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DS Notes

Data Structures (Gujarat Technological University)

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Introduction to Data Structure

Introduction to Data Structure

 Computer is an electronic machine which is used for data processing and manipulation.
 When programmer collects such type of data for processing, he would require to store all of them in
computer’s main memory.
 In order to make computer work we need to know
o Representation of data in computer.
o Accessing of data.
o How to solve problem step by step.
 For doing this task we use data structure.

What is Data Structure?

 Data structure is a representation of the logical relationship existing between individual elements of
data.
 Data Structure is a way of organizing all data items that considers not only the elements stored but also
their relationship to each other.
 We can also define data structure as a mathematical or logical model of a particular organization of
data items.
 The representation of particular data structure in the main memory of a computer is called as storage
structure.
 The storage structure representation in auxiliary memory is called as file structure.
 It is defined as the way of storing and manipulating data in organized form so that it can be used
efficiently.
 Data Structure mainly specifies the following four things
o Organization of Data
o Accessing methods
o Degree of associativity
o Processing alternatives for information
 Algorithm + Data Structure = Program
 Data structure study covers the following points
o Amount of memory require to store.
o Amount of time require to process.
o Representation of data in memory.
o Operations performed on that data.

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Introduction to Data Structure

Classification of Data Structure

DATA
STRUCTURE

PRIMITIVE NON
PRIMITIVE

INTEGER FLOATING CHARACTER POINTER ARRAY LIST FILE

POINT

LINEAR LIST NON

LINEAR LIST

STACK QUEUE GRAPH TREE

Data Structures are normally classified into two broad categories

1. Primitive Data Structure

2. Non-primitive data Structure

Data types
A particular kind of data item, as defined by the values it can take, the programming language used, or
the operations that can be performed on it.

Primitive Data Structure

 Primitive data structures are basic structures and are directly operated upon by machine instructions.
 Primitive data structures have different representations on different computers.
 Integers, floats, character and pointers are examples of primitive data structures.
 These data types are available in most programming languages as built in type.
o Integer: It is a data type which allows all values without fraction part. We can use it for whole numbers.
o Float: It is a data type which use for storing fractional numbers.
o Character: It is a data type which is used for character values.

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Introduction to Data Structure

Pointer: A variable that holds memory address of another variable are called pointer.

Non primitive Data Type

 These are more sophisticated data structures.
 These are derived from primitive data structures.
 The non-primitive data structures emphasize on structuring of a group of homogeneous or heterogeneous
data items.
 Examples of Non-primitive data type are Array, List, and File etc.
 A Non-primitive data type is further divided into Linear and Non-Linear data structure
o Array: An array is a fixed-size sequenced collection of elements of the same data type.
o List: An ordered set containing variable number of elements is called as Lists.
o File: A file is a collection of logically related information. It can be viewed as a large list of records
consisting of various fields.

Linear data structures

 A data structure is said to be Linear, if its elements are connected in linear fashion by means of logically or in
sequence memory locations.
 There are two ways to represent a linear data structure in memory,
o Static memory allocation
o Dynamic memory allocation
 The possible operations on the linear data structure are: Traversal, Insertion, Deletion, Searching, Sorting
and Merging.
 Examples of Linear Data Structure are Stack and Queue.
 Stack: Stack is a data structure in which insertion and deletion operations are performed at one end only.
o The insertion operation is referred to as ‘PUSH’ and deletion operation is referred to as ‘POP’ operation.
o Stack is also called as Last in First out (LIFO) data structure.
 Queue: The data structure which permits the insertion at one end and Deletion at another end, known as
Queue.
o End at which deletion is occurs is known as FRONT end and another end at which insertion occurs is
known as REAR end.
o Queue is also called as First in First out (FIFO) data structure.

Nonlinear data structures

 Nonlinear data structures are those data structure in which data items are not arranged in a sequence.
 Examples of Non-linear Data Structure are Tree and Graph.
 Tree: A tree can be defined as finite set of data items (nodes) in which data items are arranged in branches
and sub branches according to requirement.
o Trees represent the hierarchical relationship between various elements.
o Tree consist of nodes connected by edge, the node represented by circle and edge lives connecting to
circle.

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Introduction to Data Structure

 Graph: Graph is a collection of nodes (Information) and connecting edges (Logical relation) between nodes.
o A tree can be viewed as restricted graph.
o Graphs have many types:
 Un-directed Graph
 Directed Graph
 Mixed Graph
 Multi Graph
 Simple Graph
 Null Graph
 Weighted Graph

Difference between Linear and Non Linear Data Structure

Linear Data Structure Non-Linear Data Structure
Every item is related to its previous and next time. Every item is attached with many other items.
Data is arranged in linear sequence. Data is not arranged in sequence.
Data items can be traversed in a single run. Data cannot be traversed in a single run.
Eg. Array, Stacks, linked list, queue. Eg. tree, graph.
Implementation is easy. Implementation is difficult.

Operation on Data Structures

Design of efficient data structure must take operations to be performed on the data structures into account. The
most commonly used operations on data structure are broadly categorized into following types

1. Create
The create operation results in reserving memory for program elements. This can be done by declaration
statement. Creation of data structure may take place either during compile-time or run-time. malloc()
function of C language is used for creation.

2. Destroy
Destroy operation destroys memory space allocated for specified data structure. free() function of C
language is used to destroy data structure.

3. Selection
Selection operation deals with accessing a particular data within a data structure.

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Introduction to Data Structure

4. Updation
It updates or modifies the data in the data structure.

5. Searching
It finds the presence of desired data item in the list of data items, it may also find the locations of all
elements that satisfy certain conditions.

6. Sorting
Sorting is a process of arranging all data items in a data structure in a particular order, say for example,
either in ascending order or in descending order.

7. Merging
Merging is a process of combining the data items of two different sorted list into a single sorted list.

8. Splitting
Splitting is a process of partitioning single list to multiple list.

9. Traversal
Traversal is a process of visiting each and every node of a list in systematic manner.

Time and space analysis of algorithms

Algorithm

 An essential aspect to data structures is algorithms.

 Data structures are implemented using algorithms.

 An algorithm is a procedure that you can write as a C function or program, or any other language.

 An algorithm states explicitly how the data will be manipulated.

Algorithm Efficiency

 Some algorithms are more efficient than others. We would prefer to choose an efficient algorithm, so it
would be nice to have metrics for comparing algorithm efficiency.

 The complexity of an algorithm is a function describing the efficiency of the algorithm in terms of the
amount of data the algorithm must process.

 Usually there are natural units for the domain and range of this function. There are two main complexity
measures of the efficiency of an algorithm

 Time complexity

 Time Complexity is a function describing the amount of time an algorithm takes in terms of the
amount of input to the algorithm.

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Introduction to Data Structure

 "Time" can mean the number of memory accesses performed, the number of comparisons between
integers, the number of times some inner loop is executed, or some other natural unit related to the
amount of real time the algorithm will take.

 Space complexity

 Space complexity is a function describing the amount of memory (space) an algorithm takes in terms
of the amount of input to the algorithm.

 We often speak of "extra" memory needed, not counting the memory needed to store the input itself.
Again, we use natural (but fixed-length) units to measure this.

 We can use bytes, but it's easier to use, say, number of integers used, number of fixed-sized structures,
etc. In the end, the function we come up with will be independent of the actual number of bytes
needed to represent the unit.

 Space complexity is sometimes ignored because the space used is minimal and/or obvious, but
sometimes it becomes as important an issue as time.

Worst Case Analysis

In the worst case analysis, we calculate upper bound on running time of an algorithm. We must know the case
that causes maximum number of operations to be executed. For Linear Search, the worst case happens when
the element to be searched is not present in the array. When x is not present, the search () functions compares
it with all the elements of array [] one by one. Therefore, the worst case time complexity of linear search would
be.

Average Case Analysis

In average case analysis, we take all possible inputs and calculate computing time for all of the inputs. Sum all
the calculated values and divide the sum by total number of inputs. We must know (or predict) distribution of
cases. For the linear search problem, let us assume that all cases are uniformly distributed. So we sum all the
cases and divide the sum by (n+1).

Best Case Analysis

In the best case analysis, we calculate lower bound on running time of an algorithm. We must know the case
that causes minimum number of operations to be executed. In the linear search problem, the best case occurs
when x is present at the first location. The number of operations in worst case is constant (not dependent on n).
So time complexity in the best case would be.

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Linear Data Structure

Explain Array in detail

One Dimensional Array
 Simplest data structure that makes use of computed address to locate its elements is the one-
dimensional array or vector; number of memory locations is sequentially allocated to the vector.
 A vector size is fixed and therefore requires a fixed number of memory locations.
 Vector A with subscript lower bound of “one” is represented as below….

L0  L0 is the address of the first word allocated to the first element of

vector A.
 C words are allocated for each element or node
 The address of Ai is given equation Loc (Ai) = L0 + C (i-1)
L0 + (i-1)C
A [i]  Let’s consider the more general case of representing a vector A
whose lower bound for it’s subscript is given by some variable b.
The location of Ai is then given by Loc (Ai) = L0 + C (i-b)

Two Dimensional Array
 Two dimensional arrays are also called table or matrix, two dimensional arrays have two subscripts
 Two dimensional array in which elements are stored column by column is called as column major matrix
 Two dimensional array in which elements are stored row by row is called as row major matrix
 First subscript denotes number of rows and second subscript denotes the number of columns
 Two dimensional array consisting of two rows and four columns as above Fig is stored sequentially by
columns : A [ 1, 1 ], A [ 2 , 1 ], A [ 1 , 2 ], A [ 2 , 2 ], A [ 1 , 3 ], A [ 2 , 3 ], A [ 1, 4 ], A [ 2, 4 ]
 The address of element A [ i , j ] can be obtained by expression Loc (A [ i , j ]) = L0 + (j-1)*2 + i-1
 In general for two dimensional array consisting of n rows and m columns the address element A [ i , j ] is
given by Loc (A [ i , j ]) = L0 + (j-1)*n + (i – 1)
 In row major matrix, array can be generalized to arbitrary lower and upper bound in its subscripts,
assume that b1 ≤ I ≤ u1 and b2 ≤ j ≤u2

b1, b2 b1, u2
[1,1][1,2] [1,3] [ 1 ,m ] col 1 col 2 col 3 col 4

[2,1][2,2] [2,3] [2m] row 1 [ 1 , 1 ] [1,2] [1,3] [1,4]

row 2 [ 2 , 1 ] [2,2] [2,3] [2,4]
[n,1][n,2] [n,3] [n,m]
u1, b2

Row major matrix Column major matrix

No of Columns = m = u2 – b2 + 1

 For row major matrix : Loc (A [ i , j ]) = L0 + ( i – b1 ) *(u2-b2+1) + (j-b2)

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Linear Data Structure

Applications of Array
1. Symbol Manipulation (matrix representation of polynomial equation)
2. Sparse Matrix

Symbol Manipulation using Array

 We can use array for different kind of operations in polynomial equation such as addition, subtraction,
division, differentiation etc…
 We are interested in finding suitable representation for polynomial so that different operations like
addition, subtraction etc… can be performed in efficient manner
 Array can be used to represent Polynomial equation

 Matrix Representation of Polynomial equation

Y Y2 Y3 Y4
X XY X Y2 X Y3 X Y4
2 2 2 2 2 3
X X Y X Y X Y X2 Y4
X3 X3 Y X3 Y2 X3 Y3 X3 Y4
4
X X4 Y X4 Y2 X4 Y3 X4 Y4

e.g. 2x2+5xy+Y2 e.g. x2+3xy+Y2+Y-X

is represented in matrix form as below is represented in matrix form as below
Y Y2 Y3 Y4 Y Y2 Y3 Y4
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
X 0 5 0 0 0 X -1 3 0 0 0
2 2
X 2 0 0 0 0 X 1 0 0 0 0
X3 0 0 0 0 0 X3 0 0 0 0 0
4 4
X 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0

 Once we have algorithm for converting the polynomial equation to an array representation and another
algorithm for converting array to polynomial equation, then different operations in array (matrix) will be
corresponding operations of polynomial equation

What is sparse matrix? Explain

 An mXn matrix is said to be sparse if “many” of its elements are zero.
 A matrix that is not sparse is called a dense matrix.
 We can device a simple representation scheme whose space requirement equals the size of the non-
zero elements.
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Linear Data Structure

 Example:-
o The non-zero entries of a sparse matrix may be mapped into a linear list in row-major order.
o For example the non-zero entries of 4X8 matrix of below fig.(a) in row major order are 2, 1, 6, 7,
3, 9, 8, 4, 5

0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0
0 6 0 0 7 0 0 3
0 0 0 9 0 8 0 0
0 4 5 0 0 0 0 0
Fig (a) 4 x 8 matrix

Terms 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Row 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
Column 4 7 2 5 8 4 6 2 3
Value 2 1 6 7 3 9 8 4 5
Fig (b) Linear Representation of above matrix

 To construct matrix structure we need to record

(a) Original row and columns of each non zero entries
(b) No of rows and columns in the matrix
 So each element of the array into which the sparse matrix is mapped need to have three fields: row,
column and value
 A corresponding amount of time is saved creating the linear list representation over initialization of two
dimension array.

0 0 6 0 9 0 0
A= 2 0 0 7 8 0 4
10 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 12 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 3 0 0 5

 Here from 6X7=42 elements, only 10 are non zero. A[1,3]=6, A[1,5]=9, A[2,1]=2, A[2,4]=7, A[2,5]=8,
A[2,7]=4, A[3,1]=10, A[4,3]=12, A[6,4]=3, A[6,7]=5.
 One basic method for storing such a sparse matrix is to store non-zero elements in one dimensional
array and to identify each array elements with row and column indices fig (c).

ROW COLUMN A
1 1 3 6
2 1 5 9

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Linear Data Structure

3 2 1 2
4 2 4 7
5 2 5 8
6 2 7 4
7 3 1 10
8 4 3 12
9 6 4 3
10 6 7 5
Fig (c )

COLUMN A
1 3 6
ROW 2 5 9
1 1 3 1 2
2 3 4 4 7
3 7 5 5 8
4 8 6 7 4
5 0 7 1 10
6 9 8 3 12
9 4 3
10 7 5
ROW NO First Column
for row no COLUMN NO

Fig(d)

 A more efficient representation in terms of storage requirement and access time to the row of the
matrix is shown in fid (d). The row vector changed so that its ith element is the index to the first of the
column indices for the element in row I of the matrix.

Linked Representation of Sparse matrix

Typical node to represent non-zero element is

Row Column Value Pointer To

Number Number Next Node

1 3 6 1 5 9 2 1 2 2 4 7

2 5 8 2 7 4 3 1 10 4 3 12

6 4 3 6 7 5 NULL

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Linear Data Structure

Write algorithms for Stack Operations – PUSH, POP, PEEP

 A linear list which allows insertion and deletion of an element at one end only is called stack.
 The insertion operation is called as PUSH and deletion operation as POP.
 The most and least accessible elements in stack are known as top and bottom of the stack respectively.
 Since insertion and deletion operations are performed at one end of a stack, the elements can only be
removed in the opposite orders from that in which they were added to the stack; such a linear list is
referred to as a LIFO (last in first out) list.

 A pointer TOP keeps track of the top element in the stack. Initially, when the stack is empty, TOP has a
value of “one” and so on.
 Each time a new element is inserted in the stack, the pointer is incremented by “one” before, the
element is placed on the stack. The pointer is decremented by “one” each time a deletion is made from
the stack.

Applications of Stack
 Recursion
 Keeping track of function calls
 Evaluation of expressions
 Reversing characters
 Servicing hardware interrupts
 Solving combinatorial problems using backtracking.

Procedure : PUSH (S, TOP, X)

 This procedure inserts an element x to the top of a stack which is represented by a vector S containing N
elements with a pointer TOP denoting the top element in the stack.

