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THE ELEMENTS OF RELATIVITY
The Elements of Relativity

David M. Wittman
University of California, Davis

1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© David M. Wittman 2018
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
Excerpt on page 28 from Slaughterhouse-five: or the Children’s Crusade,
A Duty Dance with Death (25th Anniversary) by Kurt Vonnegut,
copyright © 1968, 1969 and copyright renewed © 1996, 1997 by
Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. Used by permission of Dell Publishing, an imprint of
Random House, a division of Penguin Random House LLC.
All rights reserved.
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962192
ISBN 978–0–19–965863–3 (Hbk.)
ISBN 978–0–19–965864–0 (Pbk.)
DOI 10.1093/oso/9780199658633.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
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To Vera, whose love and support has helped me grow so much.
Preface

Relativity is one of the triumphs of twentieth-century physics, but physics cur-

ricula tend to reserve it for advanced students. The message to students is; if
you survive everything else, you may move on to relativity. This is a missed
opportunity to engage a much larger audience of nonspecialists. Given that
many general education students are genuinely curious about relativity, and that
special relativity can be understood with remarkably little math, it is a shame
that we do not teach it more widely. Furthermore, in relativity a rich set of
interesting consequences can be deduced from just a few axioms and a lot of
disciplined thinking. This makes relativity an excellent topic for a college course
for nonspecialists! I urge my fellow faculty to offer this type of course more often—
it is rewarding for students and faculty alike.
My take on such a course is that while it should explicitly not require any
previous physics knowledge, it should offer training in disciplined thinking. (This
could potentially make it a first course for physics majors as well.) Instructors
should provide thinking tools that are accessible to beginners, while making clear
that students must be willing to put in the hard work to practice those thinking
tools; this is a college physics course, not a broad survey. While making the
subject approachable and avoiding unnecessary complications, we should pursue
a thorough understanding, avoid shrinking from difficult concepts, and require
students to apply what they learn to new situations. Such a course should follow
Einstein’s exhortation to “Make things as simple as possible, but not simpler.”
I wrote this textbook to make a course like that possible. A key question in
designing that course is: should it be limited to special relativity (where a complete
understanding is possible) or should it try to address general relativity? Knowing
that students are intensely curious about black holes and the Big Bang, I have done
my best to help them develop the relevant thinking tools there too, while relaxing
the goal of complete understanding. Instructors can therefore use this book in
various ways. If your highest priority is systematic understanding, you may wish
to proceed sequentially and slowly, leaving the last few chapters for interested
students to read on their own. If black holes are a must-do, consider skipping some
of the details of earlier chapters. (I have marked some sections with an asterisk to
indicate candidates for skipping; I also skip some mathematical details in sections
that cannot be skipped conceptually.) Similarly, while my approach is to require
a minimum of math in homework problems, there are many opportunities to use
more math if that suits your audience. If you would rather emphasize scientific
literacy and media consumption skills, there are links in those areas as well.
viii Preface

Having taught the course several times, I gradually learned how to present the
ideas to students effectively:

• Spacetime diagrams are introduced very early, in the context of Galilean

relativity. Students avoid cognitive overload by becoming familiar with
worldlines, events, and so on before they wrestle with any of the ideas of
special relativity.
• The emphasis more generally is on graphical understanding. Although
equations are necessary for rigor, beginners do better when they can see the
essentials of the situation rather than try to extract them from an equation.
• Accelerated frames are also introduced prior to special relativity, so students
are not blindsided by the twin paradox.
• General relativistic thinking tools are presented as a natural evolution of
special relativistic thinking tools, so general relativity seems less like a
separate and forbidding domain of knowledge.
• Thinking tools are presented quite explicitly as tools. This makes relativity
more accessible, but equally importantly it cultivates metacognitive skills.
Students who may think “I’m not good at this” are explicitly given the tools
to practice and become good at it.
• Thinking tools that go beyond relativity, such as symmetry, are also empha-
sized. My goal is to make these thinking tools so familiar that students may
begin to apply them outside the context of the course.
• Research shows that students benefit from revisiting topics and making
connections between different topics. I therefore allow understanding to
unfold in layers rather than attempt to force complete understanding of
a topic on a single chapter. The Einstein velocity addition law is a case
in point: Chapter 5 merely provides a mental picture to make such a law
seem intuitively possible, Chapter 6 first shows how it works graphically,
Chapter 8 provides more graphical velocity addition practice, and Chap-
ter 9 explains the law mathematically.

In summary, I believe this book enables students with no physics background

to understand relativity rather than just read a description of it, and enables more
faculty to offer general education courses on relativity. I hope you will find this
book stimulating and rewarding.

