DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS

What is a pavement?
Pavement
 A multi-layer system that distributes the vehicular loads over a larger area.
 Highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and
processed materials whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle load to
the sub grade.
 It can also be defined as ‘’structure which separates the tires of vehicles from the under
lying foundation ‘’.
 Pavement is the upper part of road way, airport or parking area structure.
 It includes all layers resting on the original ground.

What are the Function of the pavement?

 Reduce and distribute the traffic loading so as not to damage the subgrade.
 Provide vehicle access between two points under all-weather conditions.
 Provide safe, smooth and comfortable ride to road users without undue delays and
excessive wear and tear.
 Meet environmental and aesthetics requirement.
 Limited noise and air pollution.
 Reasonable economy.

Requirements of pavement structure

 Sufficient thickness to spread loading to pressure intensity tolerable by subgrade.
 Sufficiently strong to carry imposed stress due to traffic load.
 Sufficient thickness to prevent the effect of frost susceptible subgrade.
 Pavement material should be impervious to penetration of surface water which could
weaken subgrade and subsequently payment.
 Pavement material should be non-frost susceptible.
 Pavement surface should be skid resistant.
CLASSIFICATION OF PAVEMENTS
1. RIGID PAVEMENTS
2. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

RIGID PAVEMENT
-Pavement constructed of Portland cement concrete.

-It is assumed to posses considerable flexural strength that will permit it to act as abeam and
allow it to bridge minor irregularities in base and subgrade.

-Rigid pavements are those, which contain sufficient beam strength to be able to bridge over
the localized sub-grade failures and areas of in adequate support.

-Load is transmitted through beam action of slab in rigid pavements.

-Rigid pavements are those, which reduces the stress concentration and distributes the reduced
stresses uniformly to the area under the slab.

-Rigidly -does not deform under stress.

-Concrete –air entrained increases resistance to frost damage and di-icing salt corrosion.

-Reinforcement- may be bars or mesh .Continuous rigid pavements have heavy reinforcement.

-Joints- used in non-continuous pavement to allow for thermal movement. Includes a ‘filler’ and
surface sealant.

-Rigid pavements- lay as single layer by ‘concrete paver’.

RIGID PAVEMENTS
-because of its relative rigidly, the pavement structure distributes loads over a wide area with
only one, or at most two, structural layers.

-There are other types of surfaces also i.e., reinforced, continuously reinforced act
TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
1. Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)
2. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
3. Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)
4. Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP)

JOINTED PLAIN CONCRETE PAVEMENT (JPCP)

Are plain cement concrete pavement constructed with closely spaced constructed with closely
spaced construction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load
transfer across joints. They normally have a joint spacing 5 to 10 m.

JOINTED REINFORCED CONCRETE PAVEMENT (JRCP)

Although reinforcement does not improve the structural capacity significantly, they can
drastically increase the joints. They normally have a joint spacing to 10 to 30 m. Dowel bars are
required for load transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab together after cracks.

STRUCTURE OF RIGID PAVEMENT

*Surface course. This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC slab, reinforced or continuously
reinforced slabs.

*Base course. This is the layer directly below the PCC layer directly below the PCC layer and
generally consist of aggregate or stabilized sub-grade.

*Sub-base course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A sub-base is not always
needed and therefore may often be omitted.

TYPES OF PAVEMENT FAILURE

-Rigid Pavements

-Fatigue Cracking
-Pumping or Erosion

-Flexible Pavement

-Fatigue Cracking

-Rutting

-Thermal Cracking

-Splatting, joint deterioration

PAVEMENT COMPARISON
Flexible pavements
*Deep foundations / multi-layer construction

*Energy construction due to transportation of materials

*Increasing cost of asphalt due to high oil prices

Rigid pavements
*Single layer

*Generally last longer

*May require asphalt topping due to noise /comfort issues

Flexible Pavement
-Pavement constructed of bituminous & granular materials.

-A structure that maintains intimate contact with subgrade and distribute loads to it, and
depends on aggregate interlock, particle friction, and cohesion for stability.

-“A flexible pavement is a structure that maintains intimate contact with and distributes load to
the subgrade and depends on aggregate interlock, particle friction and cohesion for stability”

-It is a structure which distribute the traffic loading stresses to the soil (subgrade) at a
magnitude that will not shear or distort the soil i.e., from 150 psi to 3 psi .
-Pavement which reflects deformation of sub grade and the subsequent layers on to the surface
“i.e., load is transmitted from gain to grain through contact points of granular material ,i.e. in a
compressive way

Structure of Flexible Pavement

*In order to take maximum advantage of this property , material layers are usually arranged in
order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity material (and
most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive)
at the bottom.

