Grammar Non-sentence (fragment, run-on, comma splice, faulty parallelism)

A non-sentence is a word or phrase or a clause that does not make complete sense
Sentence (based on its structures and functions)
and which does not have a subject (whether implied or expressed) and a predicate.
A sentence is a grammatically complete series of a subject and predicate, even if
1. A sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing either its subject or its
one or the other is implied.
main verb. Some sentence fragments occur as a result of simple
Example: She kicked the ball. typographical errors or omission of words. They can often be avoided with
careful proofreading.

How do I fix a sentence fragment?

subject predicate
 Add an independent clause.
A sentence is broadly divided into two categories: sentence based on its structures,
 Delete the part causing fragment.
and sentence based on its function.
 Combine the fragment with a neighbouring sentence by using a comma.
1. Sentences based on its structures are of four types: simple, compound,  Start every sentence with a subject.
complex, and compound-complex.  Avoid starting a sentence with an -ing word unless you’re sure what you’re
doing.
Simple sentence has one independent Compound sentence has two
clause. independent clauses joined together Example: Under the bed [missing subject / sentence fragment]
Example. I own a cat as a pet. with a coordination conjunction The toy was under the bed [corrected]
(FANBOYS) and a comma. The man in that house [missing predicate / sentence fragment].
Example. I own a cat as a pet, yet I am The man in that house lives alone [corrected].
looking for another pet animal.
After they finished dinner [incomplete thought / sentence fragment].
Complex sentence has one independent Compound-complex sentence has two
clause and one dependent clause independent clauses and one/more than After they finished dinner, they left the place. [corrected].
connected together with a subordinating one dependent clause.
conjunction. Example. I own a cat, yet I am looking Try this: A time of wonder and amazement. [Sentence fragment]
Example. Although I own a cat as a pet, for another pet animal because I
I am looking for another pet animal. wanted to experience a new one.
2. A run-on sentence, also known as a fused sentence, occurs when two
complete independent sentences are squashed together without using a
2. Sentences based on its function are of four types: declarative, imperative, coordinating conjunction or without a proper punctuation, such as a period
interrogatory, and exclamatory. or a semi-colon.

Declarative (statement) sentence makes Interrogative (question) sentence asks The best way to check if a sentence is a run-on sentence is to determine
statements; ends with periods. questions; ends with question marks. whether there is more than one independent clause in the same sentence
Example. I own a cat. Example. Where is the cat? without punctuation.
Exclamatory (exclamation) sentence Imperative (command) sentence gives
makes statements with emotions; ends commands; ends with periods or
Note: A long sentence isn’t necessarily a run-on sentence.
with exclamation marks. exclamation marks.
Example. The cat is cute! Example. Feed the cat.
How do I fix a run-on sentence?
 Place a period ( . ) or a semi-colon ( ; ) between the two independent clauses.
  Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) between the two  Put all the words / phrases in a series in the same form (either in to be + verb
independent clauses, and make it a compound sentence. form, or –ing form)
 Use a subordinating conjunction wherever applicable, and make it a
Example: I like reading, writing and to eat. [Faulty parallelism]
complex sentence.
I like reading, writing and eating. [Corrected]
Example: I hate this movie it’s very boring. [run-on sentence]
I hate this movie because it’s very boring. [corrected sentence] Try this: I like to spend my winter holiday skating, skiing, and I also enjoy
snowboarding. [Faulty parallelism]

Try this: I enjoyed the bouquet of tulips they gave me on prom night she prefers
roses. [Run-on sentence] Modifier (misplaced and dangling)

A modifier is a word, phrase, and clause that affects and often enhances the meaning
3. A comma splice occurs when a comma is used to join two complete
of a sentence. A modifier offers detail that can make sentence more engaging, clearer,
independent sentences without placing an appropriate joining word(s)
and specific.
between them. The comma just isn’t strong enough to do the job of making
one grammatical sentence out of two. Example: I had a wonderful Sunday. [The word Sunday is modified with the use of
an adjective wonderful. Thus, wonderful is a modifier in this sentence].
How do I fix a comma splice?
1. A misplaced modifier is a modifier (adjective, adverb, phrase, clause) that
 Place a period ( . ) or a semi-colon ( ; ) between the two independent clauses
is incorrectly placed in the sentence. As a result, the modifier modifies the
(where the comma was).
wrong noun.
 Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) immediately
following the comma, and make it a compound sentence. How do I fix misplaced modifiers?
 Use a subordinating conjunction wherever applicable, and make it a  Identify the modifier, and check what the modifier is meant to modify.
complex sentence.  Always place modifier as close as possible to the word it modifies.
 A modifier at the beginning of the sentence must modify the subject of the
Example: Koala bears are not actually bears, they are marsupials. [Comma splice] sentence.
Koala bears are not actually bears; they are marsupials. [Corrected] Example: Despite receiving widespread critical acclaim, the box office sales of the
film were poor. [Misplaced modifier]
Try this: I love going to the movies, it’s so fun. [Comma splice] Despite receiving widespread critical acclaim, the film performed poorly at
the box office. [Corrected]
4. A faulty parallelism of sentence (sometimes called parallel structure
error or a parallel construction error) occurs when the structure of a
Try this: The couple agreed during the family dinner they would announce their
sentence is not grammatically parallel. This error occurs most often in
engagement. [Misplaced modifier]
sentences that contain lists.
Note: A parallelism of a sentence is the use of similar structure related to
words, clauses, or phrases.
2. A dangling modifier occurs when the intended subject of the modifier is
How do I fix faulty parallelism? missing from the sentence, and instead another subject appears in its place.
Dangling modifiers often take the form of an introductory phrase that is
 Correct the error by rewriting the sentence as it is listed in the opening connected to the wrong thing.
paragraph
How do I fix dangling modifiers? Try this: State whether the following sentences are transitive or intransitive.
a. Tshering was told to organize her files scattered on the floor.
 Add the word being modified right after the modifier.
b. The rain was falling incessantly for days to everyone’s dismay.
 Add the word being modified in the opening of the modifier itself.
c. Pema has changed a lot since he got promotion.
 Correcting dangling modifier requires a bit more editing than simply
d. The new bank was eager to lend money to young entrepreneurs.
rearranging the words; may need to add the noun / verb that the modifier
e. I heard a peaceful prayer this morning.
intends to modify.
(BHSEC/01-I/2022)
Example: Trying to eat a hot dog, my bike swerved off the path. [Dangling modifier]

Trying to eat a hot dog, I swerved off the path on my bike. [Corrected] Phrasal verb
While I was trying to eat a hot dog, my bike swerved off the path.
[Corrected] A phrasal verb is a verb combined with an adverb or a preposition, or sometimes both, to give
new meaning.

