal eats each small animal

After all the facts and rules are entered, then a question can be asked:

Will Tom eat Jerry?

?- eat(tom,jerry).
true

The following example shows how Prolog will convert a letter grade to its numeric value:

numeric_grade('A', 4).
numeric_grade('B', 3).
numeric_grade('C', 2).
numeric_grade('D', 1).
numeric_grade('F', 0).
numeric_grade(X, -1) :- not X = 'A', not X = 'B', not X = 'C', not X = 'D', not X = 'F'.
grade('The Student', 'A').

?- grade('The Student', X), numeric_grade(X, Y).

X = 'A',
Y = 4

Here is a comprehensive example:[90]

1) All dragons billow fire, or equivalently, a thing billows fire if the thing is a dragon:

billows_fire(X) :-
is_a_dragon(X).
2) A creature billows fire if one of its parents billows fire:

billows_fire(X) :-
is_a_creature(X),
is_a_parent_of(Y,X),
billows_fire(Y).

3) A thing X is a parent of a thing Y if X is the mother of Y or X is the father of Y:

is_a_parent_of(X, Y):- is_the_mother_of(X, Y).

is_a_parent_of(X, Y):- is_the_father_of(X, Y).

4) A thing is a creature if the thing is a dragon:

is_a_creature(X) :-
is_a_dragon(X).

5) Norberta is a dragon, and Puff is a creature. Norberta is the mother of Puff.

is_a_dragon(norberta).
is_a_creature(puff).
is_the_mother_of(norberta, puff).

Rule (2) is a recursive (inductive) definition. It can be understood declaratively, without the need to
understand how it is executed.

Rule (3) shows how functions are represented by using relations. Here, the mother and father functions
ensure that every individual has only one mother and only one father.

Prolog is an untyped language. Nonetheless, inheritance can be represented by using predicates. Rule (4)
asserts that a creature is a superclass of a dragon.

Questions are answered using backward reasoning. Given the question:

?- billows_fire(X).

Prolog generates two answers :

X = norberta
X = puff

Practical applications for Prolog are knowledge representation and problem solving in artificial
intelligence.

Object-oriented programming
Object-oriented programming is a programming method to execute operations (functions) on objects.[91]
The basic idea is to group the characteristics of a phenomenon into an object container and give the
container a name. The operations on the phenomenon are also grouped into the container.[91] Object-
oriented programming developed by combining the need for containers and the need for safe functional
programming.[92] This programming method need not be confined to an object-oriented language.[93] In
an object-oriented language, an object container is called a class. In a non-object-oriented language, a
data structure (which is also known as a record) may become an object container. To turn a data structure
into an object container, operations need to be written specifically for the structure. The resulting
structure is called an abstract datatype.[94] However, inheritance will be missing. Nonetheless, this
shortcoming can be overcome.

Here is a C programming language header file for the GRADE abstract datatype in a simple school
application:

/* grade.h */
/* ------- */

/* Used to allow multiple source files to include */

/* this header file without duplication errors. */
/* ---------------------------------------------- */
#ifndef GRADE_H
#define GRADE_H

typedef struct
{
char letter;
} GRADE;

/* Constructor */
/* ----------- */
GRADE *grade_new( char letter );

int grade_numeric( char letter );

#endif

The grade_new() function performs the same algorithm as the C++ constructor operation.

Here is a C programming language source file for the GRADE abstract datatype in a simple school
application:

/* grade.c */
/* ------- */
#include "grade.h"

GRADE *grade_new( char letter )

{
GRADE *grade;

/* Allocate heap memory */

/* -------------------- */
if ( ! ( grade = calloc( 1, sizeof ( GRADE ) ) ) )
{
fprintf(stderr,
"ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\n",
__FILE__,
__FUNCTION__,
__LINE__ );
exit( 1 );
}

grade->letter = letter;
return grade;
}

int grade_numeric( char letter )

{
if ( ( letter == 'A' || letter == 'a' ) )
 return 4;
else
if ( ( letter == 'B' || letter == 'b' ) )
return 3;
else
if ( ( letter == 'C' || letter == 'c' ) )
return 2;
else
if ( ( letter == 'D' || letter == 'd' ) )
return 1;
else
if ( ( letter == 'F' || letter == 'f' ) )
return 0;
else
return -1;
}

In the constructor, the function calloc() is used instead of malloc() because each memory cell will
be set to zero.