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Linear Data Structure

1. [Check for stack overflow]

If TOP ≥ N
Then write (‘STACK OVERFLOW’)
Return
2. [Increment TOP]
TOP ←TOP + 1
3. [Insert Element]
S[TOP] ←X
4. [Finished]
Return

Function : POP (S, TOP)

 This function removes the top element from a stack which is represented by a vector S and returns this
element. TOP is a pointer to the top element of the stack.

1. [Check for underflow of stack]

If TOP = 0
Then Write (‘STACK UNDERFLOW ON POP’)
Take action in response to underflow
Return
2. [Decrement Pointer]
TOP ← TOP – 1
3. [Return former top element of stack]
Return (S[TOP + 1])

Function : PEEP (S, TOP, I)

 This function returns the value of the ith element from the TOP of the stack which is represented by a vector
S containing N elements. The element is not deleted by this function.

1. [Check for stack Underflow]

If TOP - I +1 ≤ 0
Then Write (‘STACK UNDERFLOW ON PEEP’)
Take action in response to Underflow
Exit
2. [Return Ith element from top of the stack
Return (S[TOP – I + 1])

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Linear Data Structure

Write an algorithm to change the ith value of stack to value X

PROCEDURE : CHANGE (S, TOP, X, I)
 This procedure changes the value of the Ith element from the top of the stack to the value containing in X.
Stack is represented by a vector S containing N elements.

1. [Check for stack Underflow]

If TOP – I + 1 ≤ 0
Then Write (‘STACK UNDERFLOW ON CHANGE’)
Return
2. [Change Ith element from top of the stack]
S[TOP – I + 1] ← X
3. [Finished]
Return

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Linear Data Structure

Write an algorithm which will check that the given string belongs to following
grammar or not. L={wcwR | w Є {a,b}*}(Where wR is the reverse of w)
Algorithm : RECOGNIZE
 Given an input string named STRING on the alphabet {a, b, c} which contains a blank in its rightmost
character position and function NEXTCHAR which returns the next symbol in STRING, this algorithm
determines whether the contents of STRING belong to the above language. The vector S represents the
stack, and TOP is a pointer to the top element of the stack.

1. [Initialize stack by placing a letter ‘c’ on the top]

TOP ← 1
S [TOP] ← ‘c’
2. [Get and stack symbols either ‘c’ or blank is encountered]
NEXT ← NEXTCHAR (STRING)
Repeat while NEXT ≠ ‘c’
If NEXT = ‘ ‘
Then Write (‘Invalid String’)
Exit
Else Call PUSH (S, TOP, NEXT)
NEXT ← NEXTCHAR (STRING)
3. [Scan characters following ‘c’; Compare them to the characters on stack]
Repeat While S [TOP] ≠ ‘c’
NEXT ← NEXTCHAR (STRING)
X ← POP (S, TOP)
If NEXT ≠ X
Then Write (‘INVALID STRING’)
Exit
4. [Next symbol must be blank]
If NEXT ≠ ‘ ‘
Then Write (‘VALID STRING’)
Else Write (‘INVALID STRING’)
5. [Finished]
Exit

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Linear Data Structure

Write an algorithm for push, pop and empty operations on stack. Using above
functions write an algorithm to determine if an input character string is of the
form aibi where i>=1 i.e. no of a should be equal to no of b
Algorithm RECOGNIZE
 Given an input string named STRING on alphabet ‘a’ and ‘b’ which contain blank (‘ ‘) on right most character
function NEXTCHAR which returns the next symbol from STRING. This algorithm determines if an input string
is of form aibi where i>1 i.e no of ‘a’ should be equal to no of ‘b’. the vector S represent the stack and TOP is
the pointer to the top element of stack. Counter is a counter B for ‘b’ occurrence.

1. [Initialize stack and counter]

TOP  0
COUNTER_B  0
2. [Get and stack character ‘a’ from whole string and count the occurrence of ‘b’ ]
NEXT  NEXTCHAR(STRING)
Repeat while NEXT != ‘ ‘
IF NEXT = ‘a’
Then PUSH (S,TOP,NEXT)
Else COUNTER_B  COUNTER_B+1
NEXT NEXTCHAR(STRING)
3. [Pop the stack until empty and decrement the COUNTER_B]
Repeat while TOP != 0
POP (S,TOP)
COUNTER_B COUNTER_B-1
4. [Check for grammar]
If COUNTER_B != 0
Then write (‘INVALID STRING’)
Else write (‘VALID STRING’)

What is recursion? Write a C program for GCD using recursion.

 A procedure that contains a procedure call to itself or a procedure call to second procedure which
eventually causes the first procedure to be called is known as recursive procedure.
 There are two important conditions that must be satisfied by any recursive procedure
a. Each time a procedure calls itself it must be nearer in some sense to a solution
b. There must be a decision criterion for stopping the process or computation
 There are two types of recursion
o Primitive Recursion: this is recursive defined function. E.g. Factorial function
o Non-Primitive Recursion: this is recursive use of procedure. E.g. Find GCD of given two nunbers
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Linear Data Structure

C program for GCD using recursion

#include<stdio.h>
int Find_GCD(int, int);

void main()
{
int n1, n2, gcd;
scanf(“%d %d”,&n1, &n2);
gcd = Find_GCD(n1, &n2);
printf(“GCD of %d and %d is %d”, n1, n2, gcd);
}

int Find_GCD(int m, int n)

{
int gcdVal;
if(n>m)
{
gcdVal = Find_GCD(n,m);
}
else if(n==0)
{
gcdVal = m;
}
else
{
gcdVal = Find_GCD(n, m%n);
}
return(gcdVal);
}

Write an algorithm to find factorial of given no using recursion

Algorithm: FACTORIAL

Given integer N, this algorithm computes factorial of N. Stack A is used to store an activation record associated
with each recursive call. Each activation record contains the current value of N and the current return address
RET_ADDE. TEMP_REC is also a record which contains two variables PARAM & ADDRESS.TOP is a pointer to the
top element of stack A. Initially return address is set to the main calling address. PARAM is set to initial value N.

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Linear Data Structure

1. [Save N and return Address]

CALL PUSH (A, TOP, TEMP_REC)
2. [Is the base criterion found?]
If N=0
then FACTORIAL 1
GO TO Step 4
Else PARAM N-1
ADDRESS Step 3
GO TO Step 1
3. [Calculate N!]
FACTORIAL N * FACTORIAL
4. [Restore previous N and return address]
TEMP_RECPOP(A,TOP)
(i.e. PARAMN, ADDRESSRET_ADDR)
GO TO ADDRESS

Give difference between recursion and iteration

Iteration Recursion
In iteration, a problem is converted into a train of Recursion is like piling all of those steps on top of
steps that are finished one at a time, one after each other and then quashing them all into the
another solution.
With iteration, each step clearly leads onto the In recursion, each step replicates itself at a smaller
next, like stepping stones across a river scale, so that all of them combined together
eventually solve the problem.
Any iterative problem is solved recursively Not all recursive problem can solved by iteration
It does not use Stack It uses Stack

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Linear Data Structure

Write an algorithm to convert infix expression to postfix expression.

Symbol Input precedence Stack precedence Rank function R

function F function G
+, - 1 2 -1
*, / 3 4 -1
^ 6 5 -1
Variables 7 8 1
( 9 0 -
) 0 - -

Algorithm : REVPOL
 Given an input string INFIX containing an infix expression which has been padded on the right with ‘)’ and
whose symbol have precedence value given by above table, a vector S used as a stack and a NEXTCHAR
which when invoked returns the next character of its argument. This algorithm converts INFIX into reverse
polish and places the result in the string POLISH. The integer variable TOP denotes the top of the stack.
Algorithm PUSH and POP are used for stack manipulation. The integer variable RANK accumulates the rank
of expression. Finally the string variable TEMP is used for temporary storage purpose.

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Linear Data Structure

1. [Initialize stack]
TOP  1
S[TOP]  ‘(‘
2. [Initialize output string and rank count ]
POLISH  ‘ ‘
RANK  0
3. [Get first input symbol]
NEXTNEXTCHAR (INFIX)
4. [Translate the infix expression ]
Repeat thru step 7 while NEXT != ‘ ‘
5. [Remove symbols with greater precedence from stack]
IF TOP < 1
Then write (‘INVALID’)
EXIT
Repeat while G (S[TOP]) > F(NEXT)
TEMP  POP (S, TOP)
POLISH  POLISH O TEMP
RANK  RANK + R(TEMP)
IF RANK <1
Then write ‘INVALID’)
EXIT
6. [Are there matching parentheses]
IF G(S[TOP]) != F(NEXT)
Then call PUSH (S,TOP, NEXT)
Else POP (S,TOP)
7. [Get next symbol]
NEXT  NEXTCHAR(INFIX)
8. [Is the expression valid]
IF TOP != 0 OR RANK != 1
Then write (‘INVALID ‘)
Else write (‘VALID ’)

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Linear Data Structure

Trace the conversion of infix to postfix form in tabular form.

(i) ( A + B * C / D - E + F / G / ( H + I ) )

Input Symbol Content of stack Reverse polish Rank

( 0
( (( 0
A (( 0
+ ((+ A 1
B ((+B A 1
* ((+* AB 2
C ((+*C AB 2
/ ((+/ ABC* 2
D ((+/D ABC* 2
- ((- ABC*D/+ 1
E ((-E ABC*D/+ 1
+ ((+ ABC*D/+E- 1
F ((+F ABC*D/+E- 1
/ ((+/ ABC*D/+E–F 2
G ((+/G ABC*D/+E–F 2
/ ((+/ ABC*D/+E–FG/ 2
( ((+/( ABC*D/+E–FG/ 2
H ((+/(H ABC*D/+E–FG/ 2
+ ((+/(+ ABC*D/+E–FG/H 3
I ((+/(+I ABC*D/+E–FG/H 3
) ((+/ ABC*D/+E–FG/HI+ 3
) ( ABC*D/+E–FG/HI+/+ 1
) ABC*D/+E–FG/HI+/+ 1

Postfix expression is: A BC*D/+E–FG/HI+/+

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Linear Data Structure

(ii) ( A + B ) * C + D / ( B + A * C ) + D

Input Symbol Content of stack Reverse polish Rank

( 0
( (( 0
A ((A 0
+ (( + A 1
B ((+B A 1
) ( AB+ 1
* (* AB+ 1
C (*C AB+ 1
+ (+ AB+C* 1
D (+D AB+C* 1
/ (+/ AB+C*D 2
( (+/( AB+C*D 2
B (+/(B AB+C*D 2
+ (+/(+ AB+C*DB 3
A (+/(+A AB+C*DB 3
* (+/(+* AB+C*DBA 4
C (+/(+*C AB+C*DBA 4
) (+/ AB+C*DBAC*+ 3
+ (+ AB+C*DBAC*+/+ 1
D (+D AB+C*DBAC*+/+ 1
) AB+C*DBAC*+/+D+ 1

Postfix expression is: AB+C*DBAC*+/+D+

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Linear Data Structure

Convert the following string into prefix: A-B/(C*D^E)

Step-1 : reverse infix expression

)E^)D*C((/B-A
Step-2 : convert ‘(‘ to ‘)’ and ‘)’ to ‘(‘ and append extra ‘)’ at last
(E^(D*C))/B-A
Step-3 : Now convert this string to postfix

Input Symbol Content of stack Reverse polish Rank

( 0
( (( 0
E ((E 0
^ ((^ E 1
( ((^( E 1
D ((^(D E 1
* ((^(* ED 2
C ((^(*C ED 2
) ((^ EDC* 2
) ( EDC*^ 1
/ (/ EDC*^ 1
B (/B EDC*^ 1
- (- EDC*^B/ 1
A (-A EDC*^B/ 1
) EDC*^B/A- 1

Step 4 : Reverse this postfix expression

-A/B^*CDE

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Linear Data Structure

Translate the following string into Polish notation and trace the content of
stack: (a + b ^ c ^ d) * ( e + f / d )

Step-1 : reverse infix expression

)d/f+e(*)d^c^b+a(
Step-2 : convert ‘(‘ to ‘)’ and ‘)’ to ‘(‘ and append extra ‘)’ at last
(d/f+e)*(d^c^b+a))
Step-3 : Now convert this string to postfix

Input symbol Content of stack Reverse polish Rank

( 0
( (( 0
d ((d 0
/ ((/ d 1
f ((/f d 1
+ ((+ df/ 1
e ((+e df/ 1
) ( d f/e+ 1
* (+ df/e+ 1
( (*( df/e+ 1
d (*(d df/e+ 1
^ (*(^ df/e+d 2
c (*(^c df/e+d 2
^ (*(^^ df/e+dc 3
b (*(^^b df/e+dc 3
+ (*(+ df/e+dcb^^ 2
a (*(+a df/e+dcb^^ 2
) (* df/e+dcb^^a+ 2
) df/e+dcb^^a+* 1

Step 4 : Reverse this postfix expression

*+a^^bcd+e/fd

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Linear Data Structure

Write an algorithm for evaluation of postfix expression and evaluation the

following expression showing every status of stack in tabular form.
(i) 5 4 6 + * 4 9 3 / + * (ii) 7 5 2 + * 4 1 1 + / -
Algorithm: EVALUAE_POSTFIX
 Given an input string POSTFIX representing postfix expression. This algorithm is going to
evaluate postfix expression and put the result into variable VALUE. A vector S is used as a stack
PUSH and POP are the function used for manipulation of stack. Operand2 and operand1 are
temporary variable TEMP is used for temporary variable NEXTCHAR is a function which when
invoked returns the next character. PERFORM_OPERATION is a function which performs
required operation on OPERAND1 AND OPERAND2.

1. [Initialize stack and value]

TOP  1
VALUE  0
2. [Evaluate the prefix expression]
Repeat until last character
TEMP  NEXTCHAR (POSTFIX)
If TEMP is DIGIT
Then PUSH (S, TOP, TEMP)
Else OPERAND2  POP (S, TOP)
OPERAND1  POP (S, TOP)
VALUE  PERFORM_OPERATION(OPERAND1, OPERAND2, TEMP)
PUSH (S, POP, VALUE)
3. [Return answer from stack]
Return (POP (S, TOP))

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Linear Data Structure

Evaluate (i): 5 4 6 + * 4 9 3 / + *
Empty Stack Read Operator +, Read Operator *,
pop two values pop two values
from stack opn2 = from stack opn2 =
Read and push 6, opn1 = 4, and 10, opn1 = 5, and
operands 5, 4, 6 push the answer 10 push the answer 50
6
4 10
5 5 50 Read and
push
operands
4, 9, 3

Read Operator *, Read Operator +, Read Operator /, 3

pop two values pop two values
3 pop two values
from stack opn2 = from stack opn2 = 9
from stack opn2 =
7, opn1 = 50, and 7 3, opn1 = 4, and 4 3, opn1 = 9, and
push the answer
4
push the answer 7 push the answer 3
350 350 50 50 50
Poped value 350 is the answer

Evaluate (ii) : * 7 5 2 + * 4 1 1 + / -
Empty Stack Read Operator +, Read Operator *,
pop two values pop two values
from stack opn2 = from stack opn2 =
Read and push 2, opn1 = 5, and 7, opn1 = 7, and
operands 7, 5, 2 push the answer 7 push the answer 49
2
5 7
7 5 49 Read and
push
operands
4, 1, 1

Read Operator - , Read Operator /, Read Operator +, 1

pop two values pop two values
2 pop two values
from stack opn2 = from stack opn2 = 1
from stack opn2 =
2, opn1 = 49, and 2 2, opn1 = 4, and 4 1, opn1 = 1, and
push the answer 47
4
push the answer 2 push the answer 2
47 49 49 49
Poped value 47 is the answer

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Linear Data Structure

Consider the following arithmetic expression P, written in postfix notation.

