INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

WRS-501
Water and Society

Unit 4: Water Supply and Management

Prof Basant Yadav

Assistant Professor
Department of Water Resources Development and Management
 Hydrological Cycle

The hydrological cycle involves the

continuous circulation of water in
the Earth-Atmosphere system.

• Of the many processes involved in

the hydrologic cycle, the most
important are:

• Evaporation
• Transpiration
• Condensation
• Precipitation
• Runoff

The Water Cycle (Source: USGS)

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 Hydrological Cycle – 2022, USGS

The Water Cycle (PNG)

Source: USGS, By Water Science
School | October 13, 2022

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 Water Scenario

Earth’s surface is covered by 71% water and is

(almost) everywhere: above the Earth in the air and
clouds, on the surface of the Earth
in rivers, oceans, ice, plants, in living organisms,
and inside the Earth in the top few miles of
the ground.
• Out of all the water available on the Earth, 97 %
of water is saline and is in oceans, 3% of water is
freshwater available in rivers, streams and
glaciers.

Pie Chart of the Earth’s water pools or stocks

(Source: Natural Resources Sustainability: An Introductory Synthesis,
Chapter 3, Figure 3.1)

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Source of Water

Source of Water
Rainfall

Surface source Subsurface source

Tube well
Fresh water saline water Handpump
River Sea Well
Lake and pound Others
Wetland Saline lake

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 Water Sources

Source water refers to bodies of water (such as rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, springs, and ground water)
that provide water to public drinking-water supplies and private wells. Water sources can include:

• Surface water (for example, a lake, river, or reservoir)

• Ground water (for example, an aquifer)
• Recycled water (also called reused water)

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 Source of Water- Water Reuse

• Water reuse (also commonly known as

water recycling or water reclamation)
reclaims water from a variety of sources
then treats and reuses it for beneficial
purposes such as agriculture and
irrigation, potable water supplies,
groundwater replenishment, industrial
processes, and environmental restoration.

• Water reuse can provide alternatives to

existing water supplies and be used to
enhance water security, sustainability, and
resilience.

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 Water Source Development

Water resources development i Supply Development Process

s the process by which the
Planning for the development of water
world's water sources are
supplies requires knowledge not only of
engineered to deliver adequate
water rights but also of water sources and
quantities of high-quality water to
water needs, as well as alternative
serve the forecasted needs of
approaches that can be implemented to
society.
produce the required results. Sources of
water that may be drawn upon include:

➢ Surface waters such as rivers, streams,

lakes, and impoundments behind dams;
➢ Groundwater;
➢ Atmospheric water, generally as
collected rainwater;
➢ Saline and brackish waters; and
➢ Renovated wastewater.

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 Water Source Development

The water development process includes:

➢ Identifying water sources;
➢ Determining the variation in source water quantity and quality over time;
➢ Identifying prospective users and estimating their "true needs," as opposed to their "wants;"
➢ Determining the infrastructure needed to deliver water from its source(s) to the point of use;
➢ Estimating the environmental impact of developing the water supplies; and
➢ Estimating the cost of implementing the water development plan.

The goal of water supply development should be meeting the target need. This
may be achieved by making additional water sources available, reducing the
demand for water, or a combination of the two.
Demand Management
Structural Supply Development

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 Water Demand

Global water withdrawal and consumption 2014-2040

• It is projected that global water demand will reach 4,350 billion cubic meters in terms of withdrawal by 2040. In
the last few decades, the growth in water demand has doubled that of population growth. Water demand
growth is also likely to vary based on region and sector.
Water Accessibility
• A vast number of people worldwide still lack access to drinking water sources, while an even larger population
has no access to improved sanitation services. In India, over 75.8 million people have no household access to
a safe water source.

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 Urban Water Supply

Urban Water Supply encompasses the

systems and methods used to deliver water
to densely populated urban areas. These
systems are designed to handle high
demand and complex distribution needs.

Characteristics:
• Infrastructure: Extensive networks of
pipes, treatment plants, and reservoirs.
• Supply Sources: May include large-
scale reservoirs, rivers, and
groundwater.
• Scale: Large, centralized systems
serving many people.
• Challenges: High demand,
infrastructure maintenance, pollution
control, and equitable distribution.