Example: Let us get together. [In this sentence, get is a verb, and together is an adverb. Get and
Try this: The old Marlboro ads depicted a man on a horse sipping a cup of tea. together together is a phrasal verb]
[Dangling modifier]
Phrasal verb is divided into three types: verb followed by adverb, verb followed by
preposition, and verb followed by adverb and preposition.
Verbs
a) Verb followed by adverb
A verb is a word in syntax that generally conveys an action, an occurrence, or a state
of being. Example: He swims well. [In this sentence, swims is a verb, and well is an adverb. Swims
and well together is a phrasal verb].
Transitive and Intransitive
b) Verb followed by preposition
A verb can be described as transitive or intransitive based on whether or not it
Example: Somebody broke into his car. [In this sentence, broke is a verb, and into is a
requires an object to express a complete thought. preposition. Broke and into together is a phrasal verb].
a) A transitive verb is one that makes sense only if it exerts its action on an c) Verb followed by adverb and preposition
object. Transitive verbs are not just verbs that can take an object; they
demand objects. Example: You must come up with a better idea. [In this sentence, come is a verb, up is an
adverb, and with is a preposition. Come, up and with together is a phrasal
Example: Please bring coffee. [In this sentence, the verb bring is transitive; its verb].
object is coffee, the thing that is being brought].
Try this: Select the correct phrasal verb from the box that best expresses the
b) An intransitive verb is the opposite of a transitive verb: it doesn’t require CAPITALIZED word or phrases in each sentence.
an object to act upon. let me down add up called off drop out of
mix up turned into put up with looking forward to
Example: They jumped. [In this sentence, the verb jumped is intransitive; it
a. They have CANCELLED the general meeting.
doesn’t have an object to jump upon]. b. The caterpillar BECAME a beautiful butterfly.
c. It’s easy to CONFUSE me for my brother; we both look the same.
A light was shining. [In this sentence, the verb shining is intransitive;
d. The party is on Sunday. I’m really EXCITED ABOUT it.
it doesn’t have an object to shine on].
e. His lengthy explanation for suddenly leaning the job doesn’t MAKE SENSE with
what his family has to say.
(BHSEC/01-I/2022)
Modals verbs Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain in-depth
knowledge.
Modal verbs are verbs that indicate modality such as likelihood, ability, permission,
e) When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, the verb must still
obligation, etc… They are auxiliary verbs that support the main verb in a sentence.
agree with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the
Modal verbs have only one form and do not take –s in the simple present or have a
subject of the sentence.
past simple or past participle form.
The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.
Modal Function / Sentence example f) When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by ‘or’ or
verbs purpose ‘nor,’ use a singular verb.
Extreme rain could cause the river to flood the The class captain or the class teacher approves the leave.
Possibility village. g) The words and phrases such as ‘each,’ ‘each one,’ ‘either,’ ‘neither,’
Permission Could I use your eraser, please? ‘everyone,’ ‘everybody,’ ‘anyone,’ ‘anybody,’ ‘nobody,’ ‘somebody,’
Could Request Could you tell me the way to the library, ‘someone,’ and ‘non one’ are singular and takes a singular verb.
please? Each of the students was willing to leave the class.
h) Non-count nouns take singular verbs.
Possibility That may be a better solution for you.
Education is the key to success.
May Permission May I go out, please?
i) Some countable nouns in English such as ‘earnings,’ ‘goods,’ ‘odds,’
Slight possibility This team might win the game, but I doubt it.
‘surroundings,’ ‘proceeds,’ ‘contents,’ and ‘valuables’ take plural verb.
Might Past form of may He said that he might be late for the assembly.
Locally produced goods have the advantage over the imported things.
(reported speech)
j) In a sentence beginning with ‘there is’ or ‘there are,’ the subject follows the
Ability She can play piano.
verb.
Can Permission Can I look at this?
There is little administrative support.
Offers Can I help you, father?
There are many factors for its growth.
Advice I think you should change the way you write. k) Collective nouns such as ‘group,’ ‘team,’ ‘committee,’ ‘family,’ and ‘class’
Should Logical deduction I’ve revised, so I should be ready for the are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular and
English exam. take a singular verb.
Future tense Next week, I will be in London. The group meets every Thursday.
Will auxiliary
Invitations Will you join us for a party? Choose the verb that correctly completes the sentence:
a) The list of items (include/includes) everything you will needfor the trip.
b) My brother, who has three children, (is/are) visiting us this winter.
Subject-verb Agreement
c) The cost of repairs for the car (was/were) very high.
In subject-verb agreement, verbs must agree with subjects in number and in person. d) The percentage of absences in schools across the nation
a) If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. (have/has) been increasing.
She writes everyday. e) Mathematics (is/are) a difficult subject for me.
b) If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. f) Mumps (cause/causes) the salivary glands to swell.
They write everyday. g) Measles (is/are) contagious.
c) When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or
pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb. Connectives and Discourse markers
The student and the teacher write everyday. A connective is a word or phrase that connects and relates sentences and paragraphs.
d) When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the It helps to build the logical flow of ideas as it signals the relationship between
sentence must agree with the subject. sentences and paragraphs.
FUNCTION CONNECTIVES Objective Subjective
and, also, besides, furthermore, too, moreover, The ideal definition of a term The implied or indirect meaning of the
Addition term
then, equally important, another
Example: He is a lion.
Comparison like, in the same manner (way), as so, similarly
He is an animal He is a strong and brave person
but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, Example: The zoo in the story ‘The Elephant’
Contrast nevertheless, yet, on the other hand, on the contrary, or,
The zoo in the provincial town of The country Poland
in spite of this, actually, in fact
Poland
first, second, (etc.), finally, next, then, to begin
order or sequence
with, after, before, as soon as, in the end, gradually
Rhetorical Questions
as a result, so, accordingly, consequently, thus,
Results
since, therefore, for this reason, because of this Rhetorical question is a figure of speech in which a question is asked for a reason
Purpose for this purpose, with this in mind, for this reason other than to get an answer – most commonly, it’s asked to make a persuasive point.
to signal an example or for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be It is a question asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to make a point rather
emphasize specific, such as, especially than to get an answer.

in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, Example: How many times do I need to tell you not to be late for my class? [The
to summarize or
finally, on the whole, therefore, as I have said, in question doesn’t want to know the exact number of times the request
conclude
conclusion, as you can see will be repeated. Rather, the speaker’s goal is to emphasize his or her
growing frustration and change the behaviour]

A discourse marker is a word or a phrase that we use to manage what we say or Example: If you have ever been late, someone might say: ‘What time do you call
write or to express attitude. It is helpful in building a well-organised answer and this?’ [This person doesn’t want an answer to the question.]
orienting the listener as you speak.
Idioms
FUNCTION Discourse markers
To preface what you really think Actually, I have to say An idiom is a type of phrase or expression that has a meaning that can’t be
To confess that something is true I must admit deciphered by defining the individual words. Apparently, the word ‘idiom’ is derived
To give yourself time to think Well from the ancient Greek word ‘idioma’ which means ‘peculiar phraseology.’
To start, end or change topic Right, so, anyway
Example: Under the weather.
To say something in another way What I mean is, in other words
To talk about knowledge we Meaning: Not feeling well.
You know, you see
share with listener Idiom vs Cliché
To introduce personal opinion My point is, what I’m getting at is I mean I guess
A cliché can be an idiom, but an idiom is not always a cliché.

Idiom vs Proverb
Connotations and Denotations
A proverb is similar to idiom in that its meaning can’t be deciphered by looking at the
Denotation Connotation
individual words, but it’s different because it’s used to give advice to someone else.
The primary / literal meaning of a word The emotional or cultural associations
that a word carries
A proverb can be an idiom, but an idiom is not always a proverb. Check your understanding!

Idiom vs Euphemism 1) I work so hard but I am never rewarded.

2) He saw the impossibility yet he kept on trying.
A euphemism is a type of idiom that’s used to discuss a sensitive or taboo topic in a
polite or understated way.
Though
Words (Archaic, Slang, Derogative, and Obsolete)
a) Like ‘although’, ‘though’ is also added to the beginning of a sentence.
a) The label archaic is used for words that were once common but are now
b) Upon adding ‘though’, ‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet’, etc are removed from the original
rare. Archaic implies having the character or characteristics of a much
sentences.
earlier time.
c) We insert a comma in place of those omitted words (such as ‘but’, ‘still’,
Examples: thee, thou, prithee, damsel, fourscore
‘yet’, etc…)
I requested several times but I was not granted.
b) A slang is a type of language consisting of words and phrases that are
regarded as very informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are Though I requested several times, I was not granted.
typically restricted to a particular context or group of people.
Check your understanding!
Examples: Dope - Cool or awesome.
1) The bag is very small yet it can hold in a lot.
GOAT - Greatest of All Time
2) The meeting was slated at 9 am but it started only around 10 am.
Gucci - Good, cool, or going well
Lit - Amazing, cool, or exciting Too…to

a) Too+adjective/adverb+to+verb
c) Derogatory word shows a critical or disrespectful attitude. b) Put “to” in place of ‘very’, ‘quite’, ‘so’
Example: She tells me I’m fat and is always making derogatory remarks c) Put ‘to’ instead of ‘that’
d) Add the part after the negative word in the second part of the sentence.
d) An obsolete indicates that a term is no longer in active use, except, for He was very young that he was not admitted in the school.
example, in literary quotation
Example: prickmedainty, jargogle, kench, hoddypeak, malagrugrous He was too young to be admitted in the school.

Check your understanding!

Transformation of Sentences 1) The curry was quite salty that he could not take.
Although 2) The man was so fast that he could not walk long distances.

a) “Although” is always added to the beginning of a sentence.

So…that…not
b) Upon adding ‘although’, ‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet’, etc are removed from the original
sentences. a) Put “so” in place of ‘too’, ‘very’, ‘quite’
c) We insert a comma in place of those omitted words (such as ‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet’, b) Join the two parts with ‘that’
etc…) c) Add the negative form of the second clause according to the verb used.
He is intelligent but he does not work hard. d) Put ‘that’ instead of ‘to.’
e) The present ‘can’ and ‘cannot’ should be changed to past “could’ and ‘could not.’
Although he is intelligent, he does not work hard. The questions were too tough for me to answer them correctly.

The questions were so tough that I could not answer them correctly.
 Check your understanding! He was punished and suspended.

