The learner

‘Individual learner differences ‘

we will look at how learners differ as well as to how they are similar. We will explore what research has
informed in terms of learner variation from the perspective of the different cognitive, affective and
sociocultural variables that influence their learning processes.

Differences of learners

1 AGE

Debates about age in language learning are common. While young learners are often thought to learn
languages better, especially in pronunciation that is why so many places start to teach English at a very
young age , but research is mixed. Adults usually excel in vocabulary learning and can make rapid progress
due to their cognitive abilities, often achieving higher proficiency quickly. Teaching methods should be
tailored to different age groups: adults benefit from abstract learning, while children thrive with
informal, hands-on communication and naturalistic methods .

2 APPTITUDE

Some people have a natural talent for learning languages, which both popular belief and research support.
Teachers often notice certain students who excel in language learning due to this "flair." Research indicates
that language aptitude is a strong predictor of success in learning a new language (Skehan, 1989). Flair is the
natural talent or innate ability . language aptitude is often measured by the Modern Language Aptitude
Test (MLAT), created in the 1950s. This test assesses phonemic coding ability, grammatical awareness, rule
inference, and memory for words. However, the MLAT has limitations. It favors learning through
memorization and grammar analysis, which may not accurately reflect aptitude for learners who acquire
language through holistic, immersive methods and natural communication. Language aptitude exists and
can be measured, but it's often seen as a fixed genetic trait, implying it can't be improved through teaching.
This would mean learners without natural ability are at a disadvantage. Thus, while useful for shaping
courses, language aptitude alone doesn't explain language learning success.
 3 PERSONALITY

Personality has to do with WHO learns, and deals with issues of identity which cannot stand on their own but
connect to all other areas of learner contribution

3.1 extraversion and introversion

These factors will change with age, but also with motivational and learning styles. However, understanding
how some of these factors impact learning can be a useful tool for teachers to organize learning experiences.
For example, research has explained that extravert students—who are characterized by their sociability and
impulsivity—will profit more from an approach to teaching which emphasizes communication and oral
language development activities. In contrast, introvert students who tend to be introspective, reserved
and good at planning prefer an academic style of teaching which allows them to display their logical and
precision-oriented style of thinking.

3.2 anxiety

Anxiety has been defined as “the feeling of tension and apprehension specifically associated with L2
contexts” Anxiety, like age, is an issue over which there is no agreement. For example, anxiety can be the
root cause of poor performance or it can be caused by it. We can distinguish between different types of
anxiety:
Ÿ acceptance anxiety – the fear of not being accepted by other group
members.
Ÿ orientation anxiety – the fear of not being able to cope with course
requirements.
Ÿ performance anxiety – the fear of not doing well in class.
Ÿ competitive anxiety – the tension of having constantly to outdo your peers .
There is a research that suggests when learners do not experience any tension while learning, their levels of
motivation tend to plummet.

4 MOTIVATION
Motivation is why people do things, whether it's for money, ideals, or other reasons. It's about getting emotionally
and mentally ready to work towards goals. While there are many ideas about motivation, it's clear it affects learning a
lot, even though it's something teachers can't directly control. Understanding these ideas helps teachers support
students better.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
1 PRECEIVED SELF EFFICACY
Perceived self-efficacy is about how confident someone feels in their ability to accomplish tasks and achieve
goals. It's a personal belief that affects motivation and performance in various activities. BANDURA 1997

2 ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Attribution theory explains how people interpret and explain their successes and failures. It explores how
individuals attribute outcomes to factors like ability, effort, or luck, influencing their motivation and future
behavior. Wiener 1991

3 self determination theory

Self-determination theory examines what drives human motivation and behavior, focusing on intrinsic and
extrinsic motivations. It explores how factors like autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence
individuals' motivation to pursue goals and engage in activities. In self -determination theory we have 2
types of motivation intrinsic and extrinsic
Extrinsic motivation refers to being driven by external rewards or pressures, like money or praise from
others. In contrast, intrinsic motivation comes from within, driven by personal enjoyment or satisfaction
from the activity itself. Both types play important roles in motivating behaviour and achievement.