Structure of Flexible Pavement

*Surface Course: This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact with traffic.

*Base Course: This is the layer directly below the surface course and generally consist of
aggregates (either stabilized or un-stabilized).

*Sub-base Course: This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A sub-base is not always
needed

*Sub-grade Course: The “sub-grade” is the material upon which the pavement structure is
placed. Although there is a tendency to look at pavement structure and mix design alone. The
sub-graded can often be the overriding factor in pavement performance .

Examples of Flexible Pavements

 Conventional
 Asphalt Surfaced
 Deep strength
 Full Depth
 Modified Full Depth

Conventional Layered Flexible Pavement

Conventional flexible pavement is layered systems with high quality expensive materials are
placed in the top where stresses are high and low quality cheap materials are placed in lower
layers.

Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement

Full – depth asphalt pavement are constructed by placing bituminous layer directly on the soil
sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not available.

Contained Rock Asphalt Mat (CRAM)

Contain rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers are
between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is place above the sub-
grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect
from surface water.

U.S. CORPS OF ENGINEERS

The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers has adopted a design procedure for concrete block
pavements that combines their current California Bearing Ratio flexible pavement design
method with an equivalent thickness .to account for the block surface. Limited traffic tests
indicate that this will provide a : on servitude design: Although the existing equivalent thickness
is an effective design expediency, Improvements are still needed. There is some indication that
the equivalent thickness for design should vary with the tire contact area, and there is still no
explicit way to evaluate the effect of block thickness and shape.

CALIFORNIA RESISTANCE VALUE METHOD

Various methods for development of design charts have been discussed. In Group Index
Method the total thickness of pavement (surfacing, base and sub base) is determined. Also the
thickness of sub-base is determined. The CBR method is probably the most widely used method
for the design of flexible pavement. The CBR method is based on strength parameter of the
material and is, therefore, more rational than the Group Index Method. North Dakota Method
is similar to the CBR method. Pavement thickness is found from the design curve which is
between pavement thickness and cone bearing ratio. The Bur mister’s Design Method is based
on the concept of two-layer system, consisting of road surfacing, base course and the sub-base
as top layer of thickness h, and the sub-grade as bottom layer of infinite extent. In this method,
the thickness corresponding to deflection of 5 mm has been recommended by Bur mister as the
required thickness of pavement. U.S. Navy Plate Bearing Test Method is also based on Bur
mister’s two-layer theory. This method uses modulus of elasticity of base course and sub-grade.
California Resistance Value Method uses California Resistance value, called R-value. In McLeod
Method curves are plotted between depth of construction and CBR for traffic conditions.
Maharaja and Gill have performed axisymmetric finite element analysis by varying different
parameters to develop design charts. The parameters varied are thickness of pavement,
pressure and elastic modulus of subgrade. Based on finite element analysis varying above
parameters four types of design charts have been developed. Each of the design charts has
three parameters. For two known parameters, the third parameters can be obtained.

EXPANSION PRESSURE METHOD

Explore new heat exchanger designs, including those using small diameter tubes and
tubes with internal enhancements. Such developments thus require review and consideration
for new and/or improved heat exchanger manufacturing Techniques. Experimental and
analytical study of a pressure expansion approach as compared to the more conventional
mechanical expansion process was conducted to evaluate the impact of manufacturing method
on heat exchanger performance. This included visual inspection and comparison of heat
exchangers manufactured using pressure expansion and mechanical expansion, physical testing
of heat exchanger strength and construction, measurement of heat exchanger dimensions, and
physical testing of heat transfer performance. Multiple heat exchangers were constructed and
evaluated using both the mechanical and pressure expansion methods. Consistency between
coils was maintained in order to isolate the manufacturing method, to the extent possible, for
comparison purposes. Visual inspection of compared coils and past research suggests that
pressure expansion improves the contact between the expanded tube and the fin, providing
the potential to improve heat transfer performance.
Visual inspection also suggests that pressure expansion produces less deformation of
any internal tube enhancements, maximizing the potential to improve heat transfer
performance from the use of such tubes. Physical measurements of the tube expansion
diameter throughout the construction of a heat exchanger expanded using the pressure
expansion process proved that the pressure expansion method delivers a more consistent tube
diameter. Air-side testing using water as refrigerant also confirmed that overall heat transfer
performance for pressure expanded coils is, at minimum, consistent with that for mechanically
expanded coils.