Translate it in infix notation and evaluate. P: 12, 7, 3, -, /, 2, 1, 5, +, *, +
Same Expression in infix notation is : ( 12 / ( 7 – 3 ) ) + ( ( 5 + 1 ) * 2 )

Empty Stack Read Operator -, Read Operator /,

pop two values pop two values
from stack opn2 = from stack opn2 =
Read and push 3, opn1 = 7, and 4, opn1 = 12, and
operands 12, 7, 3 push the answer 4 push the answer 3
3
7 4
12 12 3 Read and
push
operands
2, 1, 5

Read Operator +, Read Operator *, Read Operator +, 5

pop two values pop two values
6 pop two values
from stack opn2 = from stack opn2 = 1
from stack opn2 =
12, opn1 = 3, and 12 6, opn1 = 2, and 2 5, opn1 = 1, and
push the answer 15
2
push the answer 12 push the answer 6
15 3 3 3
Poped value 15 is the answer

Explain Difference between Stack and Queue.

Stack Queue
A Linear List Which allows insertion or deletion of A Linear List Which allows insertion at one end and
an element at one end only is called as Stack deletion at another end is called as Queue
Since insertion and deletion of an element are Since insertion and deletion of an element are
performed at one end of the stack, the elements performed at opposite end of the queue, the
can only be removed in the opposite order of elements can only be removed in the same order of
insertion. insertion.
Stack is called as Last In First Out (LIFO) List. Queue is called as First In First Out (FIFO) List.
The most and least accessible elements are called Insertion of element is performed at FRONT end
as TOP and BOTTOM of the stack and deletion is performed from REAR end
Example of stack is arranging plates in one above Example is ordinary queue in provisional store.
one.
Insertion operation is referred as PUSH and Insertion operation is referred as ENQUEUE and
deletion operation is referred as POP deletion operation is referred as DQUEUE
Function calling in any languages uses Stack Task Scheduling by Operating System uses queue

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Linear Data Structure

Explain following:
(i) Queue (ii) Circular Queue (iii) DQUEUE (iv) Priority Queue
(i) Queue
o A linear list which permits deletion to be performed at one end of the list and insertion at the other
end is called queue.
o The information in such a list is processed FIFO (first in first out) of FCFS (first come
first served) pattern.
o Front is the end of queue from that deletion is to be performed.
o Rear is the end of queue at which new element is to be inserted.
o The process to add an element into queue is called Enqueue
o The process of removal of an element from queue is called Dequeue.
o The familiar and traditional example of a queue is Checkout line at Supermarket Cash Register
where the first person in line is usually the first to be checkedout.

Front

Deletion Insertion

Rear

(ii) Circular Queue

o A more suitable method of representing simple queue which prevents an excessive use of memory
is to arrange the elements Q[1], Q[2]….,Q[n] in a circular fashion with Q[1] following Q[n], this is
called circular queue
o In a standard queue data structure re-buffering problem occurs for each dequeue operation. To
solve this problem by joining the front and rear ends of a queue to make the queue as a circular
queue
o Circular queue is a linear data structure. It follows FIFO principle.
o In circular queue the last node is connected back to the first node to make a circle.
o Circular linked list fallow the First In First Out principle
o Elements are added at the rear end and the elements are deleted at front end of the queue
o Both the front and the rear pointers points to the beginning of the array.
o It is also called as “Ring buffer”.

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Linear Data Structure

(iii) Dequeue
o A dequeue (double ended queue ) is a linear list in which insertion and deletion are performed from
the either end of the structure.
o There are two variations of Dqueue
 Input restricted dqueue- allows insertion at only one end
 Output restricted dqueue- allows deletion from only one end
o Such a structure can be represented by following fig.

Front

Deletion Insertion

Insertion Deletion

Rear

(iv) Priority Queue

o A queue in which we are able to insert remove items from any position based on some property
(such as priority of the task to be processed) is often referred as priority queue.
o Below fig. represent a priority queue of jobs waiting to use a computer.
o Priorities of 1, 2, 3 have been attached with jobs of real time, online and batch respectively.
Therefore if a job is initiated with priority i,it is inserted immediately at the end of list of other jobs
with priorities i. Here jobs are always removed from the front of queue

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Linear Data Structure

Task Identification
R1 R2 … Ri-1 O1 O2 … Oj-1 B1 B2 … Bk-1 …
1 1 … 1 2 2 … 2 3 3 … 3 …
Priority
Ri Oj Bk
Fig (a) : Priority Queue viewed as a single queue with insertion allowed at any position.
Priority 1
R1 R2 … Ri-1 … Ri

Priority 2
O1 O2 … Oj-1 … Oj
Priority 3
B1 B2 … Bk-1 … Bk

Fig (b) : Priority Queue viewed as a Viewed as a set of queue

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Linear Data Structure

Write algorithms of basic primitive operations for Queue

Procedure: QINSERT_REAR (Q, F, R, N,Y)
 Given F and R pointers to the front and rear elements of a queue respectively. Queue Q consisting of N
elements. This procedure inserts Y at rear end of Queue.

1. [Overflow]
IF R >= N
Then write (‘OVERFLOW’)
Return
2. [Increment REAR pointer]
RR+1
3. [Insert element ]
Q[R]  Y
4. [Is front pointer properly set]
IF F=0
Then F  1
Return

Function: QDELETE_FRONT (Q, F, R)

 Given F and R pointers to the front and rear elements of a queue respectively. Queue Q consisting of N
elements. This function deleted and element from front end of the Queue.

1. [Underflow]
IF F= 0
Then write (‘UNDERFLOW’)
Return(0) (0 denotes an empty Queue)
2. [Decrement element]
Y  Q[F]
3. [Queue empty?]
IF F=R
Then F R 0
Else F F+1 (increment front pointer)
4. [Return element]
Return (Y)


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Linear Data Structure

Write algorithms of basic primitive operations for Circular Queue

Procedure: CQINSERT (F, R, Q, N, Y)
 Given F and R pointers to the front and rear elements of a circular queue respectively. Circular queue Q
consisting of N elements. This procedure inserts Y at rear end of Circular queue.

1. [Reset Rear Pointer]

If R=N
Then R← 1
Else R←R+1
2. [Overflow]
If F=R
Then Write (‘Overflow’)
Return
3. [Insert element]
Q[R] ← Y
4. [Is front pointer properly set?]
If F=0
Then F ← 1
Return

Function CQDELETE (F, R, Q, N)

 Given F and R pointers to the front and rear elements of a Circular queue respectively. Circular Queue Q
consisting of N elements. This function deleted and element from front end of the Circular Queue. Y is
temporary pointer variable.

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Linear Data Structure

1. [Underflow?]
If F = 0
Then Write (‘UNDERFLOW’)
Return (0)
2. [Delete Element]
Y ← Q[F]
3. [Queue Empty?]
If F=R
Then F ← R ← 0
Return (Y)
4. [Increment front pointer]
If F=N
Then F ← 1
Else F←F+1
Return (Y)

Write algorithms of basic primitive operations for DQueue

Procedure DQINSERT_FRONT (Q, F, R, N,Y)
 Given F and R pointers to the front and rear elements of a queue, a queue consisting of N elements and an
element Y, this procedure inserts Y at the front of the queue.

1. [Overflow]
IF F=0
Then write (‘EMPTY’)
Return
IF F=1
Then write (‘OVERFLOW’)
Return
2. [Decrement front pointer]
F  F-1
3. [Insert element ]
Q[F]  Y
Return

Procedure DQDELETE_REAR (Q, F, R)

 Given F and R pointers to the front and rear elements of a queue. And a queue Q to which they correspond,
this function deletes and returns the last element from the front end of a queue. And Y is temporary
variable.

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Linear Data Structure

1. [Underflow]
IF R= 0
Then write (‘UNDERFLOW’)
Return(0)
2. [Delete element]
Y  Q[R]
3. [Queue empty?]
IF R=F
Then R F 0
Else R R-1 (decrement front pointer)
4. [Return element]
Return (Y)

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Linear Data Structure

PROCEDURE DQUEUE_DISPLAY (F,R,Q)

 Given F and Rare pointers to the front and rear elements of a queue, a queue consist of N elements. This
procedure display Queue contents

1. [Check for empty]

IF F >= R
Then write (‘QUEUE IS EMPTY’)
Return
2. [Display content]
FOR (I=FRONT; I<=REAER; I++)
Write (Q[I])
3. [Return Statement]
Return

Consider the following queue, where queue is a circular queue having 6

memory cells. Front=2, Rear=4
Queue: _, A, C, D, _, _

Describe queue as following operation take place:

F is added to the queue

Two letters are deleted

R is added to the queue

S is added to the queue

One letter is deleted

Positions 1 2 3 4 5 6
Initial Position of Queue, Front=2, Rear=4 A C D
F is added to queue, Front=2, Rear=5 A C D F
Two letters are deleted, Front=4, Rear=5 D F
R is added to the queue, Front=4, Rear=6 D F R
S is added to the queue, Front=4, Rear=1 S D F R
One letter is deleted, Front=5, Rear=1 S F R

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Linked List

1. Linear Data Structure and their linked storage representation.

There are many applications where sequential allocation method is unacceptable because of following
characteristics

 Unpredictable storage requirement

 Extensive manipulation of stored data

The linked allocation method of storage can result in both efficient use of computer storage and computer time.

 A linked list is a non-sequential collection of data items.

 The concept of a linked list is very simple, for every data item in the linked list, there is an associated
pointer that would give the memory allocation of the next data item in the linked list.
 The data items in the linked list are not in a consecutive memory locations but they may be anywhere in
memory.
 Accessing of these data items is easier as each data item contains within itself the address of the next
data item.

10 next 20 next 30 next 40 null

A Linked List

2. What is linked list? What are different types of linked list? OR

Write a short note on singly, circular and doubly linked list. OR
Advantages and disadvantages of singly, circular and doubly linked list.
• A linked list is a collection of objects stored in a list form.
• A linked list is a sequence of items (objects) where every item is linked to the next.
• A linked list is a non-primitive type of data structure in which each element is dynamically allocated and
in which elements point to each other to define a linear relationship.
• Elements of linked list are called nodes where each node contains two things, data and pointer to next
node.
• Linked list require more memory compared to array because along with value it stores pointer to next
node.
• Linked lists are among the simplest and most common data structures. They can be used to implement
other data structures like stacks, queues, and symbolic expressions, etc…

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Linked List

Node
// C Structure to represent a node
struct node
info link
{
int info
struct node *link
Data Pointer to
};
next node

Operations on linked list

• Insert
o Insert at first position
o Insert at last position
o Insert into ordered list
• Delete
• Traverse list (Print list)
• Copy linked list

Types of linked list

Singly Linked List
• It is basic type of linked list.
• Each node contains data and pointer to next node.
• Last node’s pointer is null.
• Limitation of singly linked list is we can traverse only in one direction, forward direction.

A next B next C next D null

Singly Linked List

Circular Linked List

• Circular linked list is a singly linked list where last node points to first node in the list.
• It does not contain null pointers like singly linked list.
• We can traverse only in one direction that is forward direction.
• It has the biggest advantage of time saving when we want to go from last node to first node, it
directly points to first node.
• A good example of an application where circular linked list should be used is a timesharing problem
solved by the operating system.

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Linked List

A next B next C next D next

Circular Linked List

Doubly Linked list

• Each node of doubly linked list contains data and two pointers to point previous (LPTR) and next
(RPTR) node.

Node // C Structure to represent a node

struct node
LPTR info RPTR {
int info
struct node *lptr;
Pointer to struct node *rptr;
Pointer to Data
next node };
previous node

• Main advantage of doubly linked list is we can traverse in any direction, forward or reverse.
• Other advantage of doubly linked list is we can delete a node with little trouble, since we have
pointers to the previous and next nodes. A node on a singly linked list cannot be removed unless we
have the pointer to its predecessor.
• Drawback of doubly linked list is it requires more memory compared to singly linked list because we
need an extra pointer to point previous node.
• L and R in image denote left most and right most nodes in the list.
• Left link of L node and right link of R node is NULL, indicating the end of list for each direction.

null A next prev B next prev C null

Doubly Linked List

L R

3. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of linked list over array.

Advantages of an array
1. We can access any element of an array directly means random access is easy
2. It can be used to create other useful data structures (queues, stacks)

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Linked List

3. It is light on memory usage compared to other structures

Disadvantages of an array
1. Its size is fixed
2. It cannot be dynamically resized in most languages
3. It is hard to add/remove elements
4. Size of all elements must be same.
5. Rigid structure (Rigid = Inflexible or not changeable)

Advantages of Linked List

1. Linked lists are dynamic data structures: That is, they can grow or shrink during execution of a
program.
2. Efficient memory utilization: Here memory is not pre-allocated. Memory is allocated whenever it is
required. And it is deallocated (free) when it is no longer needed.
3. Insertion and deletions are easier and efficient: Linked list provide flexibility in inserting a data item
at a specified position and deletion of a data item from the given position.
4. Elements of linked list are flexible: It can be primary data type or user defined data types

Disadvantages of Linked List

1. Random access is not allowed. We have to access elements sequentially starting from the first node.
So we cannot do binary search with linked lists.
2. It cannot be easily sorted
3. We must traverse 1/2 the list on average to access any element
4. More complex to create than an array
5. Extra memory space for a pointer is required with each element of the list

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of stack and queue

implemented using linked list over array?

Advantages and disadvantages of stack & queue implemented using linked list over array is described below,

Insertion & Deletion Operation

 Insertion and deletion operations are known as push and pop operation in stack and as insert and
delete operation in queue.
 In the case of an array, if we have n-elements list and it is required to insert a new element between
the first and second element then n-1 elements of the list must be moved so as to make room for
the new element.
 In case of linked-list, this can be accomplished by only interchanging pointers.
 Thus, insertion and deletions are more efficient when performed in linked list then array.

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 4

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Linked List

Searching a node
 If a particular node in a linked list is required, it is necessary to follow links from the first node
onwards until the desired node is found.
 Where as in the case of an array, directly we can access any node

Join & Split

 We can join two linked list by assigning pointer of second linked list in the last node of first linked
list.
 Just assign null address in the node from where we want to split one linked list in two parts.
 Joining and splitting of two arrays is much more difficult compared to linked list.

Memory
 The pointers in linked list consume additional memory compared to an array

Size
 Array is fixed sized so number of elements will be limited in stack and queue.
 Size of linked list is dynamic and can be changed easily so it is flexible in number of elements

Insertion and deletion operations in Array and Linked-List

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6

Array Insert Y at location 2. You have to move X2, X3,…, X6

X1 Y X2 X3 X4 X5 X6

X1 X2 X3 X4

Insert Y at location 2. Just change two pointers

Linked-
List X1 X2 X3 X4

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 5

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Linked List

4. Write following algorithms for singly linked list.

1) Insert at first position
2) Insert at last position
3) Insert in Ordered Linked list
4) Delete Element
5) Copy Linked List

Few assumptions,

 We assume that a typical element or node consists of two fields namely; an information field called
INFO and pointer field denoted by LINK. The name of a typical element is denoted by NODE.

Node
// C Structure to represent a node
struct node
info link
{
int info
struct node *link
Data Pointer to
};
next node

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 6

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Linked List

Function: INSERT( X, First )

Given X, a new element and FIRST is a pointer to the first element of a linked linear list. Typical node contains
INFO and LINK fields. AVAIL is a pointer to the top element of the availability stack; NEW is a temporary pointer
variable. This function inserts a new node at the first position of linked list. This function returns address of
FIRST node.

1 [Underflow?]
IF AVAIL = NULL
Then Write (“Availability Stack Underflow”)
Return(FIRST)

2 [Obtain address of next free Node]

NEWAVAIL

3 [Remove free node from Availability Stack]

AVAILLINK(AVAIL)

4 [Initialize fields of new node and its link to the list]

INFO (NEW)  X
LINK (NEW)  FIRST

5 [Return address of new node]

Return (NEW)

When INSERT is invoked it returns a pointer value to the variable FIRST

FIRST  INSERT (X, FIRST)

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 7

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Linked List

Function: INSEND( X, First ) (Insert at end)

Given X, a new element and FIRST is a pointer to the first element of a linked linear list. Typical node contains
INFO and LINK fields. AVAIL is a pointer to the top element of the availability stack; NEW is a temporary pointer
variable. This function inserts a new node at the last position of linked list. This function returns address of FIRST
node.