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 Rural Water Supply

Rural Water Supply refers to the systems and

practices used to provide clean and safe water to
rural or remote areas. These systems are often
designed to meet the needs of smaller, dispersed
populations.

Characteristics:
• Infrastructure: Typically, less developed;
may include wells, hand pumps, and small-
scale piped systems.
• Supply Sources: Often relies on local
groundwater, surface water, or rainwater
harvesting.
• Scale: Smaller, decentralized systems
serving fewer people.
• Challenges: Access to infrastructure,
maintenance issues, and quality control.

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 Urban v/s Rural Water Supply Challenges

Urban Challenges Rural Challenges

Challenges: Challenges:
• Demand: High population density leads to increased • Accessibility: Limited infrastructure; often remote
consumption.
locations.
• Infrastructure: Aging pipes and systems can lead to
leaks and inefficiencies. • Quality: Contamination from natural sources (e.g.,
• Pollution: Runoff from industrial activities and untreated arsenic, fluoride) and lack of sanitation facilities.
wastewater.
• Sustainability: Over-extraction from local sources,
• Equity: Unequal access to clean water across different
neighborhoods. reliance on seasonal rainfall.
Solutions: • Maintenance: Limited resources for repair and upkeep.
• Smart Infrastructure: Implement sensors and monitoring
Solutions:
systems for efficient management.
• Community-Based Systems: Empower local
• Water Recycling: Promote the reuse of treated
management and maintenance.
wastewater for non-potable uses.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Capture and store rainwater for
• Green Infrastructure: Use natural systems (e.g., green dry periods.
roofs, permeable pavements) to manage stormwater. • Affordable Technology: Use low-cost filtration and
• Policy & Regulation: Enforce standards and regulations purification systems.
to ensure equitable access and quality. • Education & Training: Teach proper water management
and hygiene practices.
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 Challenges Of Water Supply In Different Regions

Regional Differences

• Coastal regions: Salinity intrusion, water

scarcity, and pollution challenges.

• Hilly regions: Access to water sources,

landslides, and seasonal variations. Water Supply – Coastal Regions Water Supply – Inland Regions

• Inland regions: Groundwater depletion,

over-extraction, and contamination.

• Arid regions: Extreme water scarcity,

reliance on groundwater, and the impact
of climate change.

Water Supply – Hilly Regions Water Supply – Arid Regions

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 Coastal Regions Challenges

• Salinity Intrusion: Rising sea levels and over-extraction

leading to saltwater mixing with freshwater sources.

• Contamination: Pollution from agricultural runoff,

industrial waste, and sewage compromising water
quality.

• Over-extraction: High demand for freshwater leading

to depletion of groundwater and surface water sources.

• Erosion and Habitat Loss: Coastal erosion impacting

wetlands that serve as natural water filters.

• Examples: Bangladesh’s Mekong Delta facing salinity

intrusion, Florida’s freshwater systems affected by
saltwater encroachment.

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 Hilly Regions Challenges

• Terrain-related Issues: Steep slopes making

infrastructure development and maintenance
difficult.

• Seasonal Changes: Variation in rainfall leading to

inconsistent water availability.

• Landslides: Disruption of water sources and

damage to infrastructure due to landslides.

• Access Issues: Difficulty in accessing clean water in

remote and rugged areas.

• Examples: Nepal’s issues with water distribution in

mountainous regions, Ethiopia’s challenges with
managing water resources in highland areas.

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 Inland Regions Challenges

• Groundwater Depletion: Over-reliance on groundwater

leading to declining water tables.

• Pollution: Contamination from agricultural practices,

industrial activities, and inadequate waste management.

• Over-extraction: Intensive water use for agriculture and

industry leading to unsustainable water management.

• Climate Variability: Variability in precipitation affecting

water supply reliability.

• Examples: Central Asia’s depletion of the Aral Sea’s

groundwater resources, the Great Plains facing
contamination and depletion issues.