Here is a C programming language header file for the PERSON abstract datatype in a simple school
application:

/* person.h */
/* -------- */
#ifndef PERSON_H
#define PERSON_H

typedef struct
{
char *name;
} PERSON;

/* Constructor */
/* ----------- */
PERSON *person_new( char *name );
#endif

Here is a C programming language source file for the PERSON abstract datatype in a simple school
application:

/* person.c */
/* -------- */
#include "person.h"

PERSON *person_new( char *name )

{
PERSON *person;

if ( ! ( person = calloc( 1, sizeof ( PERSON ) ) ) )

{
fprintf(stderr,
"ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\n",
__FILE__,
__FUNCTION__,
__LINE__ );
exit( 1 );
}

person->name = name;
return person;
}
Here is a C programming language header file for the STUDENT abstract datatype in a simple school
application:

/* student.h */
/* --------- */
#ifndef STUDENT_H
#define STUDENT_H

#include "person.h"
#include "grade.h"

typedef struct
{
/* A STUDENT is a subset of PERSON. */
/* -------------------------------- */
PERSON *person;

GRADE *grade;
} STUDENT;

/* Constructor */
/* ----------- */
STUDENT *student_new( char *name );
#endif

Here is a C programming language source file for the STUDENT abstract datatype in a simple school
application:

/* student.c */
/* --------- */
#include "student.h"
#include "person.h"

STUDENT *student_new( char *name )

{
STUDENT *student;

if ( ! ( student = calloc( 1, sizeof ( STUDENT ) ) ) )

{
fprintf(stderr,
"ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\n",
__FILE__,
__FUNCTION__,
__LINE__ );
exit( 1 );
}

/* Execute the constructor of the PERSON superclass. */

/* ------------------------------------------------- */
student->person = person_new( name );
return student;
}

Here is a driver program for demonstration:

/* student_dvr.c */
/* ------------- */
#include <stdio.h>
#include "student.h"

int main( void )

{
STUDENT *student = student_new( "The Student" );
student->grade = grade_new( 'a' );

printf( "%s: Numeric grade = %d\n",

 /* Whereas a subset exists, inheritance does not. */
student->person->name,
/* Functional programming is executing functions just-in-time (JIT) */
grade_numeric( student->grade->letter ) );

return 0;
}

Here is a makefile to compile everything:

# makefile
# --------
all: student_dvr

clean:
rm student_dvr *.o

student_dvr: student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o

gcc student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o -o student_dvr

grade.o: grade.c grade.h

gcc -c grade.c

student.o: student.c student.h

gcc -c student.c

person.o: person.c person.h

gcc -c person.c

The formal strategy to build object-oriented objects is to:[95]

Identify the objects. Most likely these will be nouns.

Identify each object's attributes. What helps to describe the object?
Identify each object's actions. Most likely these will be verbs.
Identify the relationships from object to object. Most likely these will be verbs.
For example:

A person is a human identified by a name.

A grade is an achievement identified by a letter.
A student is a person who earns a grade.

Syntax and semantics

The syntax of a computer program is a list of
production rules which form its grammar.[96] A
programming language's grammar correctly places its
declarations, expressions, and statements.[97]
Complementing the syntax of a language are its
semantics. The semantics describe the meanings
attached to various syntactic constructs.[98] A
syntactic construct may need a semantic description
because a production rule may have an invalid Production rules consist of a set of terminals and
non-terminals.
interpretation.[99] Also, different languages might
have the same syntax; however, their behaviors may
be different.
The syntax of a language is formally described by listing the production rules. Whereas the syntax of a
natural language is extremely complicated, a subset of the English language can have this production rule
listing:[100]

1. a sentence is made up of a noun-phrase followed by a verb-phrase;

2. a noun-phrase is made up of an article followed by an adjective followed by a noun;
3. a verb-phrase is made up of a verb followed by a noun-phrase;
4. an article is 'the';
5. an adjective is 'big' or
6. an adjective is 'small';
7. a noun is 'cat' or
8. a noun is 'mouse';
9. a verb is 'eats';
The words in bold-face are known as non-terminals. The words in 'single quotes' are known as
terminals.[101]

From this production rule listing, complete sentences may be formed using a series of replacements.[102]
The process is to replace non-terminals with either a valid non-terminal or a valid terminal. The
replacement process repeats until only terminals remain. One valid sentence is:

sentence
noun-phrase verb-phrase
article adjective noun verb-phrase
the adjective noun verb-phrase
the big noun verb-phrase
the big cat verb-phrase
the big cat verb noun-phrase
the big cat eats noun-phrase
the big cat eats article adjective noun
the big cat eats the adjective noun
the big cat eats the small noun
the big cat eats the small mouse
However, another combination results in an invalid sentence:

the small mouse eats the big cat

Therefore, a semantic is necessary to correctly describe the meaning of an eat activity.