1 [Underflow?]
IF AVAIL = NULL
Then Write (“Availability Stack Underflow”)
Return(FIRST)

2 [Obtain address of next free Node]

NEWAVAIL

3 [Remove free node from Availability Stack]

AVAILLINK(AVAIL)

4 [Initialize field of NEW node]

INFO (NEW)  X
LINK (NEW)  NULL

5 [Is the list empty?]

If FIRST = NULL
then Return (NEW)

6 [Initialize search for a last node]

SAVE  FIRST

7 [Search for end of list]

Repeat while LINK (SAVE) ≠ NULL
SAVE  LINK (SAVE)

8 [Set link field of last node to NEW)

LINK (SAVE)  NEW

9 [Return first node pointer]

Return (FIRST)

When INSERTEND is invoked it returns a pointer value to the variable FIRST

FIRST  INSERTEND (X, FIRST)

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Linked List

Insert a node into Ordered Linked List

 There are many applications where it is desirable to maintain an ordered linear list. The ordering is in
increasing or decreasing order on INFO field. Such ordering results in more efficient processing.
 The general algorithm for inserting a node into an ordered linear list is as below.
1. Remove a node from availability stack.
2. Set the field of new node.
3. If the linked list is empty then return the address of new node.
4. If node precedes all other nodes in the list then inserts a node at the front of the list and returns its
address.
5. Repeat step 6 while information contain of the node in the list is less than the information content of
the new node.
6. Obtain the next node in the linked list.
7. Insert the new node in the list and return address of its first node.

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Linked List

Function: INSORD( X, FIRST )

Given X, a new element and FIRST is a pointer to the first element of a linked linear list. Typical node contains
INFO and LINK fields. AVAIL is a pointer to the top element of the availability stack; NEW & SAVE are temporary
pointer variables. This function inserts a new node such that linked list preserves the ordering of the terms in
increasing order of their INFO field. This function returns address of FIRST node.

1 [Underflow?]
IF AVAIL = NULL
Then Write (“Availability Stack Underflow”)
Return(FIRST)

2 [Obtain address of next free Node]

NEWAVAIL

3 [Remove free node from Availability Stack]

AVAILLINK(AVAIL)

4. [Is the list is empty]

If FIRST = NULL
then LINK (NEW)  NULL
Return (NEW)

5. [Does the new node precede all other node in the list?]
If INFO(NEW) ≤ INFO (FIRST)
then LINK (NEW)  FIRST
Return (NEW)

6. [Initialize temporary pointer]

SAVE  FIRST

7. [Search for predecessor of new node]

Repeat while LINK (SAVE) ≠ NULL and INFO (NEW) ≥ INFO (LINK (SAVE))
SAVE  LINK (SAVE)

8. [Set link field of NEW node and its predecessor]

LINK (NEW)  LINK (SAVE)
LINK (SAVE)  NEW

9. [Return first node pointer]

Return (FIRST)

When INSERTORD is invoked it returns a pointer value to the variable FIRST

FIRST  INSERTORD (X, FIRST)

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Linked List

By repeatedly involving function INSORD; we can easily obtains an ordered liner list for example the sequence of
statements.

FRONT  NULL
FRONT  INSORD (29, FRONT)
FRONT  INSORD (10, FRONT)
FRONT  INSORD (25, FRONT)
FRONT  INSORD (40, FRONT)
FRONT  INSORD (37, FRONT)

FRONT 29

FRONT 10 29

FRONT 10 25 29

FRONT 10 25 29 40

FRONT 10 25 29 37 40

Trace of construction of an ordered linked linear list using function INSORD

Algorithm to delete a node from Linked List

 Algorithm that deletes node from a linked linear list:-
1. If a linked list is empty, then write under flow and return.
2. Repeat step 3 while end of the list has not been reached and the node has not been found.
3. Obtain the next node in list and record its predecessor node.
4. If the end of the list has been reached then write node not found and return.
5. Delete the node from list.
6. Return the node into availability area.

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Linked List

Procedure: DELETE( X, FIRST)

Given X, an address of node which we want to delete and FIRST is a pointer to the first element of a linked linear
list. Typical node contains INFO and LINK fields. SAVE & PRED are temporary pointer variables.

1. [Is Empty list?]

If FIRST = NULL
then write (‘Underflow’)
return

2. [Initialize search for X]

SAVE  FIRST

3. [Find X]
Repeat thru step-5 while SAVE ≠ X and LINK (SAVE) ≠ NULL

4. [Update predecessor marker]

PRED  SAVE

5. [Move to next node]

SAVE  LINK (SAVE)

6. [End of the list]

If SAVE ≠ X
then write (‘Node not found’)
return

7. [Delete X]
If X = FIRST (if X is first node?)
then FIRST  LINK (FIRST)
else LINK (PRED)  LINK (X)

8. [Free Deleted Node]

Free (X)

Function: COPY (FIRST)

 FIRST is a pointer to the first node in the linked list, this function makes a copy of the list.
 The new list is to contain nodes whose information and pointer fields are denoted by FIELD and PTR,
respectively. The address of the first node in the newly created list is to be placed in BEGIN. NEW, SAVE and
PRED are points variables.
 A general algorithm to copy a linked list
1. If the list is empty then return null

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Linked List

2. If the availability stack is empty then write availability stack underflow and return else copy the first
node.
3. Report thru step 5 while the old list has not been reached.
4. Obtain next node in old list and record its predecessor node.
5. If availability stack is empty then write availability stack underflow and return else copy the node and
add it to the rear of new list.
6. Set link of the last node in the new list to null and return.

1. [Is Empty List?]

If FIRST = NULL
then return (NULL)

2. [Copy first node]

NEW  NODE
New  AVAIL
AVAIL  LINK (AVAIL)
FIELD (NEW)  INFO (FIRST)
BEGIN  NEW

3. [Initialize traversal]
SAVE  FIRST

4. [Move the next node if not at the end if list]

Repeat thru step 6 while (SAVE) ≠ NULL

5. [Update predecessor and save pointer]

PRED  NEW
SAVE  LINK (SAVE)

6. [Copy node]
If AVAIL = NULL
then write (‘Availability stack underflow’)
Return (0)
else NEW  AVAIL
AVAIL  LINK (AVAIL)
FIELD (NEW)  INFO (SAVE)
PTR (PRED)  NEW

7. [Set link of last node and return]

PTR (NEW)  NULL
Return (BEGIN)

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 13

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Linked List

5. Write following algorithms for circular link list

1) Insert at First Position
2) Insert at Last Position
3) Insert in Ordered Linked List
4) Delete Element

PROCEDURE: CIRCULAR_LINK_INSERT_FIRST (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. NEW is a temporary pointer variable. This procedure inserts value X at the
first position of Circular linked linear list.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW  NODE

2. [Initialize fields of new node and its link to the list]

INFO (NEW)  X
If FIRST = NULL
then LINK (NEW)  NEW
FIRST  LAST  NEW
else LINK (NEW)  FIRST
LINK (LAST)  NEW
FIRST  NEW
Return

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 14

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Linked List

PROCEDURE: CIR_LINK_INSERT_END (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. NEW is a temporary pointer variable. This procedure inserts value X at the
last position of Circular linked linear list.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW  NODE

2. [Initialize fields of new node and its link to the list]

If FIRST = NULL
then LINK (NEW)  NEW
FIRST  LAST  NEW
else LINK(NEW)  FIRST
LINK(LAST)  NEW
LAST  NEW
Return

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 15

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Linked List

PROCEDURE: CIR_LINK_INSERT_ORDER (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. NEW is a temporary pointer variable. This procedure inserts value X such
that linked list preserves the ordering of the terms in increasing order of their INFO field.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW  NODE

2. [Copy information content into new node]

INFO (NEW)  X
3. [Is Linked List is empty?]
If FIRST = NULL
then LINK (NEW)  NEW
FIRST  LAST  NEW
Return
4. [Does new node precedes all other nodes in List?]
If INFO (NEW) ≤ INFO (FIRST)
then LINK (NEW)  FIRST
LINK (LAST)  NEW
FIRST  NEW
Return
5. [Initialize Temporary Pointer]
SAVE  FIRST
6. [Search for Predecessor of new node]
Repeat while SAVE ≠ LAST and INFO(NEW) ≥ INFO(LINK(SAVE))
SAVE  LINK(SAVE)
7. [Set link field of NEW node and its Predecessor]
LINK(NEW)  LINK(SAVE)
LINK(SAVE)  NEW
If SAVE = LAST
then LAST  NEW
8. [Finish]
Return

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 16

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Linked List

PROCEDURE: CIR_LINK_DELETE (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. SAVE & PRED are temporary pointer variables. This procedure deletes a
node whose address is given by pointer variable X.

1. [Is Empty List?]

If FIRST = NULL
then write (‘Linked List is Empty’)
Return
2. [Initialize Search for X]
SAVE  FIRST
3. [Find X]
Repeat thru step 5 while SAVE ≠ X and SAVE ≠ LAST
4. [Update predecessor marker]
PRED  SAVE
5. [Move to next node]
SAVE  LINK (SAVE)
6. [End of Linked List]
If SAVE ≠ X
then write(‘Node not found’)
return
7. [Delete X]
If X = FIRST
then FIRST  LINK (FIRST)
LINK (LAST)  FIRST
else LINK (PRED)  LINK(X)
If X = LAST
then LAST  PRED
8. [Free Deleted Node]
Free (X)

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 17

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Linked List

6. Write an algorithm to perform each of the following operations on Circular

singly linked list using header node
1) add node at beginning
2) add node at the end
3) insert a node containing x after node having address P
4) delete a node which contain element x

FUNCTION: CIR_LINK_HEAD_INSERT_FIRST (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. NEW is a temporary pointer variable. HEAD is the address of HEAD node.
This procedure inserts value X at the first position of Circular linked linear list.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW  NODE

2. [Initialize fields of new node and its link to the list]

INFO (NEW)  X
LINK (NEW)  LINK (HEAD)
LINK (HEAD)  NEW

FUNCTION: CIR_LINK_HEAD_INSERT_LAST (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. NEW is a temporary points variable. HEAD is the address of HEAD node. This
procedure inserts value X at the last position of Circular linked linear list.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW  NODE

2. [Initialize fields of new node and its link to the list]

INFO (NEW)  X
LINK (NEW)  HEAD
LINK (LAST)  NEW
LAST  NEW

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Linked List

FUNCTION: CIR_LINK_HEAD_INSERT_AFTER_Node-P (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. NEW is a temporary pointer variable. HEAD is the address of HEAD node.
This procedure insert a node after a node having address P.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW  NODE

2. [Initialize fields of new node and its link to the list]

INFO (NEW)  X
LINK (NEW)  LINK (P)
LINK (P)  NEW
If P = LAST
then LAST  NEW

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Linked List

PROCEDURE: CIR_LINK_HEAD_DELETE (X, FIRST, LAST)

FIRST and LAST are pointers to the first and last element of a circular linked linear list respectively whose typical
node contains INFO and LINK fields. SAVE & PRED are temporary pointer variables. HEAD is the address of HEAD
node. This procedure deletes a node whose value is X.

1. [Is Empty List?]

If FIRST = NULL
then write (‘Underflow)
return

2. [Initialize Search for X]

SAVE  FIRST

3. [Find X]
Repeat thru step 5 while INFO(SAVE) ≠ X and SAVE ≠ LAST

4. [Update Predecessor]
PRED  SAVE

5. [Move to next node]

SAVE  LINK(SAVE)

6. [End of the List]

If INFO (SAVE) ≠ X
then write(‘Node not Found’)
return

7. [Delete node X]
If INFO (FIRST) = X
then LINK (HEAD)  LINK(FIRST)
else LINK (PRED)  LINK(SAVE)
If SAVE = LAST
then LAST  PRED

8. [Free Deleted Node]

Free (X)

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 20

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Linked List

7. Write following algorithms for doubly link list

1) Insert
2) Insert in Ordered Linked List
3) Delete Element

PRDCEDURE: DOUBINS (L, R, M, X)

Given a doubly link list whose left most and right most nodes addressed are given by the pointer variables L and
R respectively. It is required to insert a node whose address is given by the pointer variable NEW. The left and
right links of nodes are denoted by LPTR and RPTR respectively. The information field of a node is denoted by
variable INFO. The name of an element of the list is NODE. The insertion is to be performed to the left of a
specific node with its address given by the pointer variable M. The information to be entered in the node is
contained in X.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW NODE

2. [Copy information field]

INFO (NEW)  X

3. [Insert into an empty list]

If R = NULL
then LPTR (NEW)  RPTR (NULL)  NULL
L  R  NEW
Return

4. [Is left most insertion ?]

If M=L
then LPTR (NEW) NULL
RPTR (NEW)  M
LPTR (M) NEW
L  NEW
Return

5. [Insert in middle]
LPTR (NEW) LPTR (M)
RPTR (NEW)  M
LPTR (M)  NEW
RPTR (LPTR (NEW))  NEW
Return

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Linked List

PROCEDURE: DOUBINS_ORD (L, R, M, X)

Given a doubly link list whose left most and right most nodes addressed are given by the pointer variables L and
R respectively. It is required to insert a node whose address is given by the pointer variable NEW. The left and
right links of nodes are denoted by LPTR and RPTR respectively. The information field of a node is denoted by
variable INFO. The name of an element of the list is NODE. The insertion is to be performed in ascending order
of info part. The information to be entered in the node is contained in X.

1. [Create New Empty Node]

NEW NODE

2. [ Copy information field]

INFO (NEW)  X

3. [Insert into an empty list]

If R = NULL
then LPTR (NEW)  RPTR (NULL)  NULL
L  R  NEW
return

4. [Does the new node precedes all other nodes in List? ]

If INFO(NEW) ≤ INFO(L)
then RPTR (NEW)  L
LPTR(NEW) NULL
LPTR (L)  NEW
L  NEW
Return

5. [ Initialize temporary Pointer]

SAVE  L

6. [Search for predecessor of New node]

Repeat while RPTR(SAVE) ≠ NULL and INFO(NEW) ≥ INFO(RPTR(SAVE))
SAVE  RPTR (SAVE)

7. [Set link field of new node and its predecessor]

RPTR (NEW)  RPTR(SAVE)
LPTR (RPTR(SAVE))  NEW
RPTR (SAVE)  NEW
LPTR (NEW)  SAVE

If SAVE = R
then RPTR(SAVE)  NEW

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Linked List

PROCEDURE: DOUBDEL (L, R, OLD)

Given a doubly linked list with the addresses of left most and right most nodes are given by the pointer variables
L and R respectively. It is required to delete the node whose address is contained in the variable OLD. Node
contains left and right links with names LPTR and RPTR respectively.

1. [ Is underflow ?]
If R=NULL
then write (‘ UNDERFLOW’)
return

2. [Delete node]
If L = R (single node in list)
then L  R  NULL
else If OLD = L (left most node)
then L  RPTR(L)
LPTR (L)  NULL
else if OLD = R (right most)
then R  LPTR (R)
RPTR (R)  NULL
else RPTR (LPTR (OLD))  RPTR (OLD)
LPTR (RPTR (OLD))  LPTR (OLD)

3. [ FREE deleted node]

FREE (OLD)

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Linked List

8. Write the implementation procedure of basic primitive operations of the

stack using: (i) Linear array (ii) linked list.