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 Arid Regions Challenges

• Extreme Water Scarcity: Limited natural water

sources and high evaporation rates.

• Groundwater Reliance: Overdependence on

groundwater sources that are being rapidly
depleted.

• Climate Change Impacts: Increased

temperatures and altered precipitation patterns
exacerbating water shortages.

• Desertification: Expansion of desert areas

affecting local water availability.

• Examples: Middle East’s water challenges with

dwindling aquifers, North Africa’s struggles with
managing scarce water resources.
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 Water Supply and Management

( Source: You Kwangtae, CEO, UnU Civil & Environmental Engineering, Republic of Korea )
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 WASH

Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)

• Safe WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) is vital for
health, well-being, and resilient communities.
• Unsafe water causes diseases like diarrhea; untreated
waste contaminates drinking and irrigation water.
• Enhancing WASH services (e.g., regulated piped water,
wastewater treatment) reduces disease and improves
health.
WHO provides guidance, technical support, data, and
advocacy to improve global WASH standards, integrate
WASH with health programs, and strengthen multi-sectoral
collaboration for safer water, sanitation, and hygiene.
• Billions lack access to safe drinking water, toilets, and
hygiene, with children particularly vulnerable. Hundreds of
children under 5 die daily from preventable diarrheal
diseases due to inadequate WASH services.

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 WASH Challenges Overview

• Global Access Gaps: Billions still lack safe drinking

water, basic sanitation, and hygiene services.

• Child Mortality: Hundreds of children under 5 die daily

from preventable waterborne diseases.

• Vulnerable Populations: Urban poor, rural residents,

and those in climate-affected areas are at higher risk.

• Education and Health Impact: Poor WASH leads to

missed school days and poor nutrition due to illness.

• Conflict Zones: Children in conflict areas face a higher

likelihood of dying from diarrheal diseases than violence.

• Climate Change Effects: Extreme weather events, such

as droughts and floods, worsen water safety and
availability.

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Achieving SDG WASH targets by 2030

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Sanitation

Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for

the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. Inadequate sanitation is a
major cause of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is known to
have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and
across communities. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance
of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and
wastewater disposal.

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 Sanitation Challenges in Urban Areas

Sanitation is the practice of safely managing human

waste and maintaining hygiene to prevent disease
and protect public health.

• Urban areas face overburdened sewer systems

due to rapid population growth.
• Informal settlements often lack access to proper
sanitation, leading to health crises.
• Waste management challenges include Sanitation in Dharavi, Mumbai
inadequate collection, transportation, and
disposal, causing environmental pollution.

Examples:
Mumbai’s Slums: Overpopulated with inadequate
sewer systems, leading to frequent outbreaks of
waterborne diseases.
São Paulo: Struggles with waste management and
sewage treatment due to rapid urbanization. Sanitation in the Favelas of Sao Paulo, Brazil

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 Sanitation Challenges in Rural Areas

Sanitation Issues in Rural Areas

• Open defecation is prevalent in many rural areas
due to the lack of basic sanitation infrastructure.
• Cultural practices and traditional beliefs
sometimes hinder the adoption of improved
sanitation methods.
• Poor sanitation contributes to the spread of
diseases and negatively impacts water quality.
Examples:
• Sub-Saharan Africa: Many rural areas lack toilets
and proper waste disposal systems, leading to
severe health risks.

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 Sanitation Challenges in Regional Variations

Sanitation Challenges in Coastal Regions

• High pollution from inadequate sanitation systems.
• Infrastructure damage from storms and rising sea levels.
• Saltwater intrusion complicates waste treatment.
Examples:
Jakarta: Pollution and sanitation issues in low-lying areas.
Manila: Frequent flooding affects waste management.
Sanitation Challenges in Arid Regions
• Water Scarcity: Traditional sanitation systems impractical.
• Dry Sanitation Solutions: Composting toilets and waterless systems.
• Health Impacts: Poor sanitation and hygiene – lack of water.
Examples:
Australia: Use of innovative dry sanitation systems.
Desert Regions: Struggles with sanitation in harsh, water-scarce
environments.
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 Sanitation Challenges in Regional Variations

