Discrete Structures

by RD Fabro
What are Discrete
Structures?

The study of discrete mathematical Deals with finite or countable

objects, like sets, graphs, and logic. objects and their relationships.

Forms the foundation for many

computer science concepts.
Importance of Discrete Structures
Computer Science Problem Solving Real-World Applications
Foundation
Discrete structures teach you to think
Discrete structures provide the logically and systematically, which are Discrete structures are used in a wide
theoretical basis for many areas of crucial skills for solving complex range of applications, from
computer science, including algorithms, problems in any field. cryptography and network design to
data structures, and programming artificial intelligence and database
languages. management.
Sets and Set
Operations
1 Definition 2 Operations
A set is a collection of Common set operations
distinct objects. include union, intersection,
difference, and complement.

3 Applications
Sets are fundamental in computer science, data structures, and
database management.
Logical Connectives and Truth Tables
Logical connectives are symbols that represent operations on
logical statements. These operations, such as conjunction
(AND), disjunction (OR), negation (NOT), conditional (IF-THEN),
and biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF), combine propositions to
create more complex statements.

Truth tables provide a systematic way to determine the truth

value of complex logical statements. They show all possible
combinations of truth values for the component propositions
and the resulting truth value of the entire statement.
Propositional Logic

Truth Tables Logical Connectives Applications

A fundamental tool for analyzing and Symbols like AND, OR, NOT, and IMPLIES Used in computer science, artificial
evaluating propositional logic represent logical relationships between intelligence, and formal reasoning to
statements. propositions. model logical processes and
relationships.
Predicate Logic
Quantifiers Predicates
Expresses the truth value of a Represent properties or
proposition based on variables relationships between objects
that can take on different or entities.
values.

Logical Connectives
Combines predicates to form complex statements.
Direct Proofs
Start with axioms
1 Establish a clear starting point

Apply logical steps

2
Follow a chain of reasoning

Reach desired conclusion

3
Conclude the proof by establishing the truth
Indirect Proofs
1 2

Proof by Contradiction Proof by Contrapositive

Assume the opposite of what you want to prove and show Prove the contrapositive of the original statement, which is
it leads to a contradiction. logically equivalent.
Mathematical Induction
Base Case
1
Prove the statement is true for the smallest value.

Inductive Hypothesis
2
Assume the statement is true for some arbitrary value k.

Inductive Step
3
Prove the statement is true for k + 1, using the hypothesis.
Sequences and Series

A sequence is an ordered list of A series is the sum of the terms in a

elements, often numbers, following a sequence.
specific pattern.

Sequences and series can be

defined by explicit formulas or
recursive relationships.
Recurrence Relations

Fibonacci Sequence Tree Traversal Graph Algorithms

A classic example of a recurrence Recurrence relations are crucial for Recurrence relations are often used to
relation, defined by the sum of the two understanding how to traverse and analyze the efficiency of graph
preceding terms. manipulate tree structures. algorithms like shortest path and
spanning tree computations.
Counting Techniques
Basic Counting Principles Permutations and Combinations

The sum rule states that if there are *m* ways to do one task Permutations are arrangements of objects where order
and *n* ways to do another task, then there are *m + n* ways matters. Combinations are selections of objects where order
to do either task. The product rule states that if there are *m* doesn't matter. The formulas for these are: *nPr* = *n!/(n-r)!*
ways to do one task and *n* ways to do another task, then and *nCr* = *n!/(r!*(n-r)!)* respectively.
there are *m * n* ways to do both tasks.
Permutations and
Combinations
Permutations Combinations
Order matters in permutations. A Order doesn't matter in
permutation is an arrangement of combinations. A combination is a
objects in a specific order. For selection of objects without
example, the permutations of the regard to their order. For
letters A, B, and C are ABC, ACB, example, the combinations of the
BAC, BCA, CAB, and CBA. letters A, B, and C are {A, B, C}, {A,
B}, {A, C}, and {B, C}.

Applications
Permutations and combinations have applications in various fields such as
probability, statistics, and computer science. They are used to solve
problems related to counting, sampling, and data analysis.
Discrete Probability
1 Events and 2 Probability
Outcomes Distributions
Discrete probability focuses These distributions assign
on events with a finite or probabilities to each possible
countable number of outcome, allowing for analysis
outcomes. of events.

3 Applications
Discrete probability finds applications in various fields, including
statistics, game theory, and computer science.
Trees and Graphs
Trees are a special type of graph with specific structural properties, such as
a single root node and no cycles.

Graphs, in general, can represent complex relationships and networks, with

nodes representing entities and edges representing connections.
Traversal Algorithms
Depth-First Search (DFS)
Explores a branch of the graph as deeply as possible before
moving to the next branch.

Breadth-First Search (BFS)

Explores all nodes at a given level before moving to the next
level.

Applications
Finding connected components, shortest paths, and cycle
detection in graphs.
Spanning Trees
1 Definition
A spanning tree is a subgraph of a connected graph that
includes all vertices and is also a tree.

2 Properties
A spanning tree has exactly one path between any two
vertices. It contains n-1 edges, where n is the number of
vertices.

3 Applications
Spanning trees are used in network design, communication
systems, and circuit analysis.
Shortest Path
Algorithms
Dijkstra's Algorithm
Efficiently finds the shortest path between two nodes in a
weighted graph.

Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Handles negative edge weights and can detect negative
cycles.

A* Search Algorithm
Heuristic-based approach that estimates the distance to the
goal.
Minimum Spanning Trees
Connecting all nodes
1 Ensures connectivity within the network.

Minimum total weight

2
Optimizes resource allocation and cost.

Applications
3
Network design, transportation, communication.
Network Flow and Applications

Flow Optimization Traffic Management Supply Chain

Network flow models aim to maximize Network flow algorithms help optimize
Management
the flow of resources through a network, traffic flow in transportation networks, Network flow models can be used to
subject to capacity constraints. minimizing congestion and travel times. optimize supply chains, minimizing
transportation costs and ensuring
efficient distribution.
Discrete Structures in
Computer Science

Foundation for data structures and Modeling and analyzing networks,

algorithms. including social networks.

Understanding cryptography and

security protocols.
Finite-State Machines
Discrete States Transitions
A FSM can only be in one state Transitions occur when an input
at a time. They are signal is received. These
characterized by a finite transitions move the FSM from
number of distinct states. one state to another based on
specific rules.

Input and Output

FSMs process input signals and produce output signals, which can
influence the state transitions and system behavior.
Automata Theory
Formal Models Computational Power Applications

Automata theory uses mathematical It helps understand the capabilities and Applications include designing
models to study the behavior of limitations of different types of compilers, analyzing algorithms, and
machines that process input and computers and computing systems. developing efficient programming
produce output. languages.
Formal Languages and Grammars
Formal Languages Grammars Applications
Precisely defined sets of strings Rules for generating strings within a Programming languages,
that represent structured data or formal language. communication protocols, and data
commands. analysis.
Cryptography and Discrete Structures

Discrete math provides the foundation Concepts like number theory, modular Understanding discrete structures helps
for modern cryptography, enabling arithmetic, and finite fields are essential ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and
secure communication and data for designing encryption algorithms and authenticity of digital information.
protection. secure protocols.