David Wittman
Davis, California
January 20, 2018
Acknowledgments

This book grew from a course I taught, so I start by thanking people related to
that course. I never would have tried teaching such a course without Will Dawson
as a teaching assistant; I knew I could trust him to do a great job developing
discussion activities, guiding students, challenging my facile explanations, and
helping me shape the course. Jeff Hutchinson performed just as ably in later
iterations of the course; he also corrected mistakes and suggested clarifications
in an initial draft of this book. I also thank the students who suffered through
initial drafts of this book. The honors students who took the course in fall 2013
deserve special mention for constructive exchanges that stimulated me to rewrite
the draft almost from scratch. Four students from that course—Shuhao David
Ke, Olga Ivanova, Dean Watson, and Adam Zufall—read a completely new draft
in fall 2014 and provided useful feedback. Adam Zufall in particular provided
specific and insightful feedback and debated some changes with me.
Outside the context of the course, Chuck Watson deserves special mention for
reading every single line of two separate drafts and providing extremely thorough
and thoughtful feedback. Chuck provided a greatly needed wake-up call that
many sections of an earlier draft were inadequate for beginners, and if the book
now makes sense to them they should thank Chuck for that. Chuck also caught
numerous typos and awkward or ambiguous passages, often suggesting better
phrasing than I came up with myself. My wife, Vera Margoniner, also read some
versions of each chapter and help me clarify the presentation of many points.
I also thank Steve Carlip for providing expert advice on a variety of points in the
later chapters. It is a cliché to write that any remaining errors are my own, but
now I know that the cliché is absolutely true. Each of these people kept me on
track at some point, but I may have veered off track through numerous revisions
since then.
I thank Adam Taylor for the handful of stylish drawings you see in this book;
the less stylish ones are my own. I also thank Vivian Ellinger for making it possible
to work with Adam.
I owe the biggest thanks to my family—Becca, Linus, and most of all Vera—
for supporting me through such a large time commitment. My parents, Linus
and Bonnie Wittman, not only raised me well but also gave freely of their time
and energy in the past few years so I would have more time to focus on the book.
Thanks, geysers!
Contents

Guide to the Reader xvii

1 A First Look at Relativity 1

1.1 Coordinates and displacement 1
1.2 Velocity 3
1.3 Galilean velocity addition law 4
1.4 Velocity is an arrow 8
1.5 Symmetry and the principle of relativity 9
Chapter summary 10
Study advice 10
Check your understanding: explanations 11
Exercises 11
Problems 12

2 Acceleration and Force 13

2.1 Acceleration 13
2.2 Acceleration, force, and mass 14
2.3 Accelerating frames and fictitious forces 16
2.4 Inertial frames 17
Chapter summary 18
Check your understanding: explanations 19
Exercises 19
Problems 20

3 Galilean Relativity 22
3.1 Motion in two (or more) dimensions 22
3.2 Projectile motion 23
3.3 Principle of relativity 24
Chapter summary 25
Check your understanding: explanations 26
Exercises 26
Problems 26

4 Reasoning with Frames and Spacetime Diagrams 29

4.1 The river and the hat 29
4.2 Frame-dependent versus frame-independent questions 32
xii Contents

4.3 Coordinate grids of moving frames 33

4.4 Transverse distances are always frame-independent 35
4.5 Billiards 36
4.6 Accelerated frames 38
4.7 Assumptions 40
Chapter summary 40
Check your understanding: explanations 41
Exercises 41
Problems 42

5 The Speed of Light 43

5.1 Observation: the speed of light is frame-independent 43
5.2 Implication: nothing can travel faster than c 45
5.3 Implications for the velocity addition law 47
5.4 Graphical interpretation 49
5.5 Incomplete versus wrong models 51
Chapter summary 53
Further reading 53
Check your understanding: explanations 54
Exercises 54
Problems 54

6 Time Skew 56
6.1 Simultaneity is frame-dependent 56
6.2 Practice with skewed grids 60
6.3 Time skew 65
6.4 Causality 67
Chapter summary 69
Further reading 70
Check your understanding: explanations 70
Exercises 71
Problems 72

7 Time Dilation and Length Contraction 74

7.1 Time dilation 74
7.2 Light clocks and γ 75
7.3 Length contraction and reciprocity 80
7.4 Experimental proof 84
7.5 Time dilation with spacetime diagrams 86
7.6 Light clock along the direction of motion 88
Chapter summary 90
Further reading 90
Check your understanding: explanations 90
Exercises 91
Problems 92
 Contents xiii

8 Special Relativity: Putting it All Together 94

8.1 Solving problems with spacetime diagrams 94
8.2 Measuring the length of a moving object 97
8.3 Train in tunnel paradox 98
8.4 Velocity addition 100
8.5 Clocks 101
Further reading 102
Problems 102

9 Doppler Effect and Velocity Addition Law 105

9.1 Doppler effect basics 105
9.2 Doppler effect and special relativity 107
9.3 Doppler law and applications 109
9.4 Einstein velocity addition law 111
Chapter summary 113
Further reading 114
Check your understanding: explanations 114
Exercises 115
Problems 115