Sanitation Challenges in Hilly and Inland Regions

Hilly Regions:
• Difficult terrain hinders sanitation infrastructure.
• Seasonal access issues lead to hygiene problems.
• Pit latrines risk groundwater contamination.
Examples:
Bhutan: Remote areas with sanitation challenges.
Andes: Seasonal sanitation difficulties.
Inland Regions:
• Waste management struggles due to limited infrastructure.
• Groundwater contamination risks from improper disposal.
• Aging infrastructure worsens sanitation issues.
Examples:
Central India: Rural and urban sanitation challenges.
Midwest USA: Aging systems and contamination risks.
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 Spatiotemporal Variation in Sanitation

Sanitation practices and infrastructure can vary

significantly over time and across different regions.
Understanding these variations is key to addressing
the unique challenges faced by different communities.
Key Factors:
• Geographical Differences: Urban vs. rural, coastal
vs. inland, and the impact of terrain on sanitation
infrastructure.
• Temporal Changes: How sanitation infrastructure
and practices evolve with population growth,
urbanization, and technological advancements.
• Challenges: Disparities in sanitation access across
regions, leading to health and environmental
issues.
Importance: Tailoring sanitation solutions to specific
spatiotemporal contexts can improve effectiveness
and sustainability.

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 Hygiene Challenges : Urban v/s Rural

Hygiene refers to practices and conditions that help maintain health

and prevent the spread of diseases by ensuring cleanliness and proper
sanitation. It includes activities such as handwashing, bathing,
cleaning, and the safe handling of food and water. Hygiene is essential
for promoting overall well-being and reducing the risk of infections.

Hygiene Issues in Urban vs. Rural Areas

• Urban areas often have better access to hygiene facilities, but

population density can lead to challenges.

• Rural areas may struggle with basic hygiene due to lack of

infrastructure and access to clean water.

• Hygiene practices directly impact health outcomes, with rural

areas often seeing higher rates of preventable diseases.
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 Regional Hygiene Challenges

Hygiene Challenges in Different Regions

• Coastal Regions: Frequent flooding and

poor waste management impact
hygiene.

• Arid Regions: Limited water affects

hygiene practices, leading to health
risks.

• Hilly Regions: Access challenges make it

difficult to maintain hygiene standards.

• Inland Regions: Infrastructure

limitations affect the availability of
hygiene facilities.

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 What is hygiene promotion?

Hygiene promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their
hygiene (adapted from WHO)?
http://who.int/

Hygiene promotion is the planned, systematic attempt to enable people to take action to prevent
or mitigate water, sanitation, and hygiene related diseases (WASH Cluster)
http://washcluster.net/

Hygiene promotion is defined as the mix between the population’s knowledge, practice and
resources and agency knowledge and resources, which together enable risky hygiene behaviours
to be avoided. (SPHERE)
http://www.sphereproject.org/

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 Why is Hygiene Promotion Important?

• Diarrhea, globally kills as many

children under 5 as malaria, HIV/AIDS
and TB combined (4000 per day)
• Half the hospital beds in developing
countries are taken by people with
WASH-related diseases
• Diarrhea is a leading cause of
malnutrition in children under five
years old
• Washing hands with soap can reduce
the risk of diarrhoeal disease by
between 40% -50%

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Hygiene promotion – purpose

Problem – Water1st International

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 Core area of hygiene promotion

• Personal Hygiene Handwashing with soap,

bathing, menstrual hygiene management,
latrine use….

• Domestic Hygiene safe water chain,

HHWT, use of latrines, food hygiene, clean
household, managing domestic animals…..

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 Core area of hygiene promotion

• Environmental Hygiene –Community water

source management (protection, testing)
community waste management,
maintenance of latrines, drainage, vector
ctrl, public place maintenance……

• WASH related diseases -Transmission,

prevention, control and treatment……

• Community mobilization for action – use

and maintenance of WASH facilities;
selection and distribution of hygiene item

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 Understanding existing practices

“Young boys often do not wear nappies as it restricts growth‟

Understanding existing
culture and being
sensitive to challenging
long-held beliefs and
perceptions is vital to
ensure hygiene promotion
projects are effective, and
don’t end up alienating or
offending the target
communities.

