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 1019763_FM_VOL-I.qxp 9/17/07 4:22 PM Page viii

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 Cover Photo: The stones are discrete objects placed one on top of another like a chain of careful reasoning. A person who decides to
build such a tower aspires to the heights and enjoys playing with a challenging problem. Choosing the stones takes both a scientific and
an aesthetic sense. Getting them to balance requires patient effort and careful thought. And the tower that results is beautiful. A perfect
metaphor for discrete mathematics!

Discrete Mathematics with Applications, 

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 To Jayne and Ernest

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 CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Speaking Mathematically 1

1.1 Variables 1
Using Variables in Mathematical Discourse; Introduction to Universal, Existential,
and Conditional Statements

1.2 The Language of Sets 6

The Set-Roster and Set-Builder Notations; Subsets; Cartesian Products

1.3 The Language of Relations and Functions 13

Definition of a Relation from One Set to Another; Arrow Diagram of a Relation;
Definition of Function; Function Machines; Equality of Functions

Chapter 2 The Logic of Compound Statements 23

2.1 Logical Form and Logical Equivalence 23

Statements; Compound Statements; Truth Values; Evaluating the Truth of More Gen-
eral Compound Statements; Logical Equivalence; Tautologies and Contradictions;
Summary of Logical Equivalences

2.2 Conditional Statements 39

Logical Equivalences Involving →; Representation of If-Then As Or; The Nega-
tion of a Conditional Statement; The Contrapositive of a Conditional Statement; The
Converse and Inverse of a Conditional Statement; Only If and the Biconditional;
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions; Remarks

2.3 Valid and Invalid Arguments 51

Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens; Additional Valid Argument Forms: Rules of
Inference; Fallacies; Contradictions and Valid Arguments; Summary of Rules of
Inference

2.4 Application: Digital Logic Circuits 64

Black Boxes and Gates; The Input/Output Table for a Circuit; The Boolean Expres-
sion Corresponding to a Circuit; The Circuit Corresponding to a Boolean Expres-
sion; Finding a Circuit That Corresponds to a Given Input/Output Table; Simplifying
Combinational Circuits; NAND and NOR Gates

2.5 Application: Number Systems and Circuits for Addition 78

Binary Representation of Numbers; Binary Addition and Subtraction; Circuits for
Computer Addition; Two’s Complements and the Computer Representation of

vi

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 Contents vii

Negative Integers; 8-Bit Representation of a Number; Computer Addition with

Negative Integers; Hexadecimal Notation

Chapter 3 The Logic of Quantified Statements 96

3.1 Predicates and Quantified Statements I 96

The Universal Quantifier: ∀; The Existential Quantifier: ∃; Formal Versus Informal
Language; Universal Conditional Statements; Equivalent Forms of Universal and
Existential Statements; Implicit Quantification; Tarski’s World

3.2 Predicates and Quantified Statements II 108

Negations of Quantified Statements; Negations of Universal Conditional Statements;
The Relation among ∀, ∃, ∧, and ∨; Vacuous Truth of Universal Statements; Variants
of Universal Conditional Statements; Necessary and Sufficient Conditions, Only If

3.3 Statements with Multiple Quantifiers 117

Translating from Informal to Formal Language; Ambiguous Language; Negations
of Multiply-Quantified Statements; Order of Quantifiers; Formal Logical Notation;
Prolog

3.4 Arguments with Quantified Statements 132

Universal Modus Ponens; Use of Universal Modus Ponens in a Proof; Universal
Modus Tollens; Proving Validity of Arguments with Quantified Statements; Using
Diagrams to Test for Validity; Creating Additional Forms of Argument; Remark on
the Converse and Inverse Errors

Chapter 4 Elementary Number Theory

and Methods of Proof 145

4.1 Direct Proof and Counterexample I: Introduction 146

Definitions; Proving Existential Statements; Disproving Universal Statements by
Counterexample; Proving Universal Statements; Directions for Writing Proofs of
Universal Statements; Variations among Proofs; Common Mistakes; Getting Proofs
Started; Showing That an Existential Statement Is False; Conjecture, Proof, and
Disproof