Conventional Expansion Method and Challenges with Small

Diameter Heat Exchangers

The manufacturing process of RTPF coils creates a rigid assembly from parts that are
individually rather delicate. Small diameter tubes have higher strength for resisting internal
pressure. However, when not assembled into a coil, the tubes’ small diameter makes them
weaker in resisting bending and buckling. The joining of tubes and fins is what makes the
assembly strong. In addition, the joint between the tube and fin creates a path for heat
conduction. If improperly joined, the boundary left between the tube and fin can become a
barrier to heat transfer. The combination of high strength to resist internal pressure and lower
buckling strength makes traditional joining processes more difficult for small diameter tube
assemblies. The preferred method for joining tubes and fins is through a process of tube
expansion to generate an interference fit between the tube and the extruded fin collar.
Another difficulty for producing smaller diameter tube coils is creating the bell and flare
for return bend assembly at the open ends of the small diameter tubes. The bell and flare are
usually formed within the bullet expansion process. The maximum elongation of the tube
material is a limiting factor (typically 40-50 % for copper). When maximum material elongation
is exceeded, splits occur in the tube flare and bell form. As the tube diameter decreases, the
material elongation needed to make the flare is increased. In addition, as diameters decrease,
the tube stick out variation in the manufacturing process has greater impact on the ability to
produce a good flare. Tube stick out changes the relative positions between the end of tube
and the bell/flare tools and is caused by variance in hairpin length. Scrap and rework due to
poor flare processing of small diameter tube coils is significant.

Alternate Expansion Methods

Tension Expansion. Early adopters of small diameter tubes faced difficulties in the expansion
process due to buckling of the tubes. This led to the development of “limited-shrink” expansion,
which enabled successful expansion by placing the tube in tension to prevent buckling and to
control shrinkage. Tension expansion, depicted in Figure 1.b., has been available for decades
and is used for “progressive expansion machines” used to process low volume coils. These
machines allow flexible production but require pre-processing of the tube flare for using a collet
Mechanism to grip the tube ends. Note that the tube is placed in tension as the expansion
bullet is pushed through the tube. This is in contrast to the process of compression expansion,
described above. Because the tube is in tension while expanding, there is less tube shrinkage
during the expansion process, and tube buckling is eliminated, ultimately resulting in material
savings. With adequate bullet lubrication and the proper balance of bullet friction force and
tube tension, the process will sometimes allow zero shrinkage of the tube. The method is used
extensively in baseboard heater coil manufacturing where water is injected into the tube and
pressurized to cause the tube to exceed its yield strength and expand into the fins, thereby
creating a strong mechanical bond between the tube and fins. Hydroforming is used extensively
in the tube processing industry with various fluids such as water, oil, and gasses. It should be
noted, however, that processing coils using water as an expansion medium can create problems
in most air-conditioning applications due to incompatibility with commonly used refrigerants.
The process of expansion using pressure behaves according to well-understood models of
cylindrical pressure vessels. Pressure expansion is inherently a zero-shrink process.

WIDTH OF WIDENING OF A CURVE SECTION OF ROAD

What is Offtracking?
OFFTRACKING is the characteristic in which the rear wheels do not follow precisely the same
path as the front wheels when the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve or makes a turn.
 The amount of widening needed increases with the size of the design vehicle and
decreases with increasing radius of curvature.
Widening is needed on a certain curves for one of the following
reason:
1) The design vehicle (especially larger ones) occupies a greater width because the rear
wheels do not follow precisely the same path as the front wheels (offtracking) when
the vehicle traverses a horizontal curve or makes a turn, or
2) Drivers experience difficulty in steering their vehicles in the center of the lane.

Widening Formula and Calculations

 The amount of widening (w) of the travelled way on a horizontal curve is the
difference between the width needed on the curve (Wc) and the width used
on a tangent (Wn):

w=Wc – Wn
Where:
w = widening of travelled way on a curve, m;
Wc = width of travelled way on a curved, m;
Wn = width of travelled way on tangent, m;
The travelled way width needed on a curve (Wc) has several components related to
operation on curves, including:
a) the track width of each vehicle meeting or passing, U
b) the lateral clearance for each vehicle, C
c) width of front overhang of the vehicle occupying the inner lane or lanes, Fa
d) width allowance for the difficulty of driving on curves, Z

• To determine width on the curve, Wc, it is necessary to select an appropriate

design vehicle.
• The design vehicle should usually be a truck because offtracking is much greater
for trucks than for passenger cars.
 Wc = N(U+C)+(N-1)FA + Z
Where:
N = number of lanes
U = track width of design vehicle (out-to-out tires), m;
C = lateral clearance, m;
FA = width of front overhang of inner – lane vehicle, m;
Z = extra width allowance, m;

TRACK WIDTH, U
• also known as the swept path width.
• It is the sum of the track width on tangent (u) (2.44 or 2.59 m depending on the
design vehicle) and the amount of offtracking.