Implement PUSH and POP using Linear array

#define MAXSIZE 100

int stack[MAXSIZE];
int top=-1;

void push(int val)

{
if(top >= MAXSIZE)
printf("Stack is Overflow");
else
stack[++top] = val;
}

int pop()
{
int a;
if(top>=0)
{
a=stack[top];
top–-;
return a;
}
else
{
printf("Stack is Underflow, Stack is empty, nothing to POP!");
return -1;
}
}

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Linked List

Implement PUSH and POP using Linked List

#include<stdio.h>
#include<malloc.h>

struct node
{
int info;
struct node *link;
} *top;

void push(int val)

{
struct node *p;
p = (struct node*)malloc(sizeof(struct node));
p  info = val;
p  link = top;
top = p;
return;
}

int pop()
{
int val;
if(top!=NULL)
{
val = top  info;
top=top link;
return val;
}
else
{
printf("Stack Underflow");
return -1;
}
}

9. Write the implementation procedure of basic primitive operations of the

Queue using: (i) Linear array (ii) linked list

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 25

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Linked List

Implement Enqueue(Insert)and Dequeue(Delete)using Linear Array

# include <stdio.h>
# define MAXSIZE 100
int queue[MAXSIZE], front = -1, rear = -1;
void enqueue(int val)
{
if(rear >= MAXSIZE)
{
printf("Queue is overflow") ;
return ;
}
rear++;
queue [rear] = val;
if(front == -1)
{
front++;
}
}
int dequeue()
{
int data;
if(front == -1)
{
printf("Queue is underflow") ;
return -1;
}
data = queue [front];
if(front == rear)
{
front = rear = -1;
}
else
{
front++;
}
return data;
}

Prof. Pradyumansinh Jadeja (9879461848) | 2130702 – Data Structure 26

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Linked List

Implement Enqueue(Insert)and Dequeue(Delete)using Linked List

#include<stdio.h>
#include<malloc.h>

struct node
{
int info;
struct node *link;
} *front, *rear;

void enqueue(int val)

{
struct node *p;
p = (struct node*)malloc(sizeof(struct node));
p  info = val;
p  link = NULL;
if (rear == NULL || front == NULL)
{
front = p;
}
else
{
rear  link = p;
rear = p;
}
}

int dequeue()
{
struct node *p;
int val;
if (front == NULL || rear == NULL)
{
printf("Under Flow");
exit(0);
}
else
{
p = front;
val = p  info;
front = front  link;
free(p);
}
return (val);
}

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Linked List

10. Write an algorithm to implement ascending priority queue using

singular linear linked list which has insert() function such that queue
remains ordered list. Also implement remove() function

struct node
{
int priority;
int info;
struct node *link;
}*front = NULL;

remove()
{
struct node *tmp;
if(front == NULL)
printf("Queue Underflow\n");
else
{
tmp = front;
printf("Deleted item is %d\n",tmp->info);
front = front->link;
free(tmp);
}
}/*End of remove()*/

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Linked List

insert()
{
struct node *tmp,*q;
int added_item,item_priority;
tmp = (struct node *)malloc(sizeof(struct node));
printf("Input the item value to be added in the queue : ");
scanf("%d",&added_item);
printf("Enter its priority : ");
scanf("%d",&item_priority);
tmp->info = added_item;
tmp->priority = item_priority;
/*Queue is empty or item to be added has priority more than
first item*/
if( front == NULL || item_priority < front->priority )
{
tmp->link = front;
front = tmp;
}
else
{
q = front;
while( q->link != NULL &&
q->link->priority <= item_priority )
{
q=q->link;
}
tmp->link = q->link;
q->link = tmp;
}/*End of else*/
}/*End of insert()*/

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Linked List

display()
{
struct node *ptr;
ptr = front;
if(front == NULL)
printf("Queue is empty\n");
else
{
printf("Queue is :\n");
printf("Priority Item\n");
while(ptr != NULL)
{
printf("%5d %5d\n",ptr->priority,ptr->info);
ptr = ptr->link;
}
}/*End of else */
}/*End of display() */

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

1. Discuss following

1. Graph
 A graph G consist of a non-empty set V called the set of nodes (points, vertices) of the
graph, a set E which is the set of edges and a mapping from the set of edges E to a set of
pairs of elements of V.
 It is also convenient to write a graph as G=(V,E).
 Notice that definition of graph implies that to every edge of a graph G, we can associate a
pair of nodes of the graph. If an edge X Є E is thus associated with a pair of nodes (u,v)
where u, v Є V then we says that edge x connect u and v.

2. Adjacent Nodes
 Any two nodes which are connected by an edge in a graph are called adjacent node.

3. Directed & Undirected Edge

 In a graph G=(V,E) an edge which is directed from one end to another end is called a
directed edge, while the edge which has no specific direction is called undirected edge.

4. Directed graph (Digraph)

 A graph in which every edge is directed is called directed graph or digraph.

5. Undirected graph
 A graph in which every edge is undirected is called undirected graph.

6. Mixed Graph
 If some of the edges are directed and some are undirected in graph then the graph is called
mixed graph.

7. Loop (Sling)
 An edge of a graph which joins a node to itself is called a loop (sling).

8. Parallel Edges
 In some directed as well as undirected graphs, we may have certain pairs of nodes joined by
more than one edges, such edges are called Parallel edges.

9. Multigraph
 Any graph which contains some parallel edges is called multigraph.

10. Weighted Graph

 A graph in which weights are assigned to every edge is called weighted graph.

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

11. Isolated Node

 In a graph a node which is not adjacent to any other node is called isolated node.

12. Null Graph

 A graph containing only isolated nodes are called null graph. In other words set of edges in
null graph is empty.

13. Path of Graph

 Let G=(V, E) be a simple digraph such that the terminal node of any edge in the sequence is
the initial node of the edge, if any appearing next in the sequence defined as path of the
graph.

14. Length of Path

 The number of edges appearing in the sequence of the path is called length of path.

15. Degree of vertex

 The no of edges which have V as their terminal node is call as indegree of node V
 The no of edges which have V as their initial node is call as outdegree of node V
 Sum of indegree and outdegree of node V is called its Total Degree or Degree of vertex.

16. Simple Path (Edge Simple)

 A path in a diagraph in which the edges are distinct is called simple path or edge simple.

17. Elementary Path (Node Simple)

 A path in which all the nodes through which it traverses are distinct is called elementary
path.

18. Cycle (Circuit)

 A path which originates and ends in the same node is called cycle (circuit).

19. Directed Tree

 A directed tree is an acyclic digraph which has one node called its root with in degree 0,
while all other nodes have in degree 1.
 Every directed tree must have at least one node.
 An isolated node is also a directed tree.

20. Terminal Node (Leaf Node)

 In a directed tree, any node which has out degree 0 is called terminal node or leaf node.

21. Level of Node

 The level of any node is the length of its path from the root.

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

22. Ordered Tree

 In a directed tree an ordering of the nodes at each level is prescribed then such a tree is
called ordered tree.

23. Forest
 If we delete the root and its edges connecting the nodes at level 1, we obtain a set of
disjoint tree. A set of disjoint tree is a forest.

24. M-ary Tree

 If in a directed tree the out degree of every node is less than or equal to m then tree is
called an m-ary tree.

25. Full or Complete M-ary Tree

 If the out degree of each and every node is exactly equal to m or 0 and their number of
nodes at level i is m(i-1) then the tree is called a full or complete m-ary tree.

26. Positional M-ary Tree

 If we consider m-ary trees in which the m children of any node are assumed to have m
distinct positions, if such positions are taken into account, then tree is called positional m-
ary tree.

27. Height of the tree

 The height of a tree is the length of the path from the root to the deepest node in the tree.

28. Binary tree

 If in a directed tree the out degree of every node is less than or equal to 2 then tree is called
binary tree.

29. Strictly binary tree

 A strictly binary tree (sometimes proper binary tree or 2-tree or full binary tree) is a tree in
which every node other than the leaves has two children.

30. Complete binary tree

 If the out degree of each and every node is exactly equal to 2 or 0 and their number of
nodes at level i is 2(i-1) then the tree is called a full or complete binary tree.

31. Sibling
 Siblings are nodes that share the same parent node.

32. Binary search tree

 A binary search tree is a binary tree in which each node possessed a key that satisfy the
following conditions
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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

1. All key (if any) in the left sub tree of the root precedes the key in the root.
2. The key in the root precedes all key (if any) in the right sub tree.
3. The left and right sub tree sub trees of the root are again search trees.

33. Height Balanced Binary tree (AVL Tree)

 A tree is called AVL (height balance binary tree), if each node possesses one of the following
properties
1. A node is called left heavy if the longest path in its left sub tree is one longer then
the longest path of its right sub tree.
2. A node is called right heavy if the longest path in the right sub tree is one longer
than path in its left sub tree.
3. A node is called balanced, if the longest path in both the right and left sub tree are
equal.

2. Explain the Preorder, Inorder and Postorder traversal techniques of the

binary tree with suitable example.

 The most common operations performed on tree structure is that of traversal. This is a procedure by
which each node in the tree is processed exactly once in a systematic manner.
 There are three ways of traversing a binary tree.
1. Preorder Traversal
2. Inorder Traversal
3. Postorder Traversal

A Preorder traversal : A B C D E F G

Inorder traversal : C B A E F D G
B D Postorder traversal : C B F E G D A

Converse Preorder traversal : A D G E F B C

C E G
Converse Inorder traversal : G D F E A B C

Converse Postorder traversal : G F E D C B A

Fig. 1.1
F

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

Preorder
 Preorder traversal of a binary tree is defined as follow
o Process the root node
o Traverse the left subtree in preorder
o Traverse the right subtree in preorder
 If particular subtree is empty (i.e., node has no left or right descendant) the traversal is performed by
doing nothing, In other words, a null subtree is considered to be fully traversed when it is encountered.
 The preorder traversal of a tree (Fig. 1.1) is given by A B C D E F G

Inorder
 The Inorder traversal of a binary tree is given by following steps,
o Traverse the left subtree in Inorder
o Process the root node
o Traverse the right subtree in Inorder
 The Inorder traversal of a tree (Fig. 1.1) is given by C B A E F D G

Postorder
 The postorder traversal is given by
o Traverse the left subtree in postorder
o Traverse the right subtree in postorder
o Process the root node
 The Postorder traversal of a tree (Fig. 1.1) is given by C B F E G D A

Converse …
 If we interchange left and right words in the preceding definitions, we obtain three new traversal orders
which are called
o Converse Preorder (A D G E F B C)
o Converse Inorder (G D F E A B C)
o Converse Postorder (G F E D C B A)

3. Write the algorithm of Preorder, Inorder and Postorder traversal

techniques of the binary tree.

Procedure : RPREORDER(T)
 Given a binary tree whose root node address is given by pointer variable T and whose node structure is
same as described below. This procedure traverses the tree in preorder, in a recursive manner.

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LPTR DATA RPTR

1. [Check for empty Tree]

If T = NULL
then write (‘Empty Tree’)
return
else write (DATA(T))

2. [Process the Left Subtree]

If LPTR (T) ≠ NULL
then RPREORDER (LPTR (T))

3. [Process the Right Subtree]

If RPTR (T) ≠ NULL
then RPREORDER (RPTR (T))

4. [Finished]
return

Procedure : RINORDER(T)
 Given a binary tree whose root node address is given by pointer variable T and whose node structure is
same as described below. This procedure traverses the tree in inorder, in a recursive manner.
1. [Check for empty Tree]
If T = NULL
then write (‘Empty Tree’)
return

2. [Process the Left Subtree]

If LPTR (T) ≠ NULL
then RINORDER (LPTR (T))

3. [Process the root node]

write (DATA(T))

4. [Process the Right Subtree]

If RPTR (T) ≠ NULL
then RINORDER (RPTR (T))

5. [Finished]
return

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Procedure : RPOSTORDER(T)
 Given a binary tree whose root node address is given by pointer variable T and whose node structure is
same as described below. This procedure traverses the tree in postorder, in a recursive manner.

1. [Check for empty Tree]

If T = NULL
then write (‘Empty Tree’)
return

2. [Process the Left Subtree]

If LPTR (T) ≠ NULL
then RPOSTORDER (LPTR (T))

3. [Process the Right Subtree]

If RPTR (T) ≠ NULL
then RPOSTORDER (RPTR (T))

4. [Process the root node]

write (DATA(T))

5. [Finished]
return

4. Give traversal order of following tree into Inorder, Preorder and Postorder.

1 Inorder: 2 1 4 5 3
Preorder: 1 2 3 4 5
Post order: 2 5 4 3 1
2 3

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

5. Construct a tree for the given Inorder and Postorder traversals

Inorder :DGBAHEICF
Postorder : G D B H I E F C A

D G B H E I C F

B C

D G H E I F

B C

D E F

G H I

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

Postorder : C B E H G I F D A
Inorder :BCAEDGHFI

B C E D G H F I

B D

C E G H F I

B D

C E F

G H I

B D

C E F

G I

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

6. Construct a tree for the given Inorder and Preorder traversals

Preorder : G B Q A C K F P D E R H
Inorder : Q B K C F A G P E D H R

Q B K C F A P E D H R

B P

Q K C F A D E R H

B P

Q A D

E R H
K C F

B P

Q A D

C E R

K F H

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

7. Create a binary search tree for the following data :

50 ,25 ,75, 22,40,60,80,90,15,30

50

25 75

22 40 80
60

15 30 90

8. Construct binary search tree for the following data and find its Inorder,
Preorder and Postorder traversal
10,3,15,22,6,45,65,23,78,34,5

10

3 15

6 22

5
45

23 65

34 78

Preorder : 10, 3, 6, 5, 15, 22, 45, 23, 34, 65, 78

Inorder : 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 22, 23, 34, 45, 65, 78
Postorder : 5, 6, 3, 34, 23, 78, 65, 45, 22, 15, 10

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

9. Write a short note on threaded binary tree

 The wasted NULL links in the binary tree storage representation can be replaced by threads.
 A binary tree is threaded according to particular traversal order. e.g.: Threads for the inorder traversals
of tree are pointers to its higher nodes, for this traversal order.
o If left link of node P is null, then this link is replaced by the address of its predecessor.
o If right link of node P is null, then it is replaced by the address of its successor
 Because the left or right link of a node can denote either structural link or a thread, we must somehow
be able to distinguish them.
 Method 1:- Represent thread a –ve address.
 Method 2:- To have a separate Boolean flag for each of left and right pointers, node structure for this is
given below,

LPTR LTHREAD Data RTHREAD RPTR

Alternate node for threaded binary tree.

 LTHREAD = true = Denotes leaf thread link

 LTHREAD = false = Denotes leaf structural link
 RTHREAD = true = Denotes right threaded link
 RTHREAD = false = Denotes right structural link

 Head node is simply another node which serves as the predecessor and successor of first and last tree
nodes. Tree is attached to the left branch of the head node
Head

Advantages
 Inorder traversal is faster than unthreaded version as stack is not required.
 Effectively determines the predecessor and successor for inorder traversal, for unthreaded tree this task is
more difficult.
 A stack is required to provide upward pointing information in tree which threading provides.
 It is possible to generate successor or predecessor of any node without having over head of stack with the
help of threading.

Disadvantages
 Threaded trees are unable to share common subtrees
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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

 If –ve addressing is not permitted in programming language, two additional fields are required.
 Insertion into and deletion from threaded binary tree are more time consuming because both thread and
structural link must be maintained.

B D

E G
C
F
Binary Tree
Inorder Traversal C B A E F D G

Fully In-threaded binary tree of given binary tree

HEAD

B D

C E G

F
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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

10. Draw a right in threaded binary tree for the given tree

Right In-threaded binary tree of given binary tree

HEAD

B E

C D F H

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

11. What is the meaning of height balanced tree? How rebalancing is done in
height balanced tree.
A tree is called AVL (height balance binary tree), if each node possesses one of the following properties

1. A node is called left heavy if the longest path in its left sub tree is one longer then the longest path of its
right sub tree.
2. A node is called right heavy if the longest path in the right sub tree is one longer than path in its left sub
tree.
3. A node is called balanced, if the longest path in both the right and left sub tree are equal.