4.2 Direct Proof and Counterexample II: Rational Numbers 163

More on Generalizing from the Generic Particular; Proving Properties of Rational
Numbers; Deriving New Mathematics from Old

4.3 Direct Proof and Counterexample III: Divisibility 170

Proving Properties of Divisibility; Counterexamples and Divisibility; The Unique
Factorization of Integers Theorem

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 viii Contents

4.4 Direct Proof and Counterexample IV: Division into Cases

and the Quotient-Remainder Theorem 180
Discussion of the Quotient-Remainder Theorem and Examples; div and mod; Alter-
native Representations of Integers and Applications to Number Theory; Absolute
Value and the Triangle Inequality

4.5 Direct Proof and Counterexample V: Floor and Ceiling 191

Definition and Basic Properties; The Floor of n/2

4.6 Indirect Argument: Contradiction and Contraposition 198

Proof by Contradiction; Argument by Contraposition; Relation between Proof by
Contradiction and Proof by Contraposition; Proof as a Problem-Solving Tool

4.7 Indirect Argument: Two Classical Theorems 207

√
The Irrationality of 2; Are There Infinitely Many Prime Numbers?; When to Use
Indirect Proof; Open Questions in Number Theory

4.8 Application: Algorithms 214

An Algorithmic Language; A Notation for Algorithms; Trace Tables; The Division
Algorithm; The Euclidean Algorithm

Chapter 5 Sequences, Mathematical Induction,

and Recursion 227

5.1 Sequences 227

Explicit Formulas for Sequences; Summation Notation; Product Notation; Properties
of Summations and Products; Change of Variable; Factorial and n Choose r Notation;
Sequences in Computer Programming; Application: Algorithm to Convert from Base
10 to Base 2 Using Repeated Division by 2

5.2 Mathematical Induction I 244

Principle of Mathematical Induction; Sum of the First n Integers; Proving an Equal-
ity; Deducing Additional Formulas; Sum of a Geometric Sequence

5.3 Mathematical Induction II 258

Comparison of Mathematical Induction and Inductive Reasoning; Proving Divisibil-
ity Properties; Proving Inequalities; A Problem with Trominoes

5.4 Strong Mathematical Induction

and the Well-Ordering Principle for the Integers 268
Strong Mathematical Induction;Binary Representation of Integers;The Well-Ordering
Principle for the Integers

5.5 Application: Correctness of Algorithms 279

Assertions; Loop Invariants; Correctness of the Division Algorithm; Correctness of
the Euclidean Theorem

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 Contents ix

5.6 Defining Sequences Recursively 290

Definition of Recurrence Relation; Examples of Recursively Defined Sequences;
Recursive Definitions of Sum and Product

5.7 Solving Recurrence Relations by Iteration 304

The Method of Iteration; Using Formulas to Simplify Solutions Obtained by Itera-
tion; Checking the Correctness of a Formula by Mathematical Induction; Discovering
That an Explicit Formula Is Incorrect

5.8 Second-Order Linear Homogenous Recurrence Relations

with Constant Coefficients 317
Derivation of a Technique for Solving These Relations; The Distinct-Roots Case;
The Single-Root Case

5.9 General Recursive Definitions and Structural Induction 328

Recursively Defined Sets; Using Structural Induction to Prove Properties about
Recursively Defined Sets; Recursive Functions

Chapter 6 Set Theory 336

6.1 Set Theory: Definitions and the Element Method of Proof 336
Subsets; Proof and Disproof; Set Equality; Venn Diagrams; Operations on Sets; The
Empty Set; Partitions of Sets; Power Sets; Cartesian Products; An Algorithm to
Check Whether One Set Is a Subset of Another (Optional)

6.2 Properties of Sets 352

Set Identities; Proving Set Identities; Proving That a Set Is the Empty Set

6.3 Disproofs, Algebraic Proofs, and Boolean Algebras 367

Disproving an Alleged Set Property; Problem-Solving Strategy; The Number of Sub-
sets of a Set; “Algebraic” Proofs of Set Identities

6.4 Boolean Algebras, Russell’s Paradox, and the Halting Problem 374
Boolean Algebras; Description of Russell’s Paradox; The Halting Problem