*It provides for the clearance between the edge of the travelled way and nearest wheel path
and for the body clearance between vehicles passing or meeting.

*Lateral clearance per vehicle is assumed to be 0.6 m, 0.75 m, and 0.9 m for tangent lane
widths (Wn) equal to 6.0 m, 6.6 m, and 7.2 m respectively.

*It is the radial distance between the outer edge of the tire path of the outer front wheel and
the path of the outer front edge of the vehicle body.
*For curves and turning roadways, FA depends on the radius of the curve R, the extent of the
front overhang of the design vehicle A, and wheel base of units its self L.

*It is an additional radial width of pavement to allow for the difficulty of maneuvering on a
curve and the variation in driver operation.

*This additional width is an empirical value that varies with the speed of traffic and the radius
of the curve.

*Widening is costly and very little is actually gained from a small amount of widening.

*It is suggested that a minimum widening of 0.6 m (2ft) be used

1. HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
2. WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
3. Objects:- On horizontal curves , especially when they are not of very large radius, it is a
common practice to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width, the object of
providing Extra Widening of pavements on horizontal curves are due to the following reasons:

(a) An automobile such as car, bus or truck has a rigid wheel base and only the front
wheels can be turned. When the vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the
rear wheels do not follow the same path as that of the front wheels. This phenomenon
is called ‘off tracking’. The off tracking depends on (1) the length of the wheel base of
the vehicle (2) the turning angle or the radius of the horizontal curves.
 (b) At more than design speed if super elevation and lateral friction jointly
cannot counteract the centrifugal force, full outward slipping of rear wheels may occur
and thus more width of road is covered. This condition occurs at very high speeds. (c) At
start of the curves drivers have a tendency to follow outer edge of the pavement to
have better visibility and large radius curved path. This also necessitates extra width of
the road. (d) Trailer units require even larger extra width at curves.

4. Analysis of extra widening on horizontal curves the extra widening of pavement on horizontal
curves is divided in to two parts:

* MECHANICAL WIDENING - The widening required to account for the off

tracking due to the rigidity of wheel base is called ‘Mechanical widening ‘. Formula of
calculating mechanical widening is Wm = Here, n =number of traffic lanes l = length of
wheel base of longest vehicle in m R= radius of horizontal curves in m Nl2 2R.

*PSYCHOLOGICAL WIDENING - At horizontal curves drivers have a tendency to

maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles than on straight stretches of road.
Therefore an extra width of pavement is provided for psychological reasons for greater
maneuverability of steering at higher speeds and to allow for the extra space
requirements for the overhangs of vehicles. Psychological widening is therefore
important in pavements with more than one lane. An empirical formula has been
recommended byt IRC for deciding the additional psychological widening ‘Wps’ which is
dependent on the design speed, V of the vehicle and the radius. R of the curve. The
psychological widening is given by the formula: Wps
5. Hence the total widening We required on a horizontal curve is given by: We= Wm +
Wps ,We = + Here, n =number of traffic lanes l = length of wheel base of longest vehicle
in m R= radius of horizontal curves in m V= design speed Km/hr Nl2 2R
TRIAXIAL TEST METHOD of FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

Triaxial test is conducted on soil specimen under 160 kN/m2 of lateral pressure. Hence
modulus of elasticity is calculated from stress strain curve. Traffic coefficient X and saturation
coefficient Y are introduced in this method. These are multiplied with the load system to get
the total pavement thickness.

THICKNESS OF BASE COURSE USING TRIAXIAL TEST METHOD

The triaxial compression method of testing soils and related materials and the application of
the test data to the accurate design of flexible pavements in kansas is presented. Triaxial tests
may be conducted upon each component of both road surface and foundation individually and
calculations made to determine the thickness of each material which is required over the
subgrade. The problem of flexible pavement design is discussed and it is shown how the triaxial
test is used for the purpose of design. Sample calculations, derivations, and tables and charts
are included. The important steps required to use this method for highway construction are:

-The soils laboratory must be equipped with the triaxial apparatus,

- Undisturbed samples should be used for determining accurate road conditions
whenever possible
-Sampling should be performed as frequently as necessary to represent the project
conditions, preferably at a minimum of 2 samples per mile,
-Care must be taken of the samples so that they will arrive in the testing machine with
precisely the same structure and density characteristics that they had in the road bed,
-Saturation of the samples is optional,
-Stress-strain curves are drawn for all subgrade samples,
-The moduli of deformation for subgrade samples are calculated and the total thickness
of flexible pavement required is determined, and
-The thickness of wearing course desired is established and by use of the conversion
formula with the modulus of the base course or sub-base to be used, the thicknesses of
the various courses are determined. This system for the design of all flexible surfaces
and bases in kansas has been satisfactory.