1) It was very fast for him to catch. Not only was he punished but also suspended.
2) It was quite heavy for him to carry long distances.
Check your understanding!

1) She is beautiful and helpful.

No sooner…than
2) He won the best new comer award as well as the best actor award.
a) No sooner+than
b) No sooner+had+past participle form of the verb
In spite of…
c) No sooner+did+present form of the verb
As soon as the bell rang, the students in the class started to shout. a) In spite of+being+adjective/noun+(,)+second clause
b) Put “in spite of” in the beginning of the sentence.
No sooner did the bell ring than the students in the class started to shout.
c) Omit any use of ‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet’
(or) d) “In spite of” is always followed by –ing form of the verb.
e) Upon using ‘being’ after “in spite of” we should take the same adjective/noun.
No sooner had the bell rung than the students in the class started to shout.
He walks lazily but he manages to reach on time.
Check your understanding! In spite of walking slowly, he manages to reach on time.
1) As soon as the light was put off, the students started to light the candles.
Check your understanding!
2) As soon as he took the unripe fruit, he got diarrhea.
1) He did not study yet he managed to pass the test.
2) He is not good at maths still he does not practice.
Hardly…when

a) Hardly+when
Despite…
b) Hardly+had+past participle form of the verb
c) Hardly+did+present form of the verb a) Despite+noun+being+adjective/noun+(,)+second clause
As soon as the bell rang, the students in the class started to shout. b) Put “despite” in the beginning of the sentence.
c) Omit any use of ‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet’
Hardly did the bell ring when the students in the class started to shout.
d) “Despite” is always followed by –ing form of the verb.
(or) e) Upon using ‘being’ after “despite” we should take the same adjective/noun.
He walks lazily but he manages to reach on time.
Hardly had the bell rung when the students in the class started to shout.
Despite walking slowly, he manages to reach on time.
Check your understanding!
Check your understanding!
1) As soon as the light was put off, the students started to light the candles.
2) As soon as he took the unripe fruit, he got diarrhea. 1) He is not intelligent still he does not work hard.
Not only…but also Having…

a) “Not only”+verb+noun a) Put “having” in the beginning of the sentence.

b) Put “not only” in the beginning of the sentence. b) “Having” is always followed by the past participle form of the verb.
c) Add “but also” before the last clause (instead of ‘and’ and ‘as well as’) c) ‘and’ will be removed and replaced by a comma (,).
d) “Not only” is always followed by a verb.
 He finished his homework and left the class. Check your understanding!

Having finished the homework, he left the class. 1) If you do not come on time, you will be punished.
2) If she does not practice well, she will not get through to the next grade.
Check your understanding!

1) He told a lie and felt guilty.

Either…or…
2) He wrote the answers and showed to the teacher for correction.
a) When you connect two singular subjects with “either” and “or” verb must
always be singular.
No other…
b) When you connect one singular subject and plural subject, use the verb
a) Put “no other” in the beginning of the sentence. according to the second subject.
b) “No other” is followed by positive degree. He is sick. His brother is sick.

Either he or his brother is sick.

Some examples of degree of words.
Check your understanding!
Positive Comparative Superlative 1) To avoid getting malaria, you must use mosquito nets.
Good Better Best
Big Bigger Biggest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful Neither…nor
Intelligent More intelligent Most intelligent
a) Neither…nor is used to connect two sentences. It plays a negative role. Be
Talkative More talkative Most talkative
careful not to use double negative.
b) When you use neither…nor, omit negative (not)
Namgay is the best student in the class. c) Negative (not) is replaced before the verb by neither…nor.
d) Pronoun/noun and verb in the second sentence should be omitted.
No other student in the class is as good as Namgay. e) If the subjects in the two sentences are different, start the new sentence with
‘neither…’
Check your understanding!
f) If the subject following ‘nor’ (second sentence) is singular, use the singular
1) Wangpo is the most intelligent student in the class. form of the verb.
2) Samtse is the hottest dzongkhag in Bhutan. g) If the subject following ‘nor’ (second sentence) is plural, use the plural form
of the verb.
Dawa is not rich. He is not smart.
Unless…
Dawa is neither rich nor smart.
a) Put “unless” in the beginning of the sentence.
b) Omit the negative words from the original sentence. Check your understanding!
c) “Unless” is always followed by positive verbs.
1) I don’t fear man. I don’t fear beast.
d) Second part of the sentence after the comma (,) should be copied exactly the
Notwithstanding
same.
If you do not obey the rules, you will be punished by the school authority. a) Notwithstanding = ‘despite’ or ‘in spite of’ and ‘regardless of.’
b) Notwithstanding is put at the beginning of a sentence.
Unless you obey the rules, you will be punished by the school authority.
 c) Omit ‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet’ and put a comma instead, and copy exactly the whole Both…and
forms after the conjunction (‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet’)
a) When the two nouns are connected with ‘both…and’, the verb in the
d) Notwithstanding+pronoun+noun form
sentence should be plural.
They played well yet they did not qualify.
She is honest. He is honest.
Notwithstanding their good play, they did not qualify.
Both she and he are honest.
Check your understanding!
b) The subject talked about should be written only once.
1) I am suffering yet I am happy. Dorji is sluggish. Sonam is sluggish.
2) The man was strong yet he could not lift the log.
Both Dorji and Sonam are sluggish.

Check your understanding!

Besides
1) The boy has copied. The girl has copied.
a) It is used in the beginning of a sentence.
2) The husband was crying. The wife was crying.
b) Omit the use of ‘but’, ‘still’, ‘yet.’
c) Negative should be made positive.
d) Past = Besides+verb+ing form Such…that
e) Present = besides+being+noun/adj
He not only robbed the child, but also murdered her. a) Put ‘such’ before the adjective.
b) Insert ‘that’ before the second clause.
Besides robbing the child, he also murdered her. c) Omit ‘very’, ‘great’, etc…
d) Such+article+noun/article+adj+noun/noun clause
Check your understanding!
His father was a gentleman. Everybody respected him.
1) They are not only intelligent, but also hard working.
His father was such a gentleman that everybody respected him.
2) The children are not only good at literature, but also at Grammar.
Check your understanding!
Enough to 1) I am very voracious. I take two to three plates of food.
2) His mother was active. She woke up at 2 am.
a) It connects the two sentences.
b) It replaces the subject of the second clause; omit the subject of the second
clause. Voice
He is intelligent. He can learn it in a short period of time.
Active
He is intelligent enough to learn it in a short period of time.
A feature of sentences in which the subject performs the action of the verb and the
Check your understanding! direct object is the goal or the recipient [The mechanic fixed the car].
1) The girl and the boy are not friendly. They cannot work together. Passive
2) Your dress is not warm. It cannot be worn in the winters.
A feature of sentences in which the object or goal of the action functions as the
sentence subject and the main verb phrase includes the verb to be and he past
participle [The car was fixed by the mechanic].
Change of voice from active to passive Present Continuous Tense

The places of subject ad object in the sentence are inter-changed in passive voice. Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am being/is being/are being+past participle

3rd form of verb (past participle) will be used only (a main verb) in passive voice. I am writing a letter. A letter is being written by me.

Auxiliary verbs for each tense are given below in the table. I am not writing a letter. A letter is not being written by me.

Example sentence (Active voice): The dog bit the man. Am I writing a letter? Is letter being written by me?

Step ONE. Present Perfect Tense

1. Find the object in the active sentence = [the man]. Auxiliary verb in passive voice: has been/have been+past participle
2. Make the object the subject in the passive sentence.
The man…….. She has finished her work. Her work has been finished by her.

Step TWO. She has not finished her work. Her work has not been finished by
her.
1. Decide which tense of the verb is in the active sentence = [Simple Past] Has she finished her work?
2. Put the verb “to be” in the passive sentence. Has her work been finished by her?
3. [check whether the subject in the active sentence is singular or plural]
Past Simple Tense
The man was……..
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was/were+past participle
Step THREE
I killed a snake. A snake was killed by me.
1. Write the past participle form of the verb after the verb “to be.”
The man was bitten…….. I did not kill a snake. A snake was not killed by me.

Step FOUR Did I kill a snake? Was a snake killed by me?

1. Decide if you want to include the agent in the sentence. Past Continuous Tense
The man was bitten by the dog.
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was being/were being+past participle
The new sentence (Passive voice): The man was bitten by the dog.
He was driving a car. A car was being driven by him.
Examples of change of active to passive voice
He was not driving a car. A car was not being driven by him.
Active voice Passive voice
Was he driving a car? Was a car being driven by him?
Present Simple Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am/is/are+past participle
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: had been+past participle
He sings a song. A song is sung by him.
They had completed the assignment. The assignment had been completed
He does not sing a song. A song is not sung by him. by them.
They had not completed the assignment.
Does he sing a song? Is a song sung by him?
Had they completed the assignment?
 The assignment had not been The bike is taken by
completed by them. him.