Chapter 7 Functions 383

7.1 Functions Defined on General Sets 383

Additional Function Terminology; More Examples of Functions; Boolean Functions;
Checking Whether a Function Is Well Defined; Functions Acting on Sets

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 x Contents

7.2 One-to-One and Onto, Inverse Functions 397

One-to-One Functions; One-to-One Functions on Infinite Sets; Application: Hash
Functions; Onto Functions; Onto Functions on Infinite Sets; Relations between Expo-
nential and Logarithmic Functions; One-to-One Correspondences; Inverse Functions

7.3 Composition of Functions 416

Definition and Examples; Composition of One-to-One Functions; Composition of
Onto Functions

7.4 Cardinality with Applications to Computability 428

Definition of Cardinal Equivalence; Countable Sets; The Search for Larger Infinities:
The Cantor Diagonalization Process; Application: Cardinality and Computability

Chapter 8 Relations 442

8.1 Relations on Sets 442

Additional Examples of Relations; The Inverse of a Relation; Directed Graph of a
Relation; N -ary Relations and Relational Databases

8.2 Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity 449

Reflexive, Symmetric, and Transitive Properties; Properties of Relations on Infinite
Sets; The Transitive Closure of a Relation

8.3 Equivalence Relations 459

The Relation Induced by a Partition; Definition of an Equivalence Relation; Equiva-
lence Classes of an Equivalence Relation

8.4 Modular Arithmetic with Applications to Cryptography 478

Properties of Congruence Modulo n; Modular Arithmetic; Extending the Euclidean
Algorithm; Finding an Inverse Modulo n; RSA Cryptography; Euclid’s Lemma;
Fermat’s Little Theorem; Why Does the RSA Cipher Work?; Additional Remarks
on Number Theory and Cryptography

8.5 Partial Order Relations 498

Antisymmetry; Partial Order Relations; Lexicographic Order; Hasse Diagrams;
Partially and Totally Ordered Sets; Topological Sorting; An Application; PERT and
CPM

Chapter 9 Counting and Probability 516

9.1 Introduction 517

Definition of Sample Space and Event; Probability in the Equally Likely Case; Count-
ing the Elements of Lists, Sublists, and One-Dimensional Arrays

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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 Contents xi

9.2 Possibility Trees and the Multiplication Rule 525

Possibility Trees; The Multiplication Rule; When the Multiplication Rule Is Difficult
or Impossible to Apply; Permutations; Permutations of Selected Elements

9.3 Counting Elements of Disjoint Sets: The Addition Rule 540

The Addition Rule; The Difference Rule; The Inclusion/Exclusion Rule

9.4 The Pigeonhole Principle 554

Statement and Discussion of the Principle; Applications; Decimal Expansions of
Fractions; Generalized Pigeonhole Principle; Proof of the Pigeonhole Principle

9.5 Counting Subsets of a Set: Combinations 565

r -Combinations; Ordered and Unordered Selections; Relation between Permutations
and Combinations; Permutation of a Set with Repeated Elements; Some Advice
about Counting; The Number of Partitions of a Set into r Subsets

9.6 r-Combinations with Repetition Allowed 584

Multisets and How to Count Them; Which Formula to Use?

9.7 Pascal’s Formula and the Binomial Theorem 592

Combinatorial Formulas; Pascal’s Triangle; Algebraic and Combinatorial Proofs of
Pascal’s Formula; The Binomial Theorem and Algebraic and Combinatorial Proofs
for It; Applications

9.8 Probability Axioms and Expected Value 605

Probability Axioms; Deriving Additional Probability Formulas; Expected Value

9.9 Conditional Probability, Bayes’ Formula, and

Independent Events 611
Conditional Probability; Bayes’ Theorem; Independent Events

Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees 625

10.1 Graphs: Definitions and Basic Properties 625

Basic Terminology and Examples of Graphs; Special Graphs; The Concept of Degree

10.2 Trails, Paths, and Circuits 642

Definitions; Connectedness; Euler Circuits; Hamiltonian Circuits

10.3 Matrix Representations of Graphs 661

Matrices; Matrices and Directed Graphs; Matrices and Undirected Graphs; Matrices
and Connected Components; Matrix Multiplication; Counting Walks of Length N