One production rule listing method is called the Backus–Naur form (BNF).[103] BNF describes the syntax
of a language and itself has a syntax. This recursive definition is an example of a meta-language.[98] The
syntax of BNF includes:

::= which translates to is made up of a[n] when a non-terminal is to its right. It translates to
is when a terminal is to its right.
| which translates to or.
< and > which surround non-terminals.
Using BNF, a subset of the English language can have this production rule listing:
 <sentence> ::= <noun-phrase><verb-phrase>
<noun-phrase> ::= <article><adjective><noun>
<verb-phrase> ::= <verb><noun-phrase>
<article> ::= the
<adjective> ::= big | small
<noun> ::= cat | mouse
<verb> ::= eats

Using BNF, a signed-integer has the production rule listing:[104]

<signed-integer> ::= <sign><integer>

<sign> ::= + | -
<integer> ::= <digit> | <digit><integer>
<digit> ::= 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

Notice the recursive production rule:

<integer> ::= <digit> | <digit><integer>

This allows for an infinite number of possibilities. Therefore, a semantic is necessary to describe a
limitation of the number of digits.

Notice the leading zero possibility in the production rules:

<integer> ::= <digit> | <digit><integer>

<digit> ::= 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9

Therefore, a semantic is necessary to describe that leading zeros need to be ignored.

Two formal methods are available to describe semantics. They are denotational semantics and axiomatic
semantics.[105]

Software engineering and computer programming

Software engineering is a variety of techniques to produce quality
computer programs.[106] Computer programming is the process of
writing or editing source code. In a formal environment, a systems
analyst will gather information from managers about all the
organization's processes to automate. This professional then
prepares a detailed plan for the new or modified system.[107] The
plan is analogous to an architect's blueprint.[107]

Prior to programming languages,

Performance objectives Betty Jennings and Fran Bilas
programmed the ENIAC by moving
The systems analyst has the objective to deliver the right cables and setting switches.
information to the right person at the right time.[108] The critical
factors to achieve this objective are:[108]

1. The quality of the output. Is the output useful for decision-making?

 2. The accuracy of the output. Does it reflect the true situation?
3. The format of the output. Is the output easily understood?
4. The speed of the output. Time-sensitive information is important when communicating with
the customer in real time.

Cost objectives
Achieving performance objectives should be balanced with all of the costs, including:[109]

1. Development costs.
2. Uniqueness costs. A reusable system may be expensive. However, it might be preferred
over a limited-use system.
3. Hardware costs.
4. Operating costs.
Applying a systems development process will mitigate the axiom: the later in the process an error is
detected, the more expensive it is to correct.[110]

Waterfall model
The waterfall model is an implementation of a systems development process.[111] As the waterfall label
implies, the basic phases overlap each other:[112]

1. The investigation phase is to understand the underlying problem.

2. The analysis phase is to understand the possible solutions.
3. The design phase is to plan the best solution.
4. The implementation phase is to program the best solution.
5. The maintenance phase lasts throughout the life of the system. Changes to the system after
it is deployed may be necessary.[113] Faults may exist, including specification faults, design
faults, or coding faults. Improvements may be necessary. Adaption may be necessary to
react to a changing environment.

Computer programmer
A computer programmer is a specialist responsible for writing or modifying the source code to implement
the detailed plan.[107] A programming team is likely to be needed because most systems are too large to
be completed by a single programmer.[114] However, adding programmers to a project may not shorten
the completion time. Instead, it may lower the quality of the system.[114] To be effective, program
modules need to be defined and distributed to team members.[114] Also, team members must interact with
one another in a meaningful and effective way.[114]

Computer programmers may be programming in the small: programming within a single module.[115]
Chances are a module will execute modules located in other source code files. Therefore, computer
programmers may be programming in the large: programming modules so they will effectively couple
with each other.[115] Programming-in-the-large includes contributing to the application programming
interface (API).

Program modules
Modular programming is a technique to refine imperative language programs. Refined programs may
reduce the software size, separate responsibilities, and thereby mitigate software aging. A program
module is a sequence of statements that are bounded within a block and together identified by a
name.[116] Modules have a function, context, and logic:[117]

The function of a module is what it does.