If tree becomes unbalanced by inserting any node, then based on position of insertion, we need to rotate the
unbalanced node. Rotation is the process to make tree balanced

1) Insertion into Left sub-tree of nodes Left child – Single Right Rotation
2) Insertion into Right sub-tree of node’s Left child – Left Right Rotation
3) Insertion into Left sub-tree of node’s Right child – Right Left Rotation
4) Insertion into Right sub-tree of node’s Right child – Single Left Rotation

1) Insertion into Left sub-tree of nodes Left child – Single Right Rotation
If node becomes unbalanced after insertion of new node at Left sub-tree of nodes Left child, then we need
to perform Single Right Rotation for unbalanced node.

Right Rotation
a. Detach leaf child’s right sub-tree
b. Consider leaf child to be the new parent
c. Attach old parent onto right of new parent
d. Attach old leaf child’s old right sub-tree as leaf sub-tree of new right child

Critical Node J K

Right J
K Z X
Rotation

X Y N Y Z

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

Critical Node 13 7
Steps of 13
7 15 Right 5
Rotation

5 10 3 10 15

7
7

5 13
5 13

3 10 15

3 10 15

2) Insertion into Right sub-tree of node’s Left child – Left Right Rotation
If node becomes unbalanced after insertion of new node at Right sub-tree of node’s Left child, then we need
to perform Left Right Rotation for unbalanced node.

Leaf rotation of leaf child followed by right rotation of parent

J J Y

Y Z K J
K Z
Left Right
Rotation of K Rotation of J
X Y K n Z
n X

n X

3) Insertion into Left sub-tree of node’s Right child – Right Left Rotation
If node becomes unbalanced after insertion of new node at Left sub-tree of node’s Right child, then we
need to perform Right Left Rotation for unbalanced node.

Single right rotation of right child followed by left rotation of parent

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Unbalanced node
X X Y

T1 Right T1 Y Left
Z
Rotation of Z Rotation of X X Z
T2
Y T4 Z

T1 T2 T3 T4
T3 T4
T2 T3

4) Insertion into Right sub-tree of node’s Right child – Single Left Rotation
If node becomes unbalanced after insertion of new node at Right sub-tree of nodes Right child, then we
need to perform Single Left Rotation for unbalanced node.

Left Rotation
a. Detach right child’s leaf sub-tree
b. Consider right child to be new parent
c. Attach old parent onto left of new parent
d. Attach old right child’s old left sub-tree as right sub-tree of new left child

Unbalanced node
X
Y
T1
Y Leaf
T3
Rotation of X X

T2 T3
T1 T2
n

Example

50 Unbalanced node 70 70

40 70 50 80 50 80

90

60 80 40 90 40 60

90 60

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12. Construct AVL Search tree by inserting following elements in order of

their occurrence 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1

1 2 3 4
Insert 6 Insert : 5 Insert : 4 Insert : 3
Right
6 6 6 5 5
Rotate 6
5 5 4 6 4 6

4
3

6 5
Insert : 2
Insert : 1
5 5
5
Righ
3 6 3 6
Rotate 4 6

2 4 2 4 3

1 Right
2
Rotate 5

2 5

1 4 6

Assignment:
 Define height of the binary tree. Define height balanced tree with its advantages. Construct a height
balanced binary tree (AVL tree) for the following data 42,06,54,62,88,50,22,32,12,33
 Construct the AVL search tree by inserting the following elements in the order of their occurrence. 64, 1,
44, 26, 13, 110, 98, 85

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13. What are the advantages of Multiway search tree in disc access?
Construct B tree of order 5 for the following data
1,6,7,2,11,5,10,13,12,20,16,24,3,4,18,19,14,25

1 2 3 4 5
Insert: 1 Insert: 6 Insert: 7 Insert: 2 Insert: 11
6
1 1, 6 1, 6, 7 1, 2, 6, 7 1, 2, 6, 7, 11
Overflow 1, 2 7, 11

6 7 8
Insert: 5 Insert: 10 Insert: 13

6 6 6

1, 2, 5 7, 11 1, 2, 5 7, 10, 11 1, 2, 5 7, 10, 11, 13

9 10
Insert: 12 Insert: 20

6 6, 11 6, 11

1, 2, 5 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 1, 2, 5 7, 10 12, 13 1, 2, 5 7, 10 12, 13, 20

Overflow

11 12
Insert: 16 Insert: 24

6, 11 6, 11
6, 11, 16
1, 2, 5 7, 10 12, 13, 16, 20 1, 2, 5 7, 10 12, 13, 16, 20, 24
Overflow

1, 2, 5 7, 10 12, 13 20, 24

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13
Insert: 3, 4
6, 11, 16 3 6 11 16

1, 2, 3, 4, 5 7, 10 12, 13 20, 24 1, 2 4, 5 7, 10 12, 13 20, 24

Overflow

14
Insert: 18, 19, 14

3 6 11 16

1, 2 4, 5 7, 10 12, 13, 14 18, 19, 20, 24

15
Insert: 25

3 6 11 16

1, 2 4, 5 7, 10 12, 13, 14 18, 19, 20, 24, 25

Overflow
11

3, 6 16 , 20

1, 2 4, 5 7, 10 12, 13, 14 18, 19 24, 25

Assignment:
 Construct mutiway search tree for the following data of order for 100, 150, 50, 55, 250, 200, 170, 65, 75,
20, 30, 52, 10, 25, 180, 190, 300, 5

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14. What is 2-3 tree?

A 2-3 tree is a type of data structure with following properties.

 All data appears at the leaves.

 Data elements are ordered from left (minimum) to right (maximum).
 Every path through the tree is the same length.
 Interior nodes have 2 or 3 subtrees.

15. What is graph? How it can be represented using adjacency matrix, what
is path matrix? How path matrix can be found out using adjacency matrix .

Graph
 A graph G consist of a non empty set V called the set of nodes (points, vertices) of the graph, a set E
which is the set of edges and a mapping from the set of edges E to a set of pairs of elements of V.
 It is also convenient to write a graph as G=(V,E).
 Notice that definition of graph implies that to every edge of a graph G, we can associate a pair of nodes
of the graph. If an edge X Є E is thus associated with a pair of nodes (u,v) where u, v Є V then we says
that edge x connect U and V.

Adjacency matrix
Let G = (V, E) be a simple diagraph in which V = {v1, v2,…., vn} and the nodes are assumed to be ordered from
v1 to vn. An n x n matrix A whose elements are aij are given by

( )
aij = {

is called adjacency matrix of the graph G.

 Any element of the adjacency matrix is either 0 or 1.

 For a given graph G =m (V, E), an adjacency matrix depends upon the ordering of the elements of V.
 For different ordering of the elements of V we get different adjacency matrices.

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V1 V4
V1 V2 V3 V4
V1 0 1 0 1
V2 1 0 0 0
V3 1 1 0 1
V4 0 1 0 0
V2 V3

A digraph and its adjacency matrix

 We can extend the idea of matrix representation to multigraph and weighted graphs. In the case of
multigraph or weighted graph we write aji = w, where aij denotes either the multiplicity or the
weight of the edge.

Path matrix
 An entry of 1 in the ith row and jth column of A shows the existence of an edge (v i, vj), that is a path
of length 1 from vi to vj.
( )
 Let denote the elements of A2 by aij(2). Then {∑
 (2)
Therefore aij is equal to the number of different paths of exactly length 2 from vi to vj.
 Similarly element in ith row and jth column of A3 gives number of paths of exactly length 3 from vi to
v j.

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 0 1
2
A = 0 1 0 1 3
A = 1 1 0 0 4
A = 1 1 0 1
1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 3 0 2
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

Different path matrices

16. Which are the basic traversing techniques of the Graph? Write the
algorithm of them.

 Most graph problems involve traversal of a graph. Traversal of a graph means visit each node exactly
once.
 Two commonly used graphs traversal techniques are
1. Depth First Search (DFS)
2. Breadth First Search (BFS)

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

Depth First Search (DFS)

 It is like preorder traversal of tree.
 Traversal can start from any vertex vi
 Vi is visited and then all vertices adjacent to vi are traversed recursively using DFS

1
DFS (G, 1) is given by

a) Visit (1)
2 5
3 4 b) DFS (G, 2)
DFS (G, 3)
DFS (G, 4)
6 7 DFS (G, 5)

DFS traversal of given graph is:

8
1, 2, 6, 3, 8, 7, 4, 5
Graph G

 Since graph can have cycles, we must avoid re-visiting a node. To do this when we visit a vertex V,
we marks it visited as visited should not be selected for traversal.

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Procedure : DFS (vertecx V)

This procedure traverse the graph G in DFS manner. V is a starting vertex to be explored. S is a
Stack, visited[] is an array which tells you whether particular vertex is visited or not. W is a
adjacent node of vertex V. PUSH and POP are functions to insert and remove from stack
respectively.

1. [Initialize TOP and Visited]

visited[]  0
TOP  0
2. [Push vertex into stack]
PUSH (V)
3. [Repeat while stack is not empty]
Repeat step 3 while stack is not empty
v  POP()
if visited[v] is 0
then visited [v]  1
for all W adjacent to v
if visited [w] is 0
then PUSH (W)
end for
end if

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

Breadth First Search (BFS)

 This methods starts from vertex v0
 V0 is marked as visited. All vertices adjacent to v0 are visited next
 Let vertices adjacent to v0 are v1, v2, v3, v4
 v1, v2, v3 and v4 are marked visited.
 All unvisited vertices adjacent to v1, v2, v3, v4 are visited next.
 The method continuous until all vertices are visited
 The algorithm for BFS has to maintain a list of vertices which have been visited but not explored for
adjacent vertices. The vertices which have been visited but not explored for adjacent vertices can be
stored in queue.
 Initially the queue contains the starting vertex.
 In every iteration, a vertex is removed from the queue and its adjacent vertices which are not visited
as yet are added to the queue.
 The algorithm terminates when the queue becomes empty.
1
Graph G

2 5
3 4
BFS traversal of given graph is:
1 | 2, 3, 4, 5 | 6, 7 | 8

6 7

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Procedure : BFS (Vertex V)

This procedure traverse the graph G in BFS manner. V is a starting vertex to be explored. Q is a
queue, visited[] is an array which tells you whether particular vertex is visited or not. W is a
adjacent node of vertex V.
1. Initialize Q
2. [Marks visited of V as 1]
visited [v] 1
3. [Add vertex v to Q]
InsertQueue(V)
4. [Repeat while Q is not empty]
Repeat while Q is not empty
v  RemoveFromQueue()
For all vertices W adjacent to v
if visited[w] is 0
then visited[w] 1
InsertQueue(w)

17. What is spanning tree?

 A Spanning tree of a graph is an undirected tree consisting of only those edges necessary to connect all
the nodes in the original graph
 A spanning tree has the properties that
o For any pair of nodes there exists only one path between them
o Insertion of any edge to a spanning tree forms a unique cycle
 The particular Spanning for a graph depends on the criteria used to generate it.
 If DFS search is use, those edges traversed by the algorithm forms the edges of tree, referred to as
Depth First Spanning Tree.
 If BFS Search is used, the spanning tree is formed from those edges traversed during the search,
producing Breadth First Search Spanning tree.

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Nonlinear Data Structure (Graph & Tree)

V0

V1 V2

V3 V4 V5 V6

V7

V0
V0

V1 V2
V1 V2

V3 V4 V5 V6
V3 V4 V5 V6

V7
V7

DFS Spanning Tree BFS Spanning Tree

18. Consider the graph shown in Fig Find depth-first and breadth first
traversals of this graph starting at A

B C

E
D
F

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A A

B C B C

E E
D D
F F

DFS : A B D C F E BFS : A B C D F E

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19. Define spanning tree and minimum spanning tree. Find the minimum
spanning tree of the graph shown in Fig.

A 5
4

Using Prim’s Algorithm:

3 E
B
6
2 5 6 7 Let X be the set of nodes explored, initially X = { A }

C D
1

Step 1: Taking minimum weight edge of all Adjacent Step 2: Taking minimum weight edge of all Adjacent A–B|4
edges of X = { A } edges of X = { A , B }
A–E|5
A–C|6
A A
4 4 A–D|6
B–E|3
B X={A,B}
B B–C|2
X={A,B,C} C–E|6
2
C–D|1
C D–E|7

Step 3: Taking minimum weight edge of all Adjacent Step 4: Taking minimum weight edge of all Adjacent
edges of X = { A , B , C } edges of X = { A , B , C , D }

4
A 4
A

3
B B E
X = { A , B , C, D }
2 2

C 1 D C 1
D

X = { A , B , C, D, E }

All nodes of graph are there with set X, so we obtained minimum spanning tree of cost: 4 + 2 + 1 + 3 = 10

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A 5
4

B
3 E
Using Kruskal’s Algorithm
6
2 5 6 7

C D
1

Step 1: Taking min edge (C,D) Step 2: Taking next min edge (B,C) Step 3: Taking next min edge (B,E)

3
B B E

2 2
C 1
D
C 1 D C 1 D

Step 4: Taking next min edge (A,B) Step 5: Taking next min edge (A,E) it forms cycle so do not consider
Step 6: Taking next min edge (C,E) it forms cycle so do not consider
4
A Step 7: Taking next min edge (A,D) it forms cycle so do not consider
Step 8: Taking next min edge (A,C) it forms cycle so do not consider
3 Step 9: Taking next min edge (E,D) it forms cycle so do not consider
B E
All edges of graph has been visited,
2
so we obtained minimum spanning tree of cost:
C D 4 + 2 + 1 + 3 = 10
1

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20. Give example and applications of directed and undirected graphs. Find
the adjacency matrix for the graph shown in Fig.

1 Adjacency matrix for the given graph

1 2 3 4 5 6
6 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
2 3 2 0 0 0 1 0 0
3 1 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 1 0 1 0
5 0 0 1 0 0 1
4 5 6 1 0 1 0 0 0

Applications of graph:
 Electronic Circuits
o Printed Circuit Board
o Integrated Circuit
 Transportation networks
o Highway networks
Modeling a road network with vertexes as towns and edge costs as distances.
o Water Supply networks
Modeling a water supply network. A cost might relate to current or a function of capacity and
length. As water flows in only 1 direction, from higher to lower pressure connections or
downhill, such a network is inherently an acyclic directed graph.
o Flight network
Minimizing the cost and time taken for air travel when direct flights don't exist between starting
and ending airports.
 Computer networks
o Local Area Network
o Internet
Dynamically modeling the status of a set of routes by which traffic might be directed over the
Internet.
o Web
Using a directed graph to map the links between pages within a website and to analyze ease of
navigation between different parts of the site.
 Databases
o Entity Relationship Diagram

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21. Apply Dijkstra’s algorithm to find shortest path between vertex A and
vertex F5 for the graph shown in Fig.

2
1 B D 6
4
A 1 7
F
3 2
C E
5

Step 1: Traverse all adjacent node of A Step 2: Traverse all adjacent node of B
1 ∞ 1 3
2 2
1 B D 6 1 B D 6

0 4 0 4
A 1 7 ∞ A 1 7 ∞
F F
3 2 3 2
3
C E 3
C E
5 5
∞ 5

Step 3: Traverse all adjacent node of C Step 4: Traverse all adjacent node of D
3 1 3
1
2 2
1 B D 1 B D 6
6
4 0 4
0 A 7 A 1 7 9
1
F ∞ F

3 2 3 2
C E 3
C E
3 5 5
5 5

Step 5: Traverse all adjacent node of E

1 3
2
1 B D 6  Shortest path from node A to F is :
4 A – B – E – F as shown in step 5
0 A 1 7
F 7  Length of path is 7
3 2
3
C E
5
5

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Hashing

What is Hashing?
 Sequential search requires, on the average O(n) comparisons to locate an element. So many
comparisons are not desirable for a large database of elements.
 Binary search requires much fewer comparisons on the average O (log n) but there is an additional
requirement that the data should be sorted. Even with best sorting algorithm, sorting of elements
require 0(n log n) comparisons.
 There is another widely used technique for storing of data called hashing. It does away with the
requirement of keeping data sorted (as in binary search) and its best case timing complexity is of
constant order (0(1)). In its worst case, hashing algorithm starts behaving like linear search.
 Best case timing behavior of searching using hashing = O( 1)
 Worst case timing Behavior of searching using hashing = O(n)
 In hashing, the record for a key value "key", is directly referred by calculating the address from the key
value. Address or location of an element or record, x, is obtained by computing some arithmetic
function f. f(key) gives the address of x in the table.