Had the assignment been completed am taking; is am being taken; is

by them? taking; are taking being taken; are
2. Present continuous being taken
Future Simple Tense Eg. They are eating
food. The food is being
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will be+past participle eaten by them.

She will buy a house. A house will be bought by her. has been taken;
have been taken
She will not buy a house. A house will not be bought by her. 3. Present perfect has taken; have
taken The bike has been
Will she buy a house? Will a car be bought by her? taken by Pema.
Eg. Pema has taken
the bike.
Future Perfect Tense
4. Simple past took was taken; were
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will have been+past participle taken
Eg. They took the
You will have started the class. The class will have been started by bike. The bike was taken
you. by them.
You will have not started the class.
The class will not have been started was being taken;
Will you have started the class? were being taken
by you.
5. Past continuous was taking; were
Will the class have been started by taking The lunch was being
prepared by him.
you? He was preparing
lunch.

had taken had been taken

Exceptions: The following sentences cannot be changed into passive voice.
6. Past perfect He had taken the The papers had been
1. Present Perfect Continuous Tense [He has been swimming]. papers. taken by him.
2. Past Perfect Continuous Tense. [He had been swimming].
will take; shall take will be taken; shall
3. Future Continuous Tense [I will be swimming].
be taken
4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense [I will have been swimming]. 7. Simple future He will write the
5. Sentences having Intransitive verbs. Intransitive verbs are verbs hat has no letters. The letters will be
direct object.[He died] [I cannot sleep] written by him.

8. Can/may/must…+base can take; must take can be taken; must

The table below shows the change of Voice from Active to Passive. be taken
You must take
Tenses Active Voice Passive Voice medicines. Medicines must be
taken by you.
1. Simple present take; takes am taken; is taken;
are taken When the doer is clear, it is called Active Voice. The Passive Voice is preferred when
Eg. He takes bike. we do not know the agent or when it is not clear enough. In such cases, the agent ‘by’
is generally avoided.
 Passive Voice Active Voice Active: Learn the rules of transforming active voice to passive voice.
Passive: Let the rules of transforming active voice to passive voice be learned.
The pen has been stolen.  Somebody has stolen my pen. Passive: You are asked to learn the rules of transforming active voice to passive
 I was asked my name.  They asked me my name. voice.
 English is spoken all over the  People speak English all over
world. the world. Active: Don’t touch it.
 I have been invited to the  Someone has invited me to the Passive: Let it not be touched.
party. party. Passive: You are warned not to touch it.
 My book was torn.  Somebody has torn my book.
Note: Passive form begins with “You” when the object of the active verb is not
Imperative sentence in the Active Voice to Passive Voice mentioned.
Active: Work smart.
An imperative sentence in the passive voice has the following form:
Let+object+be+past participle. Here, the active verb doesn’t have an object. Therefore the passive voice begins
with “You.”
Active: Carry it home. Passive: You are advised to work smart.
Passive: Let it be carried home. Active: Get out.
Passive: You are ordered to get out.
Active: Do it at once.
Passive: Let it be done at once. Change the active voice into passive voice.
1. Shut the door.
Active: Open the door. 2. Stand at ease.
Passive: Let the door be opened. 3. Follow up.
4. Help me.
Active: Throw the ball.
Passive: Let the ball be thrown. Speech

When the active voice is in the negative, the passive voice takes the form: 1) In most cases, the subject and the verb are understood. Thus, they also MUST
Let+object+not+be+past participle. be included while reporting such sentences. The conjunction used usually is
“that.”
Acitve: Do not chase the dog. Dorji said, “What a terrible place it is!”
Passive: Let the dog not be chased.
Dorji exclaimed that it was a terrible place.

Note: “do” is not used in the passive voice. 2) Sentences expressing proverbs or general truths do not take the change of
tense while they are reported.
We can also begin the passive sentence with “You” if we want to put emphasis on the She said, “The earth is round.”
person addressed to.
She told that the earth is round.
Active: Help me. There are, in general, two ways of relating what a person has said. We may quote
Passive: Let me be helped. his/her actual words. When his/her actual words are quoted, it is called direct speech.
Passive: You are requested to help me. On the other hand, we simply report what s/he has said without quoting the exact
words. Reporting of others his/her words without quoting the exact words is called 12) Exclamatory, interrogative and imperative sentences are always put as
indirect speech. statements.
Dorji said, “What a terrible place it is!”
Direct speech
Dorji exclaimed that it was a terrible place.
In direct speech,
13) Change:
1) The actual words of the speaker are quoted in the INVERTED COMMAS.
a) Says – tells.
2) The first word of the direct speech within the inverted commas starts with a
b) Said – told.
CAPITAL LETTER.
c) Will/shall – would.
3) The directly quoted speech is separated by a COMMA from the reported verb.
d) May – might.
Eg: He said, “I am going without permission.”
e) Can – could.
Indirect speech f) Must – must/had to.
NOTE: When the direct speech is changed into indirect speech, some changes should
In indirect speech, be made as follows.
1) The inverted commas are OMITTED. 1) Change of person
2) The comma which separates the reporting verb (in the direct speech) is also The first and the second person inside the quotation marks change into third
REMOVED. person. The change will take as is in the table below.
3) The reported speech is usually introduced by the conjunction “THAT.”
4) If the reporting verb is “said” or “told”, we use “THAT.” Direct Indirect
5) Wh- questions have words like what, when, which, why, who, where,
I, you He, she
whom, whose and how in both the direct and indirect sentences. And we don’t
use ‘that’ in such cases. Me you Him, her
6) Change ‘say’, ‘said’ to ‘ask/asked’ or ‘enquire/enquired.’
7) Omit helping verbs – do, does, did. But don’t omit them when they are with My, your His, her
‘not.’ We, you They
He asked me, “Where did you go?”
Us, you Them
He enquired me where I went.
Our, your Their
8) Yes/no questions have if/whether in the reported sentences. We don’t add
“that.” She said to him, “I am sick.”
He asked her, “Did you write the essay?”
She told to him that she was sick.
He enquired her whether she wrote the essay.
2) Change of the address of time and place
9) If the reporting verb are ‘commanded’, ‘requested’, ‘suggested’, ‘advised’, Change of the address of time and place should be made in accordance with
the imperative must be put into an infinitive to form a verb. the table given below.
10) The tense of the reporting verb should NOT be changed.
Direct Indirect
He ordered the boy, “Get out.”
Now Then
He ordered the boy to get out.
This That
11) Question marks and exclamation marks should NEVER be used.
 There Those He said, “I write a letter.” (DS)
Today That day He told that he wrote a letter. (IS)
Tomorrow The next day 2) Past tense in the direct becomes past perfect or remains the same.
Yesterday The day before/the previous day He said, “I brought a pen yesterday.” (DS)

He told that he brought a pen the day before/the previous day. = no change
= (IS)
Pema said, “I was sick yesterday.”
(or)
Pema told that she was sick the day before/the previous day.
He told that he had brought a pen the day before/the previous day. = past
3) Change of tenses perfect = (IS)
There will be no change made inside the quotation marks, if the main verb
outside the quotation marks is a future tense. 3) Present continuous in the direct becomes past continuous.
He said, “I am going to the temple.” (DS)
The man will say, “I work so hard.”
He told that he was going to the temple. (IS)
The man would tell that he work so hard.
4) Past continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
Tenses table

Tenses Forms Examples He said, “I was playing football.” (DS)

Present simple Use the verb without an ending You know the answer. He told that he had been playing football. (IS)
Present continuous Be+ing form I am looking.
5) Present perfect in the direct becomes past perfect.
Past simple Ends in –ed It happened very He said, “I have done my homework.” (DS)
quickly.
He told that he had done his homework. (IS)
Past continuous Be+ing form I was looking.
6) Present perfect continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
Present perfect Have+a past participle I have worked. He said, “I have been reading a book.” (DS)
Present perfect Have+been+ing form I have been working. He told that he had been reading a book. (IS)
continuous
Practice!
Past perfect Had+a past participle I had enjoyed the party.
*Change into indirect speech.
Past perfect Had+been+ing form I had been enjoying the
continuous party. 1. He said, “I ate pumpkin.”
2. Namgay said, “I will go to the hospital tomorrow.”
3. The teacher asked, “When is your annual examinations?”
Change of tenses from direct to indirect speech. 4. The student told, “I will not repeat from tomorrow.”
5. The lady asked the gentleman, “Can you write your name in Chinese?”
1) Present tense in the direct becomes a past tense.
 The Nature of Language Language a means of communication

Language is the medium of communication. Communication happens when the

Every creature strives to communicate with its own kind. One of the ways in which
decoder receives, decodes and understands the meaning of the encoder. The encoder
this need is fulfilled is by expressing thoughts through the medium of language.
and the decoder are called the interlocutors (persons who take part in a
Language is the bridge between individuals that tells them they are needed, that they
conversation).
are not alone. Language thus gives self-expression, and by extension, identity.
Language is a systematic and conventional means of human communication by way
A Communication Model
of vocal sounds.