The context of a module are the elements being performed upon.
The logic of a module is how it performs the function.
The module's name should be derived first by its function, then by its context. Its logic should not be part
of the name.[117] For example, function compute_square_root( x ) or function
compute_square_root_integer( i : integer ) are appropriate module names. However,
function compute_square_root_by_division( x ) is not.

The degree of interaction within a module is its level of cohesion.[117] Cohesion is a judgment of the
relationship between a module's name and its function. The degree of interaction between modules is the
level of coupling.[118] Coupling is a judgement of the relationship between a module's context and the
elements being performed upon.

Cohesion
The levels of cohesion from worst to best are:[119]

Coincidental Cohesion: A module has coincidental cohesion if it performs multiple functions,

and the functions are completely unrelated. For example, function
read_sales_record_print_next_line_convert_to_float(). Coincidental
cohesion occurs in practice if management enforces silly rules. For example, "Every module
will have between 35 and 50 executable statements."[119]
Logical Cohesion: A module has logical cohesion if it has available a series of functions, but
only one of them is executed. For example, function perform_arithmetic(
perform_addition, a, b ).
Temporal Cohesion: A module has temporal cohesion if it performs functions related to time.
One example, function initialize_variables_and_open_files(). Another
example, stage_one(), stage_two(), ...
Procedural Cohesion: A module has procedural cohesion if it performs multiple loosely
related functions. For example, function
read_part_number_update_employee_record().
Communicational Cohesion: A module has communicational cohesion if it performs multiple
closely related functions. For example, function
read_part_number_update_sales_record().
Informational Cohesion: A module has informational cohesion if it performs multiple
functions, but each function has its own entry and exit points. Moreover, the functions share
the same data structure. Object-oriented classes work at this level.
Functional Cohesion: a module has functional cohesion if it achieves a single goal working
only on local variables. Moreover, it may be reusable in other contexts.

Coupling
The levels of coupling from worst to best are:[118]

Content Coupling: A module has content coupling if it modifies a local variable of another
function. COBOL used to do this with the alter verb.
Common Coupling: A module has common coupling if it modifies a global variable.
Control Coupling: A module has control coupling if another module can modify its control
flow. For example, perform_arithmetic( perform_addition, a, b ). Instead,
control should be on the makeup of the returned object.
Stamp Coupling: A module has stamp coupling if an element of a data structure passed as a
parameter is modified. Object-oriented classes work at this level.
Data Coupling: A module has data coupling if all of its input parameters are needed and
none of them are modified. Moreover, the result of the function is returned as a single
object.

Data flow analysis

Data flow analysis is a design method used to achieve modules of
functional cohesion and data coupling.[120] The input to the
method is a data-flow diagram. A data-flow diagram is a set of
ovals representing modules. Each module's name is displayed
inside its oval. Modules may be at the executable level or the
function level.

The diagram also has arrows connecting modules to each other.

Arrows pointing into modules represent a set of inputs. Each
A sample function-level data-flow
module should have only one arrow pointing out from it to
diagram
represent its single output object. (Optionally, an additional
exception arrow points out.) A daisy chain of ovals will convey an
entire algorithm. The input modules should start the diagram. The input modules should connect to the
transform modules. The transform modules should connect to the output modules.[121]

Functional categories
Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories are
application software and system software. System software includes the operating system, which couples
computer hardware with application software.[122] The purpose of the operating system is to provide an
environment where application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner.[122] Both
application software and system software execute utility programs. At the hardware level, a microcode
program controls the circuits throughout the central processing unit.

Application software
Application software is the key to unlocking the potential of the computer system.[123] Enterprise
application software bundles accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications. Examples include
enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software.
Enterprise applications may be developed in-house as a one-of-a-kind
proprietary software.[124] Alternatively, they may be purchased as off-the-
shelf software. Purchased software may be modified to provide custom
software. If the application is customized, then either the company's
resources are used or the resources are outsourced. Outsourced software
development may be from the original software vendor or a third-party
developer.[125]

The potential advantages of in-house software are features and reports

may be developed exactly to specification.[126] Management may also be
involved in the development process and offer a level of control.[127]
Management may decide to counteract a competitor's new initiative or
implement a customer or vendor requirement.[128] A merger or acquisition
A diagram showing that the
may necessitate enterprise software changes. The potential disadvantages
user interacts with the
of in-house software are time and resource costs may be extensive.[124] application software. The
Furthermore, risks concerning features and performance may be looming. application software
interacts with the operating
The potential advantages of off-the-shelf software are upfront costs are system, which interacts with
identifiable, the basic needs should be fulfilled, and its performance and the hardware.
reliability have a track record.[124] The potential disadvantages of off-the-
shelf software are it may have unnecessary features that confuse end
users, it may lack features the enterprise needs, and the data flow may not match the enterprise's work
processes.[124]