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 xii Contents

10.4 Isomorphisms of Graphs 675

Definition of Graph Isomorphism and Examples; Isomorphic Invariants; Graph
Isomorphism for Simple Graphs

10.5 Trees 683

Definition and Examples of Trees; Characterizing Trees

10.6 Rooted Trees 694

Definition and Examples of Rooted Trees; Binary Trees and Their Properties

10.7 Spanning Trees and Shortest Paths 701

Definition of a Spanning Tree; Minimum Spanning Trees; Kruskal’s Algorithm;
Prim’s Algorithm; Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm

Chapter 11 Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency 717

11.1 Real-Valued Functions of a Real Variable and Their Graphs 717

Graph of a Function; Power Functions; The Floor Function; Graphing Functions
Defined on Sets of Integers; Graph of a Multiple of a Function; Increasing and
Decreasing Functions

11.2 O-, -, and -Notations 725

Definition and General Properties of O-, -, and -Notations; Orders of Power
Functions; Orders of Polynomial Functions; Orders for Functions of Integer Vari-
ables; Extension to Functions Composed of Rational Power Functions

11.3 Application: Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency I 739

Computing Orders of Simple Algorithms; The Sequential Search Algorithm; The
Insertion Sort Algorithm; Time Efficiency of an Algorithm

11.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:

Graphs and Orders 751
Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions; Application: Number of Bits
Needed to Represent an Integer in Binary Notation; Application: Using Logarithms
to Solve Recurrence Relations; Exponential and Logarithmic Orders

11.5 Application: Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency II 764

Binary Search; Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms; The Efficiency of the Binary Search
Algorithm; Merge Sort; Tractable and Intractable Problems; A Final Remark on
Algorithm Efficiency

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 Contents xiii

Chapter 12 Regular Expressions and Finite-State Automata 779

12.1 Formal Languages and Regular Expressions 780

Definitions and Examples of Formal Languages and Regular Expressions; The Lan-
guage Defined by a Regular Expression; Practical Uses of Regular Expressions

12.2 Finite-State Automata 791

Definition of a Finite-State Automaton; The Language Accepted by an Automa-
ton; The Eventual-State Function; Designing a Finite-State Automaton; Simulating a
Finite-State Automaton Using Software; Finite-State Automata and Regular Expres-
sions; Regular Languages

12.3 Simplifying Finite-State Automata 808

*-Equivalence of States; k-Equivalence of States; Finding the *-Equivalence Classes;
The Quotient Automaton; Constructing the Quotient Automaton; Equivalent Automata

Appendix A Properties of the Real Numbers A-1

Appendix B Solutions and Hints to Selected Exercises A-4

Index I-1

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 PREFACE
My purpose in writing this book was to provide a clear, accessible treatment of discrete
mathematics for students majoring or minoring in computer science, mathematics, math-
ematics education, and engineering. The goal of the book is to lay the mathematical
foundation for computer science courses such as data structures, algorithms, relational
database theory, automata theory and formal languages, compiler design, and cryptog-
raphy, and for mathematics courses such as linear and abstract algebra, combinatorics,
probability, logic and set theory, and number theory. By combining discussion of theory
and practice, I have tried to show that mathematics has engaging and important applica-
tions as well as being interesting and beautiful in its own right.
A good background in algebra is the only prerequisite; the course may be taken by
students either before or after a course in calculus. Previous editions of the book have
been used successfully by students at hundreds of institutions in North and South Amer-
ica, Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Australia.
Recent curricular recommendations from the Institute for Electrical and Electronic
Engineers Computer Society (IEEE-CS) and the Association for Computing Machinery
(ACM) include discrete mathematics as the largest portion of “core knowledge” for com-
puter science students and state that students should take at least a one-semester course in
the subject as part of their first-year studies, with a two-semester course preferred when
possible. This book includes the topics recommended by those organizations and can be
used effectively for either a one-semester or a two-semester course.
At one time, most of the topics in discrete mathematics were taught only to upper-
level undergraduates. Discovering how to present these topics in ways that can be under-
stood by first- and second-year students was the major and most interesting challenge of
writing this book. The presentation was developed over a long period of experimentation
during which my students were in many ways my teachers. Their questions, comments,
and written work showed me what concepts and techniques caused them difficulty, and
their reaction to my exposition showed me what worked to build their understanding and
to encourage their interest. Many of the changes in this edition have resulted from con-
tinuing interaction with students.