Record

0
1
f()Address

2
3
4
5
6

Hash Table
Mapping of Record in hash table

Hash Table Data Structure:

There are two different forms of hashing.

1. Open hashing or external hashing

Open or external hashing, allows records to be stored in unlimited space (could be a hard disk). It places
no limitation on the size of the tables.

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Hashing

2. Close hashing or internal hashing

Closed or internal hashing, uses a fixed space for storage and thus limits the size of hash table.

1. Open Hashing Data Structure

bucket table
header List of Elements

B-1

The open hashing data organization

 The basic idea is that the records [elements] are partitioned into B classes, numbered 0,1,2 … B-l
 A Hashing function f(x) maps a record with key n to an integer value between 0 and B-l.
 Each bucket in the bucket table is the head of the linked list of records mapped to that bucket.

2. Close Hashing Data Structure

0 b  A closed hash table keeps the elements in the bucket itself.

1  Only one element can be put in the bucket
 If we try to place an element in the bucket f(n) and find it already holds
2 an element, then we say that a collision has occurred.
3  In case of collision, the element should be rehashed to alternate empty
location f1(x), f2(x), ... within the bucket table
4 c  In closed hashing, collision handling is a very important issue.
5 d

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Hashing

Hashing Functions
Characteristics of a Good Hash Function

 A good hash function avoids collisions.

 A good hash function tends to spread keys evenly in the array.
 A good hash function is easy to compute.

Different hashing functions

1. Division-Method
2. Midsquare Methods
3. Folding Method
4. Digit Analysis
5. Length Dependent Method
6. Algebraic Coding
7. Multiplicative Hashing

1. Division-Method
 In this method we use modular arithmetic system to divide the key value by some integer divisor m
(may be table size).
 It gives us the location value, where the element can be placed.
 We can write,
L = (K mod m) + 1
where L => location in table/file
K => key value
m => table size/number of slots in file
 Suppose, k = 23, m = 10 then
L = (23 mod 10) + 1= 3 + 1=4, The key whose value is 23 is placed in 4th location.

2. Midsquare Methods
 In this case, we square the value of a key and take the number of digits required to form an address,
from the middle position of squared value.
 Suppose a key value is 16, then its square is 256. Now if we want address of two digits, then you
select the address as 56 (i.e. two digits starting from middle of 256).

3. Folding Method
 Most machines have a small number of primitive data types for which there are arithmetic
instructions.
 Frequently key to be used will not fit easily in to one of these data types
 It is not possible to discard the portion of the key that does not fit into such an arithmetic data type
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Hashing

 The solution is to combine the various parts of the key in such a way that all parts of the key affect
for final result such an operation is termed folding of the key.
 That is the key is actually partitioned into number of parts, each part having the same length as that
of the required address.
 Add the value of each parts, ignoring the final carry to get the required address.
 This is done in two ways :
o Fold-shifting: Here actual values of each parts of key are added.
 Suppose, the key is : 12345678, and the required address is of two digits,
 Then break the key into: 12, 34, 56, 78.
 Add these, we get 12 + 34 + 56 + 78 : 180, ignore first 1 we get 80 as location
o Fold-boundary: Here the reversed values of outer parts of key are added.
 Suppose, the key is : 12345678, and the required address is of two digits,
 Then break the key into: 21, 34, 56, 87.
 Add these, we get 21 + 34 + 56 + 87 : 198, ignore first 1 we get 98 as location

4. Digit Analysis
 This hashing function is a distribution-dependent.
 Here we make a statistical analysis of digits of the key, and select those digits (of fixed position)
which occur quite frequently.
 Then reverse or shifts the digits to get the address.
 For example, if the key is : 9861234. If the statistical analysis has revealed the fact that the third and
fifth position digits occur quite frequently, then we choose the digits in these positions from the key.
So we get, 62. Reversing it we get 26 as the address.

5. Length Dependent Method

 In this type of hashing function we use the length of the key along with some portion of the key j to
produce the address, directly.
 In the indirect method, the length of the key along with some portion of the key is used to obtain
intermediate value.

6. Algebraic Coding
 Here a n bit key value is represented as a polynomial.
 The divisor polynomial is then constructed based on the address range required.
 The modular division of key-polynomial by divisor polynomial, to get the address-polynomial.
 Let f(x) = polynomial of n bit key = a1 + a2x + ……. + anxn-1
 d(x) = divisor polynomial = x1 + d1 + d2x + …. + d1x1-1
 then the required address polynomial will be f(x) mod d(x)

7. Multiplicative Hashing
 This method is based on obtaining an address of a key, based on the multiplication value.

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Hashing

 If k is the non-negative key, and a constant c, (0 < c < 1), compute kc mod 1, which is a fractional part of
kc.
 Multiply this fractional part by m and take a floor value to get the address
 ( )
 0 < h (k) < m

Collision Resolution Strategies (Synonym Resolution)

 Collision resolution is the main problem in hashing.
 If the element to be inserted is mapped to the same location, where an element is already inserted then
we have a collision and it must be resolved.
 There are several strategies for collision resolution. The most commonly used are :
1. Separate chaining - used with open hashing
2. Open addressing - used with closed hashing

1. Separate chaining
 In this strategy, a separate list of all elements mapped to the same value is maintained.
 Separate chaining is based on collision avoidance.
 If memory space is tight, separate chaining should be avoided.
 Additional memory space for links is wasted in storing address of linked elements.
 Hashing function should ensure even distribution of elements among buckets; otherwise the timing
behavior of most operations on hash table will deteriorate.

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Hashing

List of Elements
0 10 50

2 12 32 62

4 4 24

7 7

9 9 69

A Separate Chaining Hash Table

Example : The integers given below are to be inserted in a hash table with 5 locations using
chaining to resolve collisions. Construct hash table and use simplest hash function. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
10, 21, 22, 33, 34, 15, 32, 31, 48, 49, 50
An element can be mapped to a location in the hash table using the mapping function key % 10.

Hash Table Location Mapped element

0 5, 10, 15, 50
1 1, 21, 31
2 2, 22, 32
3 3, 33, 48
4 4, 34, 49

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Hashing

Hash Table

0 5 10 15 50
1 1 21 31
2 2 22 32
3 3 33 48
4 4 34 49

2. Open Addressing
 Separate chaining requires additional memory space for pointers. Open addressing hashing is an
alternate method of handling collision.
 In open addressing, if a collision occurs, alternate cells are tried until an empty cell is found.
a. Linear probing
b. Quadratic probing
c. Double hashing.

a) Linear Probing
 In linear probing, whenever there is a collision, cells are searched sequentially (with
wraparound) for an empty cell.
 Fig. shows the result of inserting keys {5,18,55,78,35,15} using the hash function (f(key)=
key%10) and linear probing strategy.

Empty After After After After After After

Table 5 18 55 78 35 15
0 15
1
2
3
4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 55 55 55 55
7 35 35
8 18 18 18 18 18
9 78 78 78

 Linear probing is easy to implement but it suffers from "primary clustering"

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Hashing

 When many keys are mapped to the same location (clustering), linear probing will not
distribute these keys evenly in the hash table. These keys will be stored in neighborhood of
the location where they are mapped. This will lead to clustering of keys around the point of
collision

b) Quadratic probing
 One way of reducing "primary clustering" is to use quadratic probing to resolve collision.
 Suppose the "key" is mapped to the location j and the cell j is already occupied. In quadratic
probing, the location j, (j+1), (j+4), (j+9), ... are examined to find the first empty cell where the
key is to be inserted.
 This table reduces primary clustering.
 It does not ensure that all cells in the table will be examined to find an empty cell. Thus, it may
be possible that key will not be inserted even if there is an empty cell in the table.

c) Double Hashing
 This method requires two hashing functions f1 (key) and f2 (key).
 Problem of clustering can easily be handled through double hashing.
 Function f1 (key) is known as primary hash function.
 In case the address obtained by f1 (key) is already occupied by a key, the function f2 (key) is
evaluated.
 The second function f2 (key) is used to compute the increment to be added to the address
obtained by the first hash function f1 (key) in case of collision.
 The search for an empty location is made successively at the addresses f1 (key) + f2(key),
f1 (key) + 2f2 (key), f1 (key) + 3f2(key),...

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File

What is File?
 A file is a collection of records where a record consists of one or more fields. Each contains the same
sequence of fields.
 Each field is normally of fixed length.
 A sample file with four records is shown below:

Name Roll No. Year Marks

AMIT 1000 1 82
KALPESH 1005 2 54
JITENDRA 1009 1 75
RAVI 1010 1 79

 There are four records

 There are four fields (Name, Roll No., Year, Marks)
 Records can be uniquely identified on the field 'Roll No.' Therefore, Roll No. is the key field.
 A database is a collection of files.
 Commonly, used file organizations are :
1. Sequential files
2. Relative files
3. Direct files
4. Indexed Sequential files
5. Index files
 Primitive Operations on a File :
1. Creation
2. Reading
3. Insertion
4. Deletion
5. Updation
6. Searching

Sequential Files
It is the most common type of file. In this type of file:

 A fixed format is used for record.

 All records are of the same length.
 Position of each field in record and length of field is fixed.
 Records are physically ordered on the value of one of the fields - called the ordering field.

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File

Block 1
Name Roll No. Year Marks
AMIT 1000 1 82
KALPESH 1005 2 54
JITENDRA 1009 1 75
RAVI 1010 1 79
Block 2
NILESH 1011 2 89

Some blocks of an ordered (sequential) file of students records with Roll no. as the ordering field

Advantages of sequential file over unordered files :

 Reading of records in order of the ordering key is extremely efficient.
 Finding the next record in order of the ordering key usually, does not require additional block
access. Next record may be found in the same block.
 Searching operation on ordering key is must faster. Binary search can be utilized. A binary search will
require log2b block accesses where b is the total number of blocks in the file.

Disadvantages of sequential file :

 Sequential file does not give any advantage when the search operation is to be carried out on non-
ordering field.
 Inserting a record is an expensive operation. Insertion of a new record requires finding of place of
insertion and then all records ahead of it must be moved to create space for the record to be
inserted. This could be very expensive for large files.
 Deleting a record is an expensive operation. Deletion too requires movement of records.
 Modification of field value of ordering key could be time consuming. Modifying the ordering field
means the record can change its position. This requires deletion of the old record followed by
insertion of the modified record.

Hashing (Direct file organization):

 It is a common technique used for fast accessing of records on secondary storage.
 Records of a file are divided among buckets.
 A bucket is either one disk block or cluster of contiguous blocks.
 A hashing function maps a key into a bucket number. The buckets are numbered 0, 1,2...b-1.
 A hash function f maps each key value into one of the integers 0 through b - 1.
 If x is a key, f(x) is the number of bucket that contains the record with key x.

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File

 The blocks making up each bucket could either be contiguous blocks or they can be chained together in
a linked list.
 Translation of bucket number to disk block address is done with the help of bucket directory. It gives the
address of the first block of the chained blocks in a linked list.
 Hashing is quite efficient in retrieving a record on hashed key. The average number of block accesses for
retrieving a record.

 Thus the operation is b times faster (b = number of buckets) than unordered file.
 To insert a record with key value x, the new record can added to the last block in the chain for bucket
f(x). If the record does not fit into the existing block, record is stored in a new block and this new block is
added at the end of the chain for bucket f(x).
 A well designed hashed structure requires two block accesses for most operations

Bucket 0
230

0 460 480
580 790
1
850
2
Bucket 1
321

531

651

Bucket 2
232

242 270 930

262 470 420

582 510
b-1
Bucket
Directory
Hashing with buckets of chained blocks

Indexing
 Indexing is used to speed up retrieval of records.

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 It is done with the help of a separate sequential file. Each record of in the index file consists of two
fields, a key field and a pointer into the main file.
 To find a specific record for the given key value, index is searched for the given key value.
 Binary search can used to search in index file. After getting the address of record from index file, the
record in main file can easily be retrieved.

Search
Main File
Key Pointer
Name Roll No Year Marks
1000
1010 AMIT 1010 1 70

1012 KALPESH 1016 1 80

1015 JITENDRA 1000 3 65

1016 RAVI 1012 2 78

NILESH 1015 1 95
Index
File

 Index file is ordered on the ordering key Roll No. each record of index file points to the corresponding
record. Main file is not sorted.

Advantages of indexing over sequential file:

 Sequential file can be searched effectively on ordering key. When it is necessary to search for a record
on the basis of some other attribute than the ordering key field, sequential file representation is
inadequate.
 Multiple indexes can be maintained for each type of field used for searching. Thus, indexing provides
much better flexibility.
 An index file usually requires less storage space than the main file. A binary search on sequential file will
require accessing of more blocks. This can be explained with the help of the following example. Consider
the example of a sequential file with r = 1024 records of fixed length with record size R = 128 bytes
stored on disk with block size B = 2048 bytes.
 Number of blocks required to store the file =
 Number of block accesses for searching a record = log264= 6
 Suppose, we want to construct an index on a key field that is V = 4 bytes long and the block pointer is P =
4 bytes long.
 A record of an index file is of the form <V;, Pj> and it will need 8 bytes per entry.
 Total Number of index entries = 1024
 Number of blocks b' required to store the file =
 Number of block accesses for searching a record = log24= 2

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 With indexing, new records can be added at the end of the main file. It will not require movement of
records as in the case of sequential file. Updation of index file requires fewer block accesses compare to
sequential file

Types of Indexes:
1. Primary indexes
2. Clustering indexes
3. Secondary indexes

Primary Indexes (Indexed Sequential File):

 An indexed sequential file is characterized by
o Sequential organization (ordered on primary key)
o Indexed on primary key
 An indexed sequential file is both ordered and indexed.
 Records are organized in sequence based on a key field, known as primary key.
 An index to the file is added to support random access. Each record in the index file consists of two
fields: a key field, which is the same as the key field in the main file.
 Number of records in the index file is equal to the number of blocks in the main file (data file) and not
equal to the number of records in the main file (data file).
 To create a primary index on the ordered file shown in the Fig. we use the rollno field as primary key.
Each entry in the index file has rollno value and a block pointer. The first three index entries are as
follows.
o <101, address of block 1>
o <201, address of block 2>
o <351, address of block 3>
 Total number of entries in index is same as the number of disk blocks in the ordered data file.
 A binary search on the index file requires very few block accesses

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Roll No Block Pointer 101

101
201 200

351 201

350

351

805 400
905
805

Index File
904

Data File
Primary Index on ordering key field roll number

Clustering Indexes
 If records of a file are ordered on a non-key field, we can create a different type of index known as
clustering index.
 A non-key field does not have distinct value for each record.
 A Clustering index is also an ordered file with two fields.

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Field
Value Block Pointer 100 Math

100 100 Science

105 105 Physics

106
105
108
105
109
106
Index File
106

108
108
109
109

Field Clustering Data File

Example of clustering index on roll no

Secondary indexes (Simple Index File)

 While the hashed, sequential and indexed sequential files are suitable for operations based on ordering
key or the hashed key. Above file organizations are not suitable for operations involving a search on a
field other than ordering or hashed key.
 If searching is required on various keys, secondary indexes on these fields must be maintained. A
secondary index is an ordered file with two fields.
o Some non-ordering field of the data file.
o A block pointer
 There could be several secondary indexes for the same file.
 One could use binary search on index file as entries of the index file are ordered on secondary key field.
Records of the data files are not ordered on secondary key field.
 A secondary index requires more storage space and longer search time than does a primary index.
 A secondary index file has an entry for every record whereas primary index file has an entry for every
block in data file.
 There is a single primary index file but the number of secondary indexes could be quite a few.