Bane women in SW Ethiopia do not wash below waist as it will ‘wash their fertility away’

Pregnant women in parts of Uganda do not use pit-latrines as 'bad' things may enter them
and kill their baby

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What Influences the Behaviour

Understanding what
influences behaviour
is the first step to
developing
interventions that
could help change
them.

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What motivates CHANGE?

Identifying drivers
for behaviour is
also important – we
will look at some of
these aspect in
more detail.

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 Motivation that changes human life

Motivation 1: Disgust/Shame

Anything that comes Here we look at

out of human is so some of those
bad (Ghana) motivations for
change that were
highlighted, and
how they can be
effective… or not!

“When you are dirty you

shouldn’t go out or meet
people-you risk
contaminating them or
upsetting them with nauseous
smells” (Senegal)

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 Motivation that changes human life

Motivation 2:Comfortable
“[washing
gives]… “So that they
feelings of feel fresh,
being happy, comfortable
light, relieved and smell
and free” like soap”
(Tanzania) (Peru)

“Soap makes
“When I’m
clothes and
clean, I’m
body smell
comfortable
good.”
” (Senegal)
(Kyrgyzstan)

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 Motivation that changes human life

Motivation 3:Nurture
The children
are my future,
so I should try
to look after
them well.”
(Ghana)

“All I do is for my
children first, I
work to have
money for my
children.”
(Vietnam)

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 Motivation that changes human life

Motivation 4:Status

“If you don’t wash

they look at you
like a pig at the
school.”(Peru)

Even if you are

not polite and
well mannered,
your neighbours
will respect you
if you are neat.” What you think??
(Ghana)

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 Motivation that changes human life

Motivation 5:Social Acceptance/Affialiation

“My relatives
and neighbours
would look at
me” (Peru)

“My religion
says you cant
“Washing hands to fit in
enter in the
is very common with us
house without
here” (Uganda)
cleaning your
hands and feet”
(India)

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 Motivation that changes human life

Motivation 6:Attraction
“Dirt can even Why
put away a not me?
promising
suitor” (Ghana)

“When you have a

husband you have got
to show him a lot of
love. So I have to keep
my hands clean so that
I do not put any dirt on
him” (Uganda)

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 Motivation that changes human life

Motivation 7:Fears

The threat to oneself of an epidemic disease such as cholera may motivate Hand Washing with Soap, however
this can often be temporary.

If I did not wash my hands I would get cholera and diarrhoea for the children, many people do it because of
Cholera‟(Uganda)

The motivations we’ve looked at have been both positive and

CONCLUSION: negative – negative emotions can be powerful in certain
Fear not a key situations, but must be approached extremely carefully – if done
motivator insensitively, targeting negative motivators – such as fear and
disgust – can lead to the opposite effect of demotivating people.

Read more about motivators -

https://academic.oup.com/heapol/article/22/4/225/619949/Health-in-our-hands-but-not-inour-heads

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Motivation that changes human life

What is your Motivation?

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 Six principles of hygiene promotion

First: Select your audience: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary. Influencers

https://www.redr.org.uk
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 Six principles of hygiene promotion

Second: Identify motives for changing behaviours could mean promoting alternatives?
Why might people want to own and use a latrine?

Why might they be persuaded to wash their hands with soap?

Local production of 'black soap' using

ashes, oil and leaves (Sierra Leone)on

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 Six principles of hygiene promotion

Third: Positive messaging

• Avoid frightening people
• An entertaining, promotion
message holds peoples attention

Always a contentious
issue – this type of
‘social marketing’ can
be seen as
manipulative, and so
can make some in the
sector uncomfortable.

But marketing is effective, which is why it is such a big business! When done properly it can be an
extremely powerful tool.