Language is a system of communication which consists of a set of sounds and Encoding Transmission Reception Decoding
written symbols which are used by people for talking and writing. Language is
quintessentially a human trait. Other animals also use language to communicate;
however, their language consists of a limited number of sounds and body Human language is a complex and sophisticated form of communication. No
movements. So, it is only the humans who has developed a complex and sophisticated animal communicationmatches or even comes close to the variety, complexity and
means of communication. The progress that humans have achieved in terms of creativity of human language.
civilization can be attributed to language which made it possible for people to share
ideas, thoughts, and inventions and take these to the next higher level of Language is not only a human phenomenon. Other animals also communicate;
achievement. they cry, hoot, bleat,coo, dance, sing…….to convey their message.

Functions and Purpose of Language Sounds are basic units of language. But sounds in themselves are
meaningless. They have to beorganized or combined into meaningful forms
Broadly, language serves as the medium of communication. Humans communicate to carry a message.
for the following reasons:
● self-expression and establish identity Sounds>> Forms >> Meaning give us an intelligible (that can be
● communicate thoughts and emotions to an intended audience understood), sensible structure to understand the world around us.
These three components, in fact, represent the three fundamental dimensions of the
● record events for posterity
organization aswell as the three levels of language analysis or language study -
● view and re-view any moment in the past Phonological, syntactic and semantic.
● It is a repository of information
● express judgment, opinions, assertions etc. It is used to say if a statement is true Phonological level: Sounds and their
or false organization.Syntactic level: forms and
their organization.
● maintain social rapport between people
Semantic level: Meanings as manifested in the phonological and syntactic levels.
● express our ideas, wishes, desires, dreams, ambitions, imaginations, etc.
● learn new ideas, concepts, skills or things
● Entertainment through songs, dances, jokes, etc. Features of Human Language

The following are the characteristics or features of human language:

One of the basic human urges is to communicate. 1. Language as a system. It is system of systems. Language is not a collection
of sound and forms at random but highly organized system in which each unit
has its place and value. Each sound is related to other sounds, each word is
related to other words to make meaning.
2. Arbitrariness: Human language is an arbitrary phenomenon. There is no 7. Cultural Transmission: Human beings maybe born with innate predispositions
natural connection or relationship between a word and its meaning. The to acquire language, but they are not born with the ability to produce
signifier and the signified are brought together arbitrarily. E.g., why is a utterances in a specific language. Language is not genetically transmitted. It is
‘table’ called a table? Tables do not make noises similar to the word. (hence, culturally transmitted and has to be consciously learned. That language is
no connection). We cannot tell from the sound structure which or what passed down from one generation to the next shows its cultural transmission.
meaning is behind it. E.g., Something as large as a whale can be referred to by This is very different from animal communication systems where the animals
a very short word, “whale”. are born knowing their entire system. For e.g., Bees are born knowing how to
dance and some birds are born knowing their species of bird songs.
3. Open-Ended System: The sounds, words and sentences in language may be
finite or limited, but the combinations and constructions are infinite or A child born to Bhutanese parents, but adopted and brought up by an
unlimited. Thus, creative or productive potential of the language enables its American may inherit physical characteristics from the biological parents but
user to manipulate and make infinite varieties of constructions to express will speak English like an American. Human infants growing up in isolation
himself or herself. So, human gave the ability to say things that have never produce no instinctive language. All these clearly show that we acquire
been said before, including the possibility to express invented things or lies. language in a cultural context with other speakers, and not from parental
genes.
4. Duality of structure: Human language is organized at two levels or layers
simultaneously: at the level of individual sounds like n, p, b, k, a… but none 8. Language is an individual and social phenomenon: While language is used
of these individual sounds have any meaning in themselves. Their meaning for expressing individual thoughts, needs and urges; it also establishes
comes from the meaningful combinations to form words. Although our relationships between an individual with the society and the broader external
capacity to produce new sounds (letter) is limited, we frequently coin new world.
words. Hence our capacityto produce vocabulary is unlimited.
9. Human language is species-specific and species-uniform: Language
is said to be species specific because only humans possess language, and
5. Displacement: Human language can be used to refer to any dimension of
species-uniform because every normal human possess language. Other
space and time. We can uselanguage to refer to the past, the present and the
animals possess various degrees of communication systems, but they
future. It can also be used to refer to any place here or elsewhere; in neither
are not complex enough to be considered language.
case does the language user have to move from his or her place to refer to
time or place. E.g.: A gorilla cannot tell his friends about his parents,
adventures, experiences of the past. A cat spends the night outside and comes Where do words come from? Etymology
back the next day, stands at your feet…. says “meow”. You ask where it was
The word is derived from the Greek word “etumos” which means real or true. The
and you get the same “meow”. Both of these examples show that animal
ending “logy” suggests the study/ science of. Thus, etymology is the study of the
communication lacks the freedom to apply its knowledge to a new context and
origins of words or the history of words (how they evolved, when they entered a
that animal cannot talk about past or future as humans can. Humans can talk
language, from what source, and how their meanings have changed over time). For
about things that are physically distant such as other countries, the moon, star
example, the ancient Greek word “hippos” means “horse” and “potanus” means
etc., and for that they do not have to move from their place. Animal
“river”. Hence “hippopotamus” literally means “river horse”.
communication is confined only for the particular place/time unlike humans.
It is this property of displacement that allows humans unlike any other
creature, to create fiction and describe possible future worlds. A few other parts of the words derived from ancient Greek are “tele” (Long
distance) “micro” (small) and “phone” (speak) and “scope” (look). From these come
6. Meta-linguistic system: Human language can be used to talk about itself, its such words as telephone, telescope, microphone and microscope.
features, functions, varieties and levels of sophistications.
Some ways in which words originate Borrowing Imitation of sounds
A majority of words used in English today are of foreign origin. English still derives
Words can also be created by onomatopoeia, the naming of things by a more or
much of its vocabulary from Latin and Greek, but it also has borrowed words from
less exact reproduction of the sound associated with it. Words such as buzz, hiss,
nearly all of the languages in Europe. In the modern period of linguistic
guffaw, whiz, and pop are of imitative origin.
acquisitiveness, English has found vocabulary opportunities even farther afield.
From the period of the Renaissance voyages through the days when the sun never Compounding
sets upon the British Empire and up to the present, a steady stream of new words has
flowed into the language to match the new objects and new experiences English It is a process in which two separate words join to produce a single form.
speakers have encountered all over the globe. Over 120 languages are on record as Birth+Day=Birthday,Class+Room=Classroom.
source of present-day English vocabulary. Theories of Language Acquisition
Language is what makes us human – it is what set us apart from so much of the
Shortening or Clipping animal kingdom! But how do we acquire language? What influences the process by
Clipping (or truncation) is a process by which a part of an existing word is omitted, which humans learn to use language? Many linguists and scholars have put forth their
leaving what is called a stump word. When it is the end of the word that is lopped theories trying to explain the process by which humans learn to use language. Two of
off, the process is called back – clipping: thus, examination was docked to create the theories are explained below in brief.
exam and gymnasium was shortened to form gym.Less common in English are fore-
clipping, in which the beginning of a word is dropped: thus, phone for telephone. Behaviorist Theory (Environmental Influences on Language Acquisition)
Very occasionally, we see a sort of fore and aft clipping, such as flu, from influenza. A major proponent of the idea that language depends largely on environment was the
behaviorist B.F. Skinner. He believed that language is acquired through principles of
Back-formation conditioning, including association, imitation, and reinforcement. According to this
Back-formation occurs when a real or supposed affix (that is, a prefix or suffix) is view, children learn words by associating sounds with objects, actions, and events.
removed from a word to create a new one. For example, the original name for a type They also learn words and syntax by imitating others. Adults enable children to
of fruit was chertse, but some thoughtthat word sounded plural, so they began to use learn words and syntax by imitating others. Adults enable children to learn words
what they believe to be a singular form, cherry, and anew word was born. The and syntax by reinforcing correct speech. In short, Behaviorists believe that
creation of a verb enthuse from the noun enthusiasm is also an example of a back- language is learnt through constant reinforcement. The child is born with an empty
formation. slate and language items are written on that mental slate as the child grows and
experiences the world to which he or she is exposed.
Blends
Critics of this idea argue that a behaviorist explanation is inadequate. They maintain
A blend is a word made by combining other words or parts of words in such a way several arguments:
that they overlap or and is infixed into the other. The term blend is also sometimes
 Learning cannot account for the rapid rate at which children acquire language.
used to describe words like brunch, from breakfast plus lunch, in which pieces of
the word are joined but there is no actual overlap.  There can be an infinite number of sentences in a language. All these sentences
cannot be learned byimitation.
Transfer of personal or place names  Children make errors, such as over regularizing verbs. For example, a child
may say Billy hitted me, incorrectly adding the usual past tense suffix – ed to
Over time, names of people, places, or things may become generalized vocabulary hit. Errors like these can’t result from imitation, since adults generally use
words. Thus, did forsythia develop form the name of botanist William Forsyth, correct verb forms.
silhouette from the name of Etienne de Silhouette, a parsimonious French controller
 Children acquire language skills even though adults do not consistently correct
general of finances, and denim from serge de Nimes (a fabric made in France)
their syntax.
Rationalistic Theory (Biological Influences on Language Acquisition) Citation and Contains citation and Often do not contain citation
reference references and references
The main proponent of the view that biological influences bring about language
development is the well-known linguist Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argues that Example Research paper, dissertation, Newspaper, and magazine
human brains have a language acquisitiondevice (LAD), an innate mechanism or scholarly articles articles; memoir, letter,
process that allows children to develop language skills. digital articles, etc…