Themes of a Discrete Mathematics Course

Discrete mathematics describes processes that consist of a sequence of individual steps.
This contrasts with calculus, which describes processes that change in a continuous fash-
ion. Whereas the ideas of calculus were fundamental to the science and technology of the
industrial revolution, the ideas of discrete mathematics underlie the science and technol-
ogy of the computer age. The main themes of a first course in discrete mathematics are
logic and proof, induction and recursion, discrete structures, combinatorics and discrete
probability, algorithms and their analysis, and applications and modeling.

Logic and Proof Probably the most important goal of a first course in discrete math-
ematics is to help students develop the ability to think abstractly. This means learning
to use logically valid forms of argument and avoid common logical errors, appreciating
what it means to reason from definitions, knowing how to use both direct and indirect

xiv

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xv

argument to derive new results from those already known to be true, and being able to
work with symbolic representations as if they were concrete objects.

Induction and Recursion An exciting development of recent years has been the
increased appreciation for the power and beauty of “recursive thinking.” To think recur-
sively means to address a problem by assuming that similar problems of a smaller nature
have already been solved and figuring out how to put those solutions together to solve
the larger problem. Such thinking is widely used in the analysis of algorithms, where
recurrence relations that result from recursive thinking often give rise to formulas that are
verified by mathematical induction.

Discrete Structures Discrete mathematical structures are the abstract structures that
describe, categorize, and reveal the underlying relationships among discrete mathemat-
ical objects. Those studied in this book are the sets of integers and rational numbers,
general sets, Boolean algebras, functions, relations, graphs and trees, formal languages
and regular expressions, and finite-state automata.

Combinatorics and Discrete Probability Combinatorics is the mathematics of count-

ing and arranging objects, and probability is the study of laws concerning the measure-
ment of random or chance events. Discrete probability focuses on situations involving
discrete sets of objects, such as finding the likelihood of obtaining a certain number of
heads when an unbiased coin is tossed a certain number of times. Skill in using combina-
torics and probability is needed in almost every discipline where mathematics is applied,
from economics to biology, to computer science, to chemistry and physics, to business
management.

Algorithms and Their Analysis The word algorithm was largely unknown in the mid-
dle of the twentieth century, yet now it is one of the first words encountered in the study
of computer science. To solve a problem on a computer, it is necessary to find an algo-
rithm or step-by-step sequence of instructions for the computer to follow. Designing an
algorithm requires an understanding of the mathematics underlying the problem to be
solved. Determining whether or not an algorithm is correct requires a sophisticated use
of mathematical induction. Calculating the amount of time or memory space the algo-
rithm will need in order to compare it to other algorithms that produce the same output
requires knowledge of combinatorics, recurrence relations, functions, and O-, -, and
-notations.

Applications and Modeling Mathematical topics are best understood when they are
seen in a variety of contexts and used to solve problems in a broad range of applied
situations. One of the profound lessons of mathematics is that the same mathematical
model can be used to solve problems in situations that appear superficially to be totally
dissimilar. A goal of this book is to show students the extraordinary practical utility of
some very abstract mathematical ideas.

Special Features of This Book

Mathematical Reasoning The feature that most distinguishes this book from other
discrete mathematics texts is that it teaches—explicitly but in a way that is accessible to
first- and second-year college and university students—the unspoken logic and reasoning
that underlie mathematical thought. For many years I taught an intensively interactive
transition-to-abstract-mathematics course to mathematics and computer science majors.
This experience showed me that while it is possible to teach the majority of students to

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xvi Preface

understand and construct straightforward mathematical arguments, the obstacles to doing

so cannot be passed over lightly. To be successful, a text for such a course must address
students’ difficulties with logic and language directly and at some length. It must also
include enough concrete examples and exercises to enable students to develop the mental
models needed to conceptualize more abstract problems. The treatment of logic and proof
in this book blends common sense and rigor in a way that explains the essentials, yet
avoids overloading students with formal detail.