One approach to economically obtaining a customized enterprise application is through an application

service provider.[129] Specialty companies provide hardware, custom software, and end-user support.
They may speed the development of new applications because they possess skilled information system
staff. The biggest advantage is it frees in-house resources from staffing and managing complex computer
projects.[129] Many application service providers target small, fast-growing companies with limited
information system resources.[129] On the other hand, larger companies with major systems will likely
have their technical infrastructure in place. One risk is having to trust an external organization with
sensitive information. Another risk is having to trust the provider's infrastructure reliability.[129]

Operating system
An operating system is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as
scheduling processes and controlling peripherals.[122]

In the 1950s, the programmer, who was also the operator, would write a program and run it. After the
program finished executing, the output may have been printed, or it may have been punched onto paper
tape or cards for later processing.[28] More often than not the program did not work. The programmer
then looked at the console lights and fiddled with the console switches. If less fortunate, a memory
printout was made for further study. In the 1960s, programmers reduced the amount of wasted time by
automating the operator's job. A program called an operating system was kept in the computer at all
times.[130]
The term operating system may refer
to two levels of software.[131] The
operating system may refer to the
kernel program that manages the
processes, memory, and devices. More
broadly, the operating system may
refer to the entire package of the
central software. The package
includes a kernel program, command-
line interpreter, graphical user
interface, utility programs, and
editor.[131]
Program vs. Process vs. Thread
Scheduling, Preemption, Context Switching
Kernel Program
The kernel's main purpose is to manage the limited resources of a
computer:

The kernel program should perform process

scheduling,[132] which is also known as a context switch.
The kernel creates a process control block when a
computer program is selected for execution. However,
an executing program gets exclusive access to the
central processing unit only for a time slice. To provide
each user with the appearance of continuous access,
the kernel quickly preempts each process control block A kernel connects the application
to execute another one. The goal for system developers software to the hardware of a
is to minimize dispatch latency. computer.

The kernel program should perform memory

management.

When the kernel initially loads an executable into memory, it divides the address space
logically into regions.[133] The kernel maintains a master-region table and many per-
process-region (pregion) tables—one for each running process.[133] These tables
constitute the virtual address space. The master-region table is used to determine
where its contents are located in physical memory. The pregion tables allow each
process to have its own program (text) pregion, data pregion, and stack pregion.
The program pregion stores machine instructions. Since machine instructions do not
change, the program pregion may be shared by many processes of the same
executable.[133]
To save time and memory, the kernel may load only blocks of execution instructions
from the disk drive, not the entire execution file completely.[132]
The kernel is responsible for translating virtual addresses into physical addresses. The
kernel may request data from the memory controller and, instead, receive a page
fault.[134] If so, the kernel accesses the memory management unit to populate the
physical data region and translate the address.[135]
The kernel allocates memory from the heap upon request by a process.[64] When the
process is finished with the memory, the process may request for it to be freed. If the
process exits without requesting all allocated memory to be freed, then the kernel
performs garbage collection to free the memory.
 The kernel also ensures that a process only
accesses its own memory, and not that of the
kernel or other processes.[132]

The kernel program should perform file system

management.[132] The kernel has instructions to
create, retrieve, update, and delete files.
The kernel program should perform device
management.[132] The kernel provides programs to
standardize and simplify the interface to the mouse,
keyboard, disk drives, printers, and other devices.
Moreover, the kernel should arbitrate access to a
device if two processes request it at the same time.
The kernel program should perform network
management.[136] The kernel transmits and receives
packets on behalf of processes. One key service is
to find an efficient route to the target system.
The kernel program should provide system level
functions for programmers to use.[137]
Programmers access files through a relatively
simple interface that in turn executes a relatively
Physical memory is scattered around
complicated low-level I/O interface. The low-level
RAM and the hard disk. Virtual memory is
interface includes file creation, file descriptors,
one continuous block.
file seeking, physical reading, and physical
writing.
Programmers create processes through a
relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level
interface.
Programmers perform date/time arithmetic through a relatively simple interface that in
turn executes a relatively complicated low-level time interface.[138]
The kernel program should provide a communication channel between executing
processes.[139] For a large software system, it may be desirable to engineer the system into
smaller processes. Processes may communicate with one another by sending and receiving
signals.
Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are
typically written in higher-level languages like C, Objective-C, and Swift.[k]