According to this view, all children are born with universal grammar, which makes Academic / Formal vs Colloquial / Informal Language
them receptive to the common features of all languages. Because of this hard-wired
background in grammar, children easily pick up a language when they are exposed The term ‘colloquial’ refers to a style of writing that is conversational (how we talk
to its particular grammar. In brief, Rationalists argue that language learning is a on a daily basis). In academic writing, writers discard the colloquial style and
sophisticated process. The child is born with all the facilities to learn the language. embrace a more professional, analytical tone (i.e., academic writing). This mean
The linguistic ability is inherent in the mind of the child. All that the child does is using precise language, sounding confident, avoiding language with which you are
discover and test. unfamiliar, prioritizing clarity, and getting rid of filler words such as ‘really,’
● The stages of language development occur at about the same age in all children, ‘literally,’ ‘basically,’ and ‘quite.’ Moreover, academic writing avoids using
even thoughdifferent children experience very different environments. contractions (i.e., can’t, don’t, doesn’t, couldn’t, shouldn’t.)
● Children’s language development follows a similar pattern across cultures. Colloquial language Tips on how to make the Example of
● Deaf children who have not been exposed to a language may make up their sentence sound academic language
own language. These new languages resemble each other in sentence I thought the writer Avoid empty phrases that lack The writer skillfully
structure, even when they are created in different cultures. did a great job in the details or evidence. In this narrates her
book because it talks example, “did a great job” isn’t experiences as an
so much about her useful. What did she do a great actress through the
Writing life as an actress. job of? use of witty
Academic vs Non-academic Writing language and non-
Academic Non-academic linear storytelling.
But frankly, I cannot Avoid impolite assessment or Because she does
Definition It is formal and impersonal It is an informal style or
believe she got to hasty generalizations of a text; not provide many
style of writing that is writing that aims the mass
meet all the people (“must be making the whole details about the
intended for a scholarly or public
she said she did. She book up”) famous people she
academic audience
must be making the met, the reliability
Audience Academia Mass public whole book up. of her stories is
Purpose Inform the readers, with solid Inform, entertain or persuade questionable.
evidence the readers I think she ought to Avoid controversial More specific
Style Formal and impersonal Personal; impressionistic, use more specific expressions (“frankly,” “got,” details would add
emotional, or subjective details about her “making the whole book up,” flavor and life to her
celebrity friends. and all contractions, e.g., celebrity friends.
Structure Standard structure No rigid structure
“can’t” and “don’t”)
Language Formal language avoids Informal and casual In the second chapter, Avoid language you cannot In the second
colloquialism language, may contain the writer define. Most of the time, using chapter, the writer
colloquialism reconnoiters her words that you can’t define explores her feelings
feelings of backfires. It often leads to of loneliness despite
 lonesomeness despite awkward syntax and being surrounded by Therefore, it is common to use language of caution or uncertainty (known as hedging
being inundated by misunderstandings about your people. language).
people. ideas. Using academic language
Hedging verbs like appear and seem may be used to express uncertainty.
isn’t about wordiness or using
complex language. It is about  Appear / seem to + verb = There appears to be a correlation between social
clarity. class and likelihood of getting to university.
Sometimes, she Avoid offensive language Sometimes, she
volunteered in the because it demonstrates a lack volunteered in a Reporting verbs may be used to express uncertainty about certain claim.
ghetto’s soup of respect or understanding for soup kitchen.
 Dorji and Sangay (2024) argue that home work doesn’t necessarily account
kitchen, which was your subject matter. Instead, be
to students’ success during the examinations.
full of poor people. very specific about the people
or things you are discussing. Writers also hedge their claims by using modals of uncertainty (may/might, could,
can).

Nominalization  The class may make a request to the school administration to show support
towards your study timing.
Nominalization is a type of word formation in which a verb, an adjective, or another
part of speech is used as or transformed into a noun. It is a typical feature of Adverbs may be used to express uncertainty.
academic writing; it is useful when making a general statement that focuses more on
the idea than the actual actors in the sentence.  All students were fully aware of the class being recorded, so they probably
spoke more English than they usually would.
Example: ‘nominalization’ is a nominalization of ‘nominalize.’
Writers also use combination of structures.
‘beautiful’ is a nominalization of ‘beauty’.
 It appears that it may not be possible for all students to be interviewed.
Verb Added ending Nominalization
-explain -tion -explanation perhaps, probably, The number of
-appear -ance -appearance Expressing probability possibly, apparently, patients will
-careless -ness -carelessness evidently, presumably, probably
relatively increase….
occasionally, Acceptance rates
Some other kind of nominalization are as follows:
Expressing frequency sometimes, generally, are generally
Verb Nominalization usually, often, seldom high…
-choose -choice
-bury -burial
-believe -belief
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them
Hedging as one’s own work. It is using another’s work without giving credit.
To avoid plagiarism, you must put other’s words in quotation marks and cite your
Hedging in language refers to how a writer expresses certainty or uncertainty. Often
sources and must give citations when using other’s ideas, even if those ideas are
in academic writing, a writer may not be sure of the claims that are being made in
paraphrased in your own words.
their subject area, or perhaps the ideas are good but the evidence is not very strong.
Citation Explain how the The reason infants are facing
It identifies for the reader the original source of an idea, information, or image that is E Explanation evidence supports your these delays is because screen
referred to in a work. point time is replacing other key
developmental activities.
Link this point to the The evidence suggests that
In-text citation
next point in the infants who have a lot of screen
Sometimes called as a parenthetical reference, it is a brief reference (often just an L Link following paragraph or time experience negative
author’s last name and a date or page number) made within the body of your essay back up to the main consequences in their speech
that helps identify an idea’s original source. question development, and therefore, they
should not be exposed to iPads at
Dorji (2024) states that “the main reason for students’ success was their hard work” such a young age.
(p. 12) Note: Although there are exceptions, most paragraphs contain between three to five
The main reason for students’ success was their hard work (Dorji, 2024, p. 12). sentences. Some authors prefer longer, more descriptive paragraphs, while
other authors prefer shorter, faster-paced paragraphs.
Referencing
Precis / Summary
Referencing in research is the way of acknowledging the source of the information
you have used (referred to) in your work.
Precis writing is a summary; an exercise of comprehension. It is a gist of any
Surname Year of publication Volume passage in as few words as possible. A precis should maintain all important details of
the original paragraph so that anyone who is reading it can understand the idea of the
Dorji, J. (2024). The ways of writing a persuasive and an argumentative essay. original passage.
Bhutan Journal, 2 (2), 12 – 20.
Format of precis writing
-title of the precis
Name of the journal (italicized) Issue Page no. -introduction of the text (one-sentence)
Title of the article -overview of the main arguments of the passage
Initial of the first name -brief statement concluding the precis