Spiral Approach to Concept Development A number of concepts in this book appear

in increasingly more sophisticated forms in successive chapters to help students develop
the ability to deal effectively with increasing levels of abstraction. For example, by the
time students encounter the relatively advanced mathematics of Fermat’s little theorem
in Section 8.4, they have been introduced to the logic of mathematical discourse in
Chapters 1, 2, and 3, learned the basic methods of proof and the concepts of mod and
div in Chapter 4, explored mod and div as functions in Chapter 7, and become familiar
with equivalence relations in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. This approach builds in useful review
and develops mathematical maturity in natural stages.

Support for the Student Students at colleges and universities inevitably have to learn
a great deal on their own. Though it is often frustrating, learning to learn through self-
study is a crucial step toward eventual success in a professional career. This book has a
number of features to facilitate students’ transition to independent learning.
Worked Examples
The book contains over 500 worked examples, which are written using a problem-
solution format and are keyed in type and in difficulty to the exercises. Many solutions
for the proof problems are developed in two stages: first a discussion of how one
might come to think of the proof or disproof and then a summary of the solution,
which is enclosed in a box. This format allows students to read the problem and skip
immediately to the summary, if they wish, only going back to the discussion if they
have trouble understanding the summary. The format also saves time for students who
are rereading the text in preparation for an examination.
Marginal Notes and Test Yourself Questions
Notes about issues of particular importance and cautionary comments to help students
avoid common mistakes are included in the margins throughout the book. Questions
designed to focus attention on the main ideas of each section are located between the
text and the exercises. For convenience, the questions use a fill-in-the-blank format,
and the answers are found immediately after the exercises.
Exercises
The book contains almost 2600 exercises. The sets at the end of each section have
been designed so that students with widely varying backgrounds and ability levels
will find some exercises they can be sure to do successfully and also some exercises
that will challenge them.
Solutions for Exercises
To provide adequate feedback for students between class sessions, Appendix B con-
tains a large number of complete solutions to exercises. Students are strongly urged
not to consult solutions until they have tried their best to answer the questions on
their own. Once they have done so, however, comparing their answers with those
given can lead to significantly improved understanding. In addition, many problems,
including some of the most challenging, have partial solutions or hints so that students
can determine whether they are on the right track and make adjustments if necessary.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xvii

There are also plenty of exercises without solutions to help students learn to grapple
with mathematical problems in a realistic environment.
Reference Features
Many students have written me to say that the book helped them succeed in their
advanced courses. One even wrote that he had used one edition so extensively that
it had fallen apart, and he actually went out and bought a copy of the next edition,
which he was continuing to use in a master’s program. Figures and tables are included
where doing so would help readers to a better understanding. In most, a second color
is used to highlight meaning. My rationale for screening statements of definitions and
theorems, for putting titles on exercises, and for giving the meanings of symbols and
a list of reference formulas in the endpapers is to make it easier for students to use
this book for review in a current course and as a reference in later ones.

Support for the Instructor I have received a great deal of valuable feedback from
instructors who have used previous editions of this book. Many aspects of the book have
been improved through their suggestions. In addition to the following items, there is
additional instructor support on the book’s website, described later in the preface.
Exercises
The large variety of exercises at all levels of difficulty allows instructors great free-
dom to tailor a course to the abilities of their students. Exercises with solutions in
the back of the book have numbers in blue, and those whose solutions are given in a
separate Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide have numbers that are a multi-
ple of three. There are exercises of every type that are represented in this book that
have no answer in either location to enable instructors to assign whatever mixture
they prefer of exercises with and without answers. The ample number of exercises of
all kinds gives instructors a significant choice of problems to use for review assign-
ments and exams. Instructors are invited to use the many exercises stated as questions
rather than in “prove that” form to stimulate class discussion on the role of proof and
counterexample in problem solving.
Flexible Sections
Most sections are divided into subsections so that an instructor who is pressed for time
can choose to cover certain subsections only and either omit the rest or leave them for
the students to study on their own. The division into subsections also makes it easier
for instructors to break up sections if they wish to spend more then one day on them.
Presentation of Proof Methods
It is inevitable that the proofs and disproofs in this book will seem easy to instructors.
Many students, however, find them difficult. In showing students how to discover and
construct proofs and disproofs, I have tried to describe the kinds of approaches that
mathematicians use when confronting challenging problems in their own research.
Instructor Solutions
Complete instructor solutions to all exercises are available to anyone teaching a course
from this book via Cengage’s Solution Builder service. Instructors can sign up for
access at www.cengage.com/solutionbuilder.