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 Six principles of hygiene promotion

Third: Positive messaging

Attractive: so that they pull people in
A bit more on messaging…
Use local language and situations: so that people feel it concerns them

Repetitive: so the message is retained

Easy to understand: so nobody is confused

Participatory: an exchange of views is most effective

Provocative: so they are memorable and discussed

Illustrative: so that new practices are seen to be possible

When using positive messaging/social marketing, these are important aspects to consider. The concept is
exactly the same as the advertising we see all around us for commercial products – to try and make the
product (like soap) or practice (like handwashing) appealing to the target audience.

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 An Example

An example of how important it is to thinking from the local perspective to get messaging right. To many
of us an enlarged diagram is something we will have encountered in our educational systems and we will
subconsciously relate that to real life. The key to relating messaging to the audience is to step outside
our own culture and understanding and approach the messaging from the local context.

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An Example

A less obvious example than the previous one – this poster

was used by an NGO in Africa with a lot of success, by
clearly demonstrating the link between open defecation and
contamination of watercourses. When it was transferred to
refugee camps in the Middle East, it was considered
extremely offensive and had to be taken out of the hygiene
promotion material. It’s not just our own culture and context
we need to be conscious of when designing messaging, but
even messaging that is effective in one development
context may not be appropriate for a different country or
region.

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 Six principles of hygiene promotion

Fourth: Use appropriate channels for communication

Culturally appropriate methods for delivering new messages,Cost–effective mix

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 Six principles of hygiene promotion

Fifth: Careful participatory planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation

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 Six principles of hygiene promotion

Sixth: Facilitate enabling environment for easy adoption of hygiene practices

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 Remember…

Behaviour change is not easy

Hygiene promotion should not be seen as simply a politically correct ‘add-on’

Long-term commitment is needed by implementing partner and community

Project aim -> permanent behaviour change, so users must see the benefits for
themselves

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 Myths of Hygiene Promotion

Adults are ‘clean slates’ People will listen to me as I am a trained professional

It’s easy to change behavior

Hygiene promotion can be ‘added-on’

Adults have time and motivation to learn new ideas

New ideas replace old ideas

➢ A first step to learning good hygiene promotion projects is to recognise
➢ A first step to learning good hygiene promotion projects is to recognise common mistakes made in
practice. Some of these may seem obvious when reading them here, but can be very easy to fall
into when designing

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 Integrated WASH Solutions

Comprehensive WASH Solutions:

• Governance and Policy: Effective government policies

and international collaboration are crucial for WASH
success.

• Technology and Innovation: Advances in water

purification and sanitation technologies are key to
addressing challenges.

• Planning and Design: Sustainable infrastructure and

urban planning help create long-term solutions.

• Socio-cultural Behavior: Community engagement

and behavior change are essential for adopting WASH
practices.

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 Case Studies of Successful WASH Programs

Case Study 1
The Millennium Villages Project (MVP)
• Location: Rural Africa (e.g., Kenya, Ethiopia, Ghana)
• Objective: Improve health and living conditions through
integrated WASH interventions.
• Duration: Ongoing since 2005Key Success
Factors:
• Community Involvement: Active participation of local
communities in planning and implementation.
• Integrated Approach: Combination of clean water access,
improved sanitation facilities, and hygiene education.
• Infrastructure Development: Construction of latrines,
handwashing stations, and water points.
Impact:
• Health Improvements: Significant reductions in waterborne
diseases.
• Behavioral Changes: Increased handwashing and sanitation
practices.
• Sustainability: Local management and maintenance of facilities.

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 Case Studies………(cont.)
Case Study 2
The Sulabh Sanitation Movement
• Location: India
• Objective: Provide affordable sanitation solutions and promote
hygiene.
• Duration: Since 1970s Key Success
Factors:
• Innovative Design: Development of low-cost, eco-friendly toilet
systems.
• Social Enterprise Model: Empowerment of women and marginalized
groups through job creation.
• Public Awareness: Extensive campaigns to change attitudes towards
sanitation.
Impact:
• Widespread Adoption: Over 1.3 million toilets built, benefiting
millions.
• Cultural Shift: Improved acceptance of sanitation and hygiene
practices.
• Health Benefits: Reduction in open defecation and related diseases.

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THANK YOU

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