Dos and don’ts of precis writing

Dos
Paragraph writing
-read all the text carefully and identify the main points
A paragraph is a unit of writing that consists of one or more sentences, all of which -focus on the main points of the given text and it is best to avoid adding any
relate to the same topic. Each paragraph should focus on a single topic. irrelevant information
-write a concise summary of the text which reflects all the main points of it
PEEL technique of writing a paragraph

P Point Make your point iPads delay child’s growth. Don’ts

E Evidence Back it up: support A recent pediatric study showed -avoid including personal opinion
your point with that infants who are exposed to -re-write or summarize the entire text
evidence and examples too much screen may experience -avoid adding any superfluous details
delays in speech development.
Precis / summary writing may be assessed (subject to change) in the following areas: It uses the same tone and mood as This is expressed in the readers or
given in the writing piece to express the listeners’ own words. It omits details
Precis / summary writing idea. It retains the idea and voice of the and does not include the interpretation
Areas of assessment Marks given piece of writing, article or as originality mentioned in the article,
Focus and accuracy 4 anything writing, speech, etc…
Paraphrasing word limit 4 The reader reads a piece of information The reader or listener decides what the
Spelling 1 and has to extract the main idea that is main points are that need to be
Grammar 1 being talked about expressed from the given piece
Total 10 There should be a conclusion as well It doesn’t need a conclusion unless the
original piece ends with an important
message
Sample text Maintains the keywords, data and This expresses the main idea of each
“The internet has revolutionized the way we communicate and access information. concept from the source paragraph and evidence in support of
With the click of a button, we can connect with people around the world, share ideas, that idea from the original source
and stay informed about current events. This instant access to vast amounts of Often 1/5 to 1/6 of the original text Often 1/3 of the original text
information has both positive and negative implications. On the positive side, it www.byjus.com
allows for unprecedented global connectivity and the democratization of knowledge.
However, it also raises concerns about privacy, misinformation, and the potential for
Argumentative Essay Writing
online abuse. As we navigate this digital age, it is essential to strike a balance
between the benefits and challenges posed by the internet.” Argumentative essay is a research paper that takes a position on a controversial issue
and tries to present evidences in favor of that position.
Precis sample
Title
“The internet’s transformative impact on communication and information retrieval is
evident. Instant global connectivity and knowledge democratization are positive Follow the conventions of writing the title. Capitalize specific letter of the words;
outcomes, yet concerns arise regarding privacy, misinformation, and online abuse. omit the articles and prepositions.
Striking a balance between the benefits and challenges of the digital age becomes
crucial.” Introduction

a) The hook (which is usually the first sentence) is a sentence that attracts the
Precis and Summary reader’s attention. It can be a question, quote, statistic, or anecdote.
b) Background information (background) is a paraphrase of the question
Precis Summary itself. There are three ways of paraphrasing the question.
A small replica or a model of any Shortened description of any passage or  Synonyms – replacement of words in the question with the synonyms
passage or article article  Structural change – changing the structure of the question. A verb may be
Precis must have an apt heading The heading is not so important but changed to noun, and a noun could be change to adjective, and so on…
reference to the original source should  Concession – inclusion of other’s probable thoughts with your ideas and
be mentioned opinion. In most cases, ‘although’ is used in the beginning of the sentence.
Only the absolute essential points are Covers all the important points in the c) Thesis statement (argument) is a complete sentence that contains one main
mentioned in a Precis briefest form, mentioned in a piece of idea which controls the content of the entire essay. It is considered as an
writing answer to the question itself, and an introduction to your main ideas.
 d) Sub-points (main ideas) is written after the thesis statement to help the 3. Refutation counter-argues the ‘con’ (counter argument). It should say why
readers know how the essay will be organized. These are your new solutions the ‘con’ is wrong / provide solutions to solving the ‘cons’.
to the problem. Refutation may begin with the use of refuting words such as ‘however,’
‘conversely,’ ‘nevertheless,’ ‘but,’ ‘on the contrary,’ ‘yet,’ notwithstanding,’
Note: Remember BAM
etc… depending on its suitability.
B=background information
Conclusion
A=argument Conclusion reinforces the main idea expressed in the introduction. It must begin with
a conclusion linker. Generally accepted conclusion linker such as ‘in conclusion’ and
M=main ideas
‘to conclude’ must start the conclusion.
Body: Organizational Pattern
Argumentative essay may be assessed (subject to change) in the following areas:
 Pattern 1 = (Pro) + (Con+Ref) + (Con+Ref)
 Pattern 2 = (Con+Ref) + (Con+Ref) + (Pro) General areas of Elements of assessment Marks Total
1. Pro is the topic sentence which supports the concept or principle. assessment marks
2. Con (Counter argument) argues the points mentioned in the ‘Pro.’ Con Title 1
may begin with the use of transition words depending on its suitability. Layout Paragraphing 1 3
A transition (otherwise called as linking word) is a word or phrase that Neatness 1
shows the relationship between paragraphs or sections of a text or speech. Features & Introduction & thesis 2
Content statement 13
Transition words for counter argument.
Argument 9
may be argued Conclusion 2
asserted Language accuracy 2
It could be contended that… Language & General accuracy of language 5 9
maintained Convention & vocabulary
might be claimed Spelling 2
said
may argue Sample question 1
assert Should the policy of Bhutan Council for School Examination and Assessment, which
Some people could contend that… requires students to pass both Continuous Assessment and written examinations to
maintain progress to the next grade, be continued?
might claim
say Sample essay 1
may argue
The Bhutan Council for School Examination and Assessment Policy: Should It
assert
Be Continued?
Critics / challengers / could contend that…
Opponents to this idea maintain
The policy implemented by the Bhutan Council for School Examination and
might claim
Assessment, requiring students to pass both Continuous Assessment and written
say
examinations to progress to the next grade, has been subject to debate. This essay will
present arguments for and against the continuation of this policy, ultimately In conclusion, the Bhutan Council for School Examination and Assessment policy,
concluding with a recommendation. which requires students to pass both Continuous Assessment and written
examinations, should be continued. While the policy may create stress for students,
Pro: One key advantage of the Bhutanese policy is that it encourages a this can be effectively managed with proper support systems. Additionally, the
comprehensive evaluation of students’ academic abilities. Continuous Assessment comprehensive evaluation provided by the policy offers a fair assessment of students’
allows educators to assess students’ progress throughout the year, providing valuable capabilities beyond standardized testing. By incorporating a variety of assessment
feedback and insights into their strengths and weaknesses. This ongoing assessment methods, such as project-based assessments and practical evaluations, the policy can
fosters a deeper understanding of the subject matter and enhances students’ learning further enhance its effectiveness in promoting holistic development. Ultimately, this
experience, ensuring they are well-prepared for subsequent grades. By combining policy encourages a well-rounded education and ensures that students are adequately
Continuous Assessment with written examinations, the policy promotes a holistic prepared for future academic pursuits.
evaluation, enabling educators to gauge students’ overall performance accurately.
Sample question 2
Con 1: However, a potential drawback of this policy is the added stress it may place
Should mobile phones be allowed in the schools of Bhutan?
on students. Juggling the demands of Continuous Assessment alongside written
examinations can create an overwhelming workload, resulting in increased anxiety
and pressure. Students may find it challenging to strike a balance between ongoing Sample essay 2
assessments and preparing for high-stakes exams. This constant evaluation may
Unlocking Educational Potential: The Indispensable Role of Mobile Phones in
hinder their ability to explore other areas of personal growth, such as extracurricular
activities or pursuing individual interests. Refutation 1: While it is true that the Schools
policy may increase stress levels, it is crucial to recognize that stress can be managed
Mobile phones have become an integral part of our daily lives, serving as a means of
effectively with proper support systems in place. By providing students with
communication, entertainment, and information. The question could arise whether
guidance and resources to cope with academic pressures, the policy can help develop
these devices should be allowed in schools. This essay will demonstrate the
resilience and time management skills that are essential for future success. Moreover,
indispensable role mobile phones can play in unlocking the educational potential of
the comprehensive evaluation offered by this policy ensures a fair assessment of
students while ensuring their safety and connectivity.
students’ capabilities, granting them the opportunity to showcase their abilities
beyond the confines of a single examination.
Pro: The main argument in favor of allowing mobile phones in schools is their ability
to enhance connectivity. Mobile phones promote connectivity and emergency
Con 2: Another potential drawback is the limited focus on standardized testing. By
communication. Students can quickly and easily reach their parents or guardians in
placing significant emphasis on written examinations, the policy may overlook other
case of emergencies, ensuring their safety. Moreover, with access to mobile phones,
forms of assessment that can measure students’ practical skills, creativity, and critical
students can stay connected with their peers, aiding in collaborative projects and
thinking abilities. Relying heavily on traditional examinations might not fully capture
fostering a sense of community within the school.
the diverse talents and potential of students, potentially leading to an imbalanced
education system that overlooks important aspects of holistic development.
Con: Challengers to this idea might argue and say that mobile phones in the schools
Refutation 2: While it is true that written examinations have limitations in assessing
can be highly distracting. They might add that the students may be tempted to use
certain skills, the policy can be complemented with additional measures to address
their devices for non-educational purposes, such as social media, games, or texting,
this concern. Integrating project-based assessments, presentations, and practical
diverting their attention away from the lesson at hand. This distraction not only
evaluations into the existing evaluation framework would provide a more
affects their own learning but can also disrupt the classroom environment and impede
comprehensive and balanced approach. By incorporating multiple assessment
the progress of others. Ref 1: While it is true that mobile phones can be distracting,
methods, the policy can ensure that students' diverse talents and skills are recognized
effective classroom management strategies can help mitigate this issue. Teachers can
and rewarded, fostering a more inclusive and well-rounded education system.
implement strict policies on mobile phone use during class time and enforce
consequences for violations. Additionally, educational apps and resources accessible
through mobile phones can be utilized to enhance learning and engage students -include facts / statistics
actively. With proper guidelines and monitoring, mobile phones can be integrated -avoid personal opinions
into the learning process without compromising focus and attention. -use direct and indirect/reported speech to quote others