Utility program
A utility program is designed to aid system administration and software execution. Operating systems
execute hardware utility programs to check the status of disk drives, memory, speakers, and printers.[140]
A utility program may optimize the placement of a file on a crowded disk. System utility programs
monitor hardware and network performance. When a metric is outside an acceptable range, a trigger alert
is generated.[141]
Utility programs include compression programs so data files are stored on less disk space.[140]
Compressed programs also save time when data files are transmitted over the network.[140] Utility
programs can sort and merge data sets.[141] Utility programs detect computer viruses.[141]

Microcode program
A microcode program is the bottom-level interpreter that controls the data path of
software-driven computers.[142] (Advances in hardware have migrated these
operations to hardware execution circuits.)[142] Microcode instructions allow the NOT gate
programmer to more easily implement the digital logic level[143]—the computer's real
hardware. The digital logic level is the boundary between computer science and
computer engineering.[144]

A logic gate is a tiny transistor that can return one of two signals: on or off.[145] NAND gate

Having one transistor forms the NOT gate.

Connecting two transistors in series forms the NAND gate.
Connecting two transistors in parallel forms the NOR gate.
Connecting a NOT gate to a NAND gate forms the AND gate. NOR gate
Connecting a NOT gate to a NOR gate forms the OR gate.
These five gates form the building blocks of binary algebra—the digital logic
functions of the computer.
AND gate
Microcode instructions are mnemonics programmers may use to execute digital logic
functions instead of forming them in binary algebra. They are stored in a central
processing unit's (CPU) control store.[146] These hardware-level instructions move
data throughout the data path.
OR gate
The micro-instruction cycle begins when the microsequencer uses its microprogram
counter to fetch the next machine instruction from random-access memory.[147] The
next step is to decode the machine instruction by selecting the proper output line to the hardware
module.[148] The final step is to execute the instruction using the hardware module's set of gates.

Instructions to perform arithmetic are passed through an arithmetic

logic unit (ALU).[149] The ALU has circuits to perform elementary
operations to add, shift, and compare integers. By combining and
looping the elementary operations through the ALU, the CPU
performs its complex arithmetic.

Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the

A symbolic representation of an ALU
memory controller. Memory controller microcode instructions
manipulate two registers. The memory address register is used to
access each memory cell's address. The memory data register is used to set and read each cell's
contents.[150]
Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the many computer buses. The disk controller
bus writes to and reads from hard disk drives. Data is also moved between the CPU and other functional
units via the peripheral component interconnect express bus.[151]

Notes
a. The Prolog language allows for a database of facts and rules to be entered in any order.
However, a question about a database must be at the very end.
b. An executable has each machine instruction ready for the CPU.
c. For more information, visit X86 assembly language#Instruction types.
d. introduced in 1999
e. Operators like x++ will usually compile to a single instruction.
f. The line numbers were typically incremented by 10 to leave room if additional statements
were added later.
g. This function could be written more concisely as int increment_counter(){ static
int counter; return ++counter;}. 1) Static variables are automatically initialized to
zero. 2) ++counter is a prefix increment operator.
h. This is despite the metaphor of a stack, which normally grows from bottom to top.
i. C also provides the calloc() function to allocate heap memory. It provides two additional
services: 1) It allows the programmer to create an array of arbitrary size. 2) It sets each
memory cell to zero.
j. For string variables, C provides the strdup() function. It executes both the allocation
function and the copy function.
k. The UNIX operating system was written in C, macOS was written in Objective-C, and Swift
replaced Objective-C.

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addition — the class concept. ... The basic idea was that the data (or data structure) and the
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92. Wilson, Leslie B. (2001). Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition. Addison-
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93. Schach, Stephen R. (1990). Software Engineering. Aksen Associates Incorporated
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declarations, expressions, and statements."
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s/discretemathemat00rose/page/615). ISBN 978-0-07-053744-6.
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102. Rosen, Kenneth H. (1991). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (https://archive.org/de
tails/discretemathemat00rose/page/616). McGraw-Hill, Inc. p. 616 (https://archive.org/detail
s/discretemathemat00rose/page/616). ISBN 978-0-07-053744-6.
103. Rosen, Kenneth H. (1991). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (https://archive.org/de
tails/discretemathemat00rose/page/623). McGraw-Hill, Inc. p. 623 (https://archive.org/detail
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