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Indexing Field Roll No

Index Block
Field Pointer 2
1 5
2 3
3 17
4
5 6
6 10
7 14
8 7
9
13
10
4

11 15

12 18

13
12
14
1
15
19
16
8
17
18 9
19 11
20 16
Index File
20
Data File

A secondary index on a non-ordering key field

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Sorting and Searching

Bubble sort
 Bubble sort, sometimes referred as sinking sort.
 It is a simple sorting algorithm that works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted,
comparing each pair of adjacent items and swapping them if they are in the wrong order.
 The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is
sorted.
 The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements "bubble" to the top of the list.
 As it only uses comparisons to operate on elements, it is a comparison sort.
 Although the algorithm is simple, it is too slow for practical use, even compared to insertion sort.

Algorithm
for i ← 1 to n do
for j ← 1 to n-i do
If Array[j] > Array[j+1] then /* For decreasing order use < */
temp ← Array[j]
Array[j] ← A [j+1]
Array[j+1] ← temp

Program
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int array[100], n, i, j, temp;
printf("Enter number of elements\n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter %d integers\n", n);
for (i = 0; I < n; i++)
{
scanf("%d", &array[i]);
}
for (i = 0 ;i< ( n - 1 );i++)
{
for (j = 0 ; j< n - c - 1; j++)
{
if (array[j] > array[j+1]) /* For decreasing order use < */
{
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temp = array[j];
array[j] = array[j+1];
array[j+1] = temp;
}
}
}
printf("Sorted list in ascending order:\n");
for (i = 0 ;i< n ;i++ )
{
printf("%d\n", array[i]);
}
getch();
}

Example
Consider an array A of 5 element

A[0] 45

A[1] 34

A[2] 56

A[3] 23

A[4] 12

Pass-1: The comparisons for pass-1 are as follows.

Compare A[0] and A[1]. Since 45>34, interchange them.

Compare A[1] and A[2]. Since 45<56, no interchange.

Compare A[2] and A[3]. Since 56>23, interchange them.

Compare A[3] and A[4]. Since 56>12 interchange them.

At the end of first pass the largest element of the array, 56, is bubbled up to the last position in the
array as shown.

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45 34 34 34 34

34 45 45 45 45

56 56 56 23 23

23 23 23 56 12

12 12 12 12 56 Largest element

Pass-2: The comparisons for pass-2 are as follows.

Compare A[0] and A[1]. Since 34<45, no interchange.

Compare A[1] and A[2]. Since 45>23, interchange them.

Compare A[2] and A[3]. Since 45>12, interchange them.

34 34 34 34

45 45 23 23

23 23 45 12

12 12 12 45 Second Largest element

55 56 56 56

Pass-3: The comparisons for pass-3 are as follows.

Compare A[0] and A[1]. Since 34>23, interchange them.

Compare A[1] and A[2]. Since 34>12, interchange them.

34 23 23

23 34 12

12 12 34 Third Largest element

45 45 45

56 56 56

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Pass-4: The comparisons for pass-4 are as follows.

Compare A[0] and A[1]. Since 23>12, interchange them.

23 12

12 23

34 34
Sorted Array

45 45

56 56

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Selection Sort
 The idea of algorithm is quite simple.
 Array is imaginary divided into two parts - sorted one and unsorted one.
 At the beginning, sorted part is empty, while unsorted one contains whole array.
 At every step, algorithm finds minimal element in the unsorted part and adds it to the end of the sorted one.
 When unsorted part becomes empty, algorithm stops.

Algorithm
SELECTION_SORT (A)
for i ← 1 to n-1 do
min ← i;
for j ← i + 1 to n do
If A[j] < A[i] then
min ← j
If min!=i then
temp ← A[i]
A[i] ← A [min]
A[min] ← temp

Program
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int array[100], n, i, j, min, temp;
printf("Enter number of elements\n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter %d integers\n", n);
for ( i = 0 ; i < n ; i++ )
{
scanf("%d", &array[i]);
}
for ( i = 0 ; i < ( n - 1 ) ; i++ )
{
min = i;
for ( j = i + 1 ; j < n ; j++ )
{
if ( array[min] > array[j] )
min = j;
}
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if ( min != i )
{
temp = array[i];
array[i] = array[min];
array[min] = temp;
}
}
printf("Sorted list in ascending order:\n");
for ( i = 0 ; i < n ; i++ )
{
printf("%d\n", array[i]);
}
getch();
}

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Example
Unsorted Array
Step – 1: 5 1 12 -5 16 2 12 14

Step – 2: 5 1 12 -5 16 2 12 14 Exchange 5 and -5

Sorted Sub Array Unsorted Sub Array

Step – 3: -5 1 12 5 16 2 12 14 No Exchange

Sorted Sub Array Unsorted Sub Array

-5 1 12 5 16 2 12 14 Exchange 12 and 2
Step – 4:

Sorted Sub Array Unsorted Sub Array

Step – 5: -5 1 2 5 16 12 12 14 No Exchange

Sorted Sub Array Unsorted Sub Array

-5 1 2 5 16 12 12 14 Exchange 16 and 12
Step – 6:

Sorted Sub Array Unsorted Sub Array

-5 1 2 5 12 16 12 14 Exchange 16 and 12
Step – 7:

Sorted Sub Array Unsorted Sub Array

Step – 8: -5 1 2 5 12 12 16 14 Exchange 16 and 14

Sorted Sub Array

Step – 9: -5 1 2 5 12 12 14 16 End of the Array

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Quick Sort
 Quicksort is the currently fastest known sorting algorithm and is often the best practical choice for sorting,
as its average expected running time is O(n log(n)).
 Pick an element, called a pivot, from the array.
 Reorder the array so that all elements with values less than the pivot come before the pivot, while all
elements with values greater than the pivot come after it (equal values can go either way). After this
partitioning, the pivot is in its final position. This is called the partition operation.
 Recursively apply the above steps to the sub-array of elements with smaller values and separately to the
sub-array of elements with greater values.
 Quicksort, like merge sort, is a divide-and-conquer recursive algorithm.
 The basic divide-and-conquer process for sorting a sub array A[i..j] is summarized in the following three easy
steps:
o Divide: Partition T[i..j] Into two sub arrays T[i..l-1] and T[l+1… j] such that each element of T[i..l-1] is
less than or equal to T[l], which is, in turn, less than or equal to each element of T[l+1… j]. Compute the
index l as part of this partitioning procedure
o Conquer: Sort the two sub arrays T[i..l-1] and T[l+1… j] by recursive calls to quicksort.
o Combine: Since the sub arrays are sorted in place, no work is needed to combing them: the entire array
T[i..j] is now sorted.

Algorithm
Procedure pivot (T [i… j]; var l)
{Permutes the elements in array T [i… j] and returns a value l such that, at the end, i<=l<=j,
T[k] <=P for all i ≤ k < l, T[l] =P, and T[k] > P for all l < k ≤ j, where P is the initial value T[i]}
P ← T[i]
K ← i; l ← j+1
Repeat k ← k+1 until T[k] > P
Repeat l ← l-1 until T[l] ≤ P
While k < l do
Swap T[k] and T[l]
Repeat k ← k+1 until T[k] > P
Repeat l ← l-1 until T[l] ≤ P
Swap T[i] and T[l]

Procedure quicksort (T [i… j])

{Sorts sub array T [i… j] into non decreasing order}
if j – i is sufficiently small then insert (T[i,…,j])
else
pivot (T[i,…,j],l)
quicksort (T[i,…, l - 1])
quicksort (T[l+1,…,j]

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Program
#include<stdio.h>
void quicksort(int [10],int,int);
int partition(int [10],int, int);
void main()
{
int x[20],size,i;

printf("Enter size of the array: ");

scanf("%d",&size);

printf("Enter %d elements: ",size);

for(i=0;i<size;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&x[i]);
}

quicksort(x,0,size-1);

printf("Sorted elements: ");

for(i=0;i<size;i++)
{
printf(" %d",x[i]);
}
getch();
}

void quicksort(int x[10],int first,int last)

{
Int mid;
if(first<last)
{
mid= partition(int x,int first,int last)
quicksort(x,first,mid-1);
quicksort(x,mid+1,last);
}
}
int partition(int x[10],int p,int r)
{
int value, i, j, temp;

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value=x[r];
i=p-1;
for(j=p;j<=r-1;j++)
{
If(x[j] ≤value)
{
i=i+1;
temp=x[i];
x[i]=x[j];
x[j]=temp;
}
}
temp=x[i+1];
x[i]=x[r];
x[r]=temp;

Return (i+1);
}

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Example

Sort given array using Quick Sort: 2 8 7 1 3 5 6 4

i P,j r
(a) 2 8 7 1 3 5 6 4

P,i j r
(b) 2 8 7 1 3 5 6 4

P,i j r
(c) 2 8 7 1 3 5 6 4

P,i j r
(d) 2 8 7 1 3 5 6 4

Exchange 8 and 1
P i j r
(e) 2 1 7 8 3 5 6 4

P i j r Exchange 7 and 3
(f) 2 1 3 8 7 5 6 4

P i j r
(g) 2 1 3 8 7 5 6 4

P i r
(h) 2 1 3 8 7 5 6 4

Exchange 8 and 4
P i r
(i) 2 1 3 4 7 5 6 8

2 1 3 4 7 5 6 8
Left Sub Array Right Sub Array
Apply same method for left and right sub array finally we will get sorted

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Merge Sort
 The merge sort algorithm is based on the classical divide-and-conquer paradigm. It operates as follows:
o DIVIDE: Partition the n-element sequence to be sorted into two subsequences of n/2 elements each.
o CONQUER: Sort the two subsequences recursively using the merge sort.
o COMBINE: Merge the two sorted subsequences of size n/2 each to produce the sorted sequence
consisting of n elements.
 Note that recursion "bottoms out" when the sequence to be sorted is of unit length.
 Since every sequence of length 1 is in sorted order, no further recursive call is necessary.
 The key operation of the merge sort algorithm is the merging of the two sorted sub sequences in the
"combine step".
 To perform the merging, we use an auxiliary procedure Merge (A,p,q,r), where A is an array and p,q and r
are indices numbering elements of the array such that procedure assumes that the sub arrays A[p..q] and
A[q+1...r] are in sorted order.
 It merges them to form a single sorted sub array that replaces the current sub array A[p..r]. Thus finally, we
obtain the sorted array A[1..n], which is the solution.

Algorithm

MERGE (A,p,q,r)
n1 = q -p + 1
n2 = r – q
let L[1…n1+1] and R[1…n2+1] be new arrays
for i = 1 to n1
L[i] = A[p+i-1]
for j = 1 to n2
R[j] = A[q+j]
L[n1+1] = infinite
R[n2+1]= infinite
i=1
j=1
for k = p to r
if L[i] ≤ R[j]
A[k]=L[i]
i = i +1
else A[k] = R[j]
j=j+1

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MERGE SORT (A,p,r)

if p < r
then q<-- [ (p + r) / 2 ]
MERGE SORT(A,p,q)
MERGER SORT(A,q + 1,r)
MERGE(A,p,q,r)

Program
#include<stdio.h>
void mergesort(int [20],int,int);
int merge(int [20],int, int, int);
void main()
{
int x[20],size,i;

printf("Enter size of the array: ");

scanf("%d",&size);

printf("Enter %d elements: ",size);

for(i=0;i<size;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&x[i]);
}

mergesort(x,0,size-1);

printf("Sorted elements: ");

for(i=0;i<size;i++)
{
printf(" %d",x[i]);
}
getch();
}

void mergesort(int x[20],int p,int r)

{
Int q;
if(p<r)

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{
q=(p+r)/2;
mergesort(x,p,q);
mergesort(x,q+1,r);
merge(x,p,q,r)

}
}
int merge(int x[20],int p,int q,int r)
{
Int n1,n2,L[20],R[20],i,j,k;
n1 = q -p + 1;
n2 = r – q;
for(i=1; i<=n1;i++)
{
L[i]=x[p+i-1];
}
for(j=1; i<=n2;j++)
{
R[j]=x[q+j];
}
L[n1+1]=NULL;
L[n2+1]=NULL;
I=1;
J=1;
For(k=p;k<=r;k++)
{
If(L[i]<=R[j])
{
X[k]=L[i];
I++;
}
Else
{
x[k] = R[j];
j++;
}
}
}

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Example

Sort given array using merge sort 38 27 43 3 9 82 10

38 27 43 3 9 82 10

38 27 43 3 9 82 10

38 27 43 3 9 82 10

38 27 43 3 9 82 10

27 38 3 43 9 82 10

3 27 38 43 9 10 82

3 9 10 27 38 43 82

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Linear/Sequential Search
 In computer science, linear search or sequential search is a method for finding a particular value in a list that
consists of checking every one of its elements, one at a time and in sequence, until the desired one is found.
 Linear search is the simplest search algorithm.
 It is a special case of brute-force search. Its worst case cost is proportional to the number of elements in the
list.

Algorithm

# Input: Array A, integer key

# Output: first index of key in A,
# or -1 if not found

Algorith: Linear_Search
for i = 0 to last index of A:
if A[i] equals key:
return i
return -1

Program
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int array[100], key, i, n;

printf("Enter the number of elements in array\n");

scanf("%d",&n);

printf("Enter %d integer(s)\n", n);

for (i = 0; i < n; i++)

{
printf("Array[%d]=", i);
scanf("%d", &array[i]);
}

printf("Enter the number to search\n");

scanf("%d", &key);

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Sorting and Searching

for (i = 0; i < n; i++)

{
if (array[i] == key) /* if required element found */
{
printf("%d is present at location %d.\n", key, i+1);
break;
}
}
if (i == n)
{
printf("%d is not present in array.\n", search);
}
getch();
}

Example

Search for 1 in given array: 2 9 3 1 8

Comparing value of ith index with element to be search one

by one until we get seache element or end of the array

(a) 2 9 3 1 8

(b) 2 9 3 1 8

(c) 2 9 3 1 8

(d) 2 9 3 1 8 Element found at ith index

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Sorting and Searching

Binary Search
 If we have an array that is sorted, we can use a much more efficient algorithm called a Binary Search.
 In binary search each time we divide array into two equal half and compare middle element with search
element.
 If middle element is equal to search element then we got that element and return that index otherwise if
middle element is less than search element we look right part of array and if middle element is greater than
search element we look left part of array.

Algorithm

# Input: Sorted Array A, integer key

# Output: first index of key in A, or -1 if not found

Algorith: Binary_Search (A, left, right)

while left <= right
middle = index halfway between left, right
if D[middle] matches key
return middle
else if key less than A[middle]
right = middle -1
else
left = middle + 1
return -1

Program
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i, first, last, middle, n, key, array[100];

printf("Enter number of elements\n");

scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter %d integers in sorted order\n", n);
for ( i = 0 ; i < n ; i++ )
{
scanf("%d",&array[i]);
}
printf("Enter value to find\n");
scanf("%d",&key);
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Sorting and Searching

first = 0;
last = n - 1;
middle = (first+last)/2;

while( first <= last )

{
if (array[middle] == key)
{
printf("%d found at location %d.\n", key, middle+1);
break;
}
else if ( array[middle]>key )
{
Last=middle - 1;
}
else
first = middle + 1;

middle = (first + last)/2;

}
if ( first > last )
{
printf("Not found! %d is not present in the list.\n", key);
}
getch();
}

Example

Find 6 in {-1, 5, 6, 18, 19, 25, 46, 78, 102, 114}.

Step 1 --> (middle element is 19 > 6): Search in left part

-1 5 6 18 19 25 46 78 102 114
Step 2 --> (middle element is 5 < 6): Search in Right part
-1 5 6 18
Step 3 --> (middle element is 6 == 6): Element Found
6 18

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