Con 2: Some people who are against the idea of allowing phones in the schools Report writing may be assessed (subject to change) in the following areas:
might contend that mobile phones can contribute to negative social behavior among
students, such as cyberbullying. With the widespread availability of social media Report writing
platforms and messaging apps, students may engage in harmful activities that can Areas of assessment Marks
harm their peers emotionally and psychologically. Additionally, the constant Title / headline 1
exposure to screens and digital interactions can hinder the development of crucial Byline 1
interpersonal skills and limit face-to-face interactions. Ref 2: Although it is essential Date & place of reporting 1
to acknowledge the risks associated with mobile phone use, it is important to address Introduction 2
them through comprehensive education and awareness programs. Schools can Body 3
implement digital citizenship courses to educate students about responsible online Conclusion 1
behavior, the consequences of cyberbullying, and appropriate use of mobile phones Language use 1
and social media. By promoting digital literacy and fostering a positive online
Total 10
culture, schools can empower students to utilize mobile phones responsibly and
minimize the negative social impacts associated with their use.
Sample Report
Science Symposium held at Mongar Higher Secondary School
To conclude, despite the potential drawbacks, the benefits of allowing mobile phones
in schools, such as promoting connectivity and facilitating emergency
By Namgay
communication, outweigh the disadvantages. While concerns about distractions and
negative social behaviors exist, effective classroom management strategies and
27th March 2024, Mongar
comprehensive education programs can mitigate these issues. By striking a balance
between leveraging the educational potential of mobile phones and creating a
Mongar Dzongkhag Education Office organized a one-day symposium themed
conducive learning environment, schools can harness the benefits of this technology
‘Effects of Pollution on the Lives of People’ on 20 th March 2024 at Mongar Higher
while addressing the associated challenges.
Secondary School, Mongar. Three science students and an escort teacher each from
ten higher secondary schools participated in the program.
Report writing
The event started with the reception of the chief guest. After the welcome speech by
1. Headline
the Dzongkhag Education Officer, the chief guest delivered a speech on the
2. Byline
importance of science education. Eight schools presented their models before lunch
3. Place and date or reporting
while the remaining schools presented after the lunch. Gyalpozhing Higher
4. Opening paragraph / Introduction must answer wh- questions.
Secondary School and Kidikhar Higher Secondary School bagged the first and
5. Main content / body (descriptive of the event)
second prize, respectively. ‘It’s been an honour for me to be here in the program, and
6. Conclusion is the description of how the event ended.
it’s more motivating to have received the first prize,’ said Sangay, a class 12 student
of Gyalpozhing Higher Secondary School.
Writing style
-formal language
As the program concluded, during the vote of thanks, the Dzongkhag Education
-write in third person
Officer said, ‘We look forward to such science programs in the near future.’ The one-
-use the past tense
day science program ended with Tashi Lebey.
Memorandum MEMORANDUM

A memorandum or shortly known as memo is a short message used as a means of To: The students of class 12
informal communication within the organization, for transmitting information in
writing. It may be titled as interoffice communication, office memorandum, or From: Dorji
interoffice correspondence.
Date: 27th March 2024
Basis for Memo Letter
comparison Subject: Tips for writing a memorandum
Meaning It is a short message, It is a typed verbal
written in an informal communication that contains a I’m writing to provide tips for writing a memo. Memo is an important form of
tone for inter-office compressed message business communication that you may be asked to write over the course of your own
circulation of the conveyed to the party external professional lives. Therefore, knowing how to write them will serve you well.
information of the business
Nature Informal and concise Formal and informative Write ‘MEMORANDUM’ in full, in upper case, in the centre at the top. After leaving
Exchanged Departments, units or Two business houses or a line, flushing to the left, write ‘To’ which is also called as the receiver’s address in
between superior-subordinate between the company and a letter writing. Leave a line. Next, write ‘From’ which an equivalent to sender’s
within the organization client address in a letter is writing. Like in a letter writing, write ‘Date’ and ‘Subject’ after
Length Short Comparatively long leaving a line each. Finally, in the next paragraphs, called body, write the main
Signature Not required Duly signed by the sender message you have to convey.
Communication One to many One to one
Content Use of technical jargon Simple words and written in With this, I will see you writing a clear and concise memos hereafter.
and personal pronoun third person

Memo may be assessed (subject to change) in the following areas: Information transfer

It is an activity that reproduces either from a full linguistic form into a diagrammatic
Memo writing
or semi diagrammatic form, or vice-versa. The information remains the same, but the
Areas of assessment Marks
form of information changes.
Title / MEMORANDUM 1
To 1 Information transfer structure
From 1
a) Introduction (paraphrase the question – the chart title, source and data)
Date 1 b) Overview (write an overview of the key relationships / patterns. Overview
Subject 1 generally begins with ‘Overall’)
c) Body (describe the main trend(s) in the data in 2-3 paragraphs ordered
Body / content 4
logically)
Language use 1
Total 10
Information transfer may be assessed (subject to change) in the following areas: treated with chemicals in order to make it fit for consumption. When the water is
ready for drinking, it travels along pipes that lead back into the houses in the town
Information transfer where people can use the water for daily consumption. [Body paragraph]
Areas of assessment Marks www.ieltsliz.com
Title 1
Language and diction 3 Sample question 2
Layout 2
Coverage of key points 4
Total 10

Sample question 1

Sample answer 2

Energy production in 1995 and 2005

The two pie charts illustrate the proportion of five types of energy production in
France in 1995 and 2005. [Introduction]
Sample answer 1
Overall, in both years, the most significant sources of energy were gas and coal,
Process of collecting rainwater which together accounted for over half the production of energy, while nuclear and
other kinds of energy sources generated the least amount of energy in France. In all
The diagram illustrates how an Australian town collects rainwater to process in order types of energy production there was only minimal change over the 10 year period.
to use drinking water. [Introduction] [Overview]

Overall, rainwater collected from houses can be used for drinking after it has been Energy produced by coal comprised of 29.80% in the first year and thus showed only
processed by being filtered and the being treated with chemicals. [Overview] a very slight increase of about a mere 1% to 30.9% in 2005. Likewise, in 1995, gas
generated 29.63 which rose marginally to 30.1 years later. [Body paragraph]
Initially, the rain which falls on the rooftop is collected by the gutter and then runs
down the pipe at the side of the house into the drain at the bottom. Each house With regards to the remaining methods of producing energy, there was an
collects rainwater in this way and the rainwater is then passed along underground approximate 5% growth in production from both nuclear power and other sources of
drains to the water filter. [Body paragraph] energy which decreased in production from 29.27% in 1995 to around a fifth
(19.55%) in 2005. [Body paragraph]
The rainwater passes through the water filter to remove any impurities. Once it has www.ieltsliz.com
been filtered, it continues along the pipes of a storage tank. From this point, the water
goes from storage to the water treatment. At this stage of the process, the water is