4 social motivation theory

social motivation theory explores how individuals' motivation is influenced by social factors, such as
interactions with others, social norms, and relationships. It examines how social contexts and social
interactions shape individuals' goals, behaviors, and achievements.

4 Learning styles

Learning styles are how individuals prefer to learn, using their comfortable methods , techniques and past
experiences to understand new information. Learning styles encompass both learning strategies (how I
prefer to learn) and innate abilities (how my brain naturally learns). They are not fixed rather they evolve
Teachers should recognize and adapt to each learner's preferences, understanding they may change. One key
model is Witkin et al.'s (1977) field-dependence vs. field-independence distinction in cognitive psychology
applied to education.

Field dependence Field dependence means relying on external cues when understanding
information. These individuals perceive the world as a whole, where parts blend into the background. They
often base their self-perception on others and may have less proficiency in social interactions compared to
those who are more independent thinkers.

Field independence Field independence means processing information by relying on

personal thoughts rather than external factors, and seeing parts of a whole as distinct from their surroundings.
People who are field independent often have a clear sense of self and are skilled in social interactions.

Learning styles proposed by kolb

In the 1980s, David Kolb developed a popular way to classify how people learn, called experiential
learning. His theory shows that learning happens in a cycle of four stages: experiencing something, thinking
about it, forming ideas, and trying them out. He proposed four learning styles

• Concrete Experience (CE): Learning through experiencing and feeling things firsthand.

• Reflective Observation (RO): Reflecting on and observing experiences from different perspectives.

• Abstract Conceptualization (AC): Thinking about and creating concepts based on observations and
experiences.

• Active Experimentation (AE): Applying new ideas and concepts actively in practical situations to see
how they work.

Four stages of experiential learning proposed by kolb

• Accommodating: Learns through hands-on experiences and adapts quickly to new situations.

• Diverging: Views situations from multiple perspectives and generates creative ideas.

• Converging: Applies theories to solve practical problems in technical contexts.

• Assimilating: Focuses on understanding and organizing information logically using abstract concepts and
theoretical models.

The most famous learning styles by VAK model

VAK Model: This model categorizes learning preferences into four sensory channels:

• Visual: Learners prefer to process information through visual aids such as diagrams, charts, and
videos. They understand and remember information better when presented in a visual format.
 • Auditory: These learners prefer to process information through listening. They benefit from lectures,
discussions, and audio recordings. They remember information by hearing and discussing it.
• Kinesthetic: Kinesthetic learners learn best through hands-on activities and physical experiences.
They prefer activities that involve movement, touching, and manipulating objects. They learn and
retain information by doing.
• Tactile: Tactile learners also learn through touch and physical interaction. They benefit from
activities that involve touching and feeling materials, and they learn best when they can physically
engage with the subject matter.

Multiple intelligence

Intelligence is the capacity to learn, understand, and solve problems in new situations. It encompasses a
variety of abilities, perspectives, and backgrounds, as noted by Gardner, who highlights that our differences
arise from diverse combinations of intelligences.

• Naturalist Intelligence: Ability to recognize and distinguish among different plants, animals, and natural
phenomena, demonstrating a strong connection and passion for nature.

• Musical Intelligence: Capacity to understand pitch, rhythm, and tone, and to express emotions through
music by creating, remembering, and interpreting patterns of sound.

• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Ability to think logically, reason deductively, and solve

mathematical problems by detecting patterns, making calculations, and handling abstract concepts.

• Existential Intelligence: Sensitivity to and contemplation of deep questions about human existence,
including the meaning of life and death.

• Interpersonal Intelligence: Skill in understanding and interacting effectively with others, including the
ability to perceive and interpret people's emotions, motives, and behaviors.

• Intrapersonal Intelligence: Capacity to understand one's own thoughts, desires, fears, and capacities, and
to use this self-knowledge in planning and directing one's life.

• Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence: Ability to manipulate objects and use physical skills effectively,
including non-verbal communication to express thoughts and feelings through body language.
• Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: Proficiency in thinking and expressing complex ideas through language,
whether spoken or written, demonstrating a strong command of words and language.

• Visual-Spatial Intelligence: Ability to think in three dimensions and visualize spatial relationships, with a
keen sense of form, space, color, and shape, often using imagination to create mental images of the external
world.