Highlights of the Fourth Edition

The changes made for this edition are based on suggestions from colleagues and other
long-time users of previous editions, on continuing interactions with my students, and on
developments within the evolving fields of computer science and mathematics.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xviii Preface

Reorganization
A new Chapter 1 introduces students to some of the precise language that is a foun-
dation for much mathematical thought: the language of variables, sets, relations, and
functions. In response to requests from some instructors, core material is now placed
together in Chapter 1–8, with the chapter on recursion now joined to the chapter on
induction. Chapters 9–12 were placed together at the end because, although many
instructors cover one or more of them, there is considerable diversity in their choices,
with some of the topics from these chapters being included in other courses.
Improved Pedagogy
• The number of exercises has been increased to almost 2600. Approximately 300
new exercises have been added.
• Exercises have been added for topics where students seemed to need additional
practice, and they have been modified, as needed, to address student difficulties.
• Additional full answers have been incorporated into Appendix B to give students
more help for difficult topics.
• The exposition has been reexamined throughout and revised where needed.
• Discussion of historical background and recent results has been expanded and the
number of photographs of mathematicians and computer scientists whose contribu-
tions are discussed in the book has been increased.
Logic and Set theory
• The definition of sound argument is now included, and there is additional clarifica-
tion of the difference between a valid argument and a true conclusion.
• Examples and exercises about trailing quantifiers have been added.
• Definitions for infinite unions and intersections have been incorporated.
Introduction to Proof
• The directions for writing proofs and the discussion of common mistakes have been
expanded.
• The descriptions of methods of proof have been made clearer.
• Exercises have been revised and/or relocated to promote the development of student
understanding.
Induction and Recursion
• The format for outlining proofs by mathematical induction has been improved.
• The subsections in the section on sequences have been reorganized.
• The sets of exercises for the sections on strong mathematical induction and the
well-ordering principle and on recursive definitions have been expanded.
• Increased attention has been given to structural induction.
Number Theory
• A subsection on open problems in number theory has been expanded and includes
additional discussion of recent mathematical discoveries in number theory.
• The presentation in the section on modular arithmetic and cryptography has been
streamlined.
• The discussion of testing for primality has been clarified.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xix

Combinatorics and Discrete Probability

• The discussion of the pigeonhole principle has been moved to this chapter.
Functions
• There is increased coverage of functions of more than one variable and of functions
acting on sets.
Graph Theory
• The terminology about traveling in a graph has been updated.
• Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm is now included.
• Exercises were added to introduce students to graph coloring.

Companion Website
www.cengage.com/math/epp
A website has been developed for this book that contains information and materials for
both students and instructors. It includes:
• descriptions and links to many sites on the Internet with accessible information
about discrete mathematical topics,
• links to applets that illustrate or provide practice in the concepts of discrete mathe-
matics,
• additional examples and exercises with solutions,
• review guides for the chapters of the book.
A special section for instructors contains:
• suggestions about how to approach the material of each chapter,
• solutions for all exercises not fully solved in Appendix B,
• ideas for projects and writing assignments,
• PowerPoint slides,
• review sheets and additional exercises for quizzes and exams.

Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide

(ISBN-10: 0-495-82613-8; ISBN-13: 978-0-495-82613-2)
In writing this book, I strove to give sufficient help to students through the exposition in
the text, the worked examples, and the exercise solutions, so that the book itself would
provide all that a student would need to successfully master the material of the course. I
believe that students who finish the study of this book with the ability to solve, on their
own, all the exercises with full solutions in Appendix B will have developed an excellent
command of the subject. Nonetheless, I became aware that some students wanted the
opportunity to obtain additional helpful materials. In response, I developed a Student
Solutions Manual and Study Guide, available separately from this book, which contains
complete solutions to every exercise that is not completely answered in Appendix B and
whose number is divisible by 3. The guide also includes alternative explanations for some
of the concepts and review questions for each chapter.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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