10 The Twin Paradox 117

10.1 Alice and Bob communicate 117
10.2 What Alice observes 119
10.3 Changing frames 121
10.4 Principle of longest proper time 123
10.5 Faster-than-light speeds and time travel 126
Chapter summary 129
Check your understanding: explanations 129
Exercises 130
Problems 130

11 Spacetime Geometry 132

11.1 Geometry of space 132
11.2 The spacetime metric 134
11.3 Understanding the metric 138
11.4 Spacetime geometry is hyperbolic 141
Chapter summary 143
Further reading 144
Check your understanding: explanations 144
Exercises 145
Problems 145
xiv Contents

12 Energy and Momentum 147

12.1 Energy and momentum (Galilean) 147
12.2 Energy and momentum (including speeds near c) 149
12.3 Energy-momentum relation 151
12.4 E = mc2 153
12.5 Energy budget for particles with mass 158
12.6 Massless particles 159
Chapter summary 162
Further reading 162
Check your understanding: explanations 163
Exercises 164
Problems 164

13 The Equivalence Principle 166

13.1 Gravity is special 166
13.2 Equivalence principle 167
13.3 Slow time 169
13.4 Gravitational redshift 171
13.5 Gravity disappears in freely falling frames 174
Chapter summary 177
Further reading 177
Check your understanding: explanations 177
Exercises 177
Problems 178

14 Gravity Reframed 180

14.1 Maximizing proper time 180
14.2 Metrics and the geodesic equation 184
14.3 Graphical model 187
Chapter summary 188
Further reading 188
Check your understanding: explanations 189
Exercises 189
Problems 189

15 Potential 191
15.1 Definition of potential 191
15.2 The potential traces slow time 193
15.3 Visualizing the potential 195
Chapter summary 197
Check your understanding: explanations 197
Exercises 198
Problems 199
 Contents xv

16 Newtonian Gravity 201

16.1 Invisible string 201
16.2 Fields and test masses 204
16.3 Newton’s law of universal gravitation 206
16.4 Gravity in and around spheres 208
16.5 Gravitational potential revisited 210
16.6 Surface gravity and compact objects 213
16.7 Tides 215
Chapter summary 217
Further reading 217
Check your understanding: explanations 218
Exercises 218
Problems 219

17 Orbits 222
17.1 Circular orbits 222
17.2 Elliptical orbits 225
17.3 Symmetry of orbits 227
17.4 Slingshot maneuver 229
17.5 Dark matter versus modified gravity 230
17.6 Masses of stars 231
17.7 Extrasolar planets 232
Chapter summary 233
Further reading 234
Check your understanding: explanations 234
Exercises 235
Problems 236

18 General Relativity and the Schwarzschild Metric 237

18.1 From Newton to Einstein 237
18.2 Elements of general relativity 241
18.3 The Einstein equation 245
18.4 The Schwarzschild solution 248
18.5 Curved space 250
18.6 Observable consequences of the Schwarzschild metric 254
18.7 Time versus space parts of the metric 257
Chapter summary 258
Further reading 259
Check your understanding: explanations 260
Exercises 260
Problems 261
xvi Contents

19 Beyond the Schwarzschild Metric 263

19.1 General relativity in context 263
19.2 Gravitomagnetism 264
19.3 Gravitational waves 267
19.4 Gravitational lensing 270
19.5 Cosmology 273
Chapter summary 279
Further reading 279
Check your understanding: explanations 280
Exercises 281
Problems 281

20 Black Holes 283

20.1 What is a black hole? 283
20.2 A closer look at the horizon 286
20.3 Black holes in nature 288
20.4 Facts and myths about black holes 292
20.5 Spinning black holes 295
Chapter summary 297
Further reading 297
Check your understanding: explanations 298
Exercises 298
Problems 299

Index 302
Guide to the Reader

Teachers rarely give their students explicit instruction in how to read. The
assumption must be that they learned how to read as children, so we have nothing
to add at this point. I believe this consigns many students to ineffective study
habits; many have never thought explicitly about reading strategies. The fact is
that you should not read a book of ideas straight through like a novel. You should
be engaging in a conversation with the book, identifying the key points and arguing
back until you come to terms with them.
True learning does not happen quickly and easily, so budget plenty of time for Confusion alert
each chapter and perhaps skim its sections first to help you budget wisely. Then
read one section at a time and give yourself time to really think about the concepts. These are posted to sharpen the dis-
Consider taking a break between sections—reading too much in one sitting will tinction between two similar concepts
or words, or between the physics and
reduce your comprehension of the later parts. everyday meanings of a word, or in
When you finish reading a section, thoroughly consider the Check Your other situations where miscommu-
Understanding question before moving on. Use your performance on that question nications are common. These alerts
inoculate you against the most com-
to rate your level of understanding, and keep track of which sections you will need mon sources of miscommunication in
to reread. When rereading a section, focus on the paragraphs and figures that discussing relativity so keep them in
seem most important or most relevant to your difficulties rather than rereading mind not only as you read, but also as
you discuss relativity with others.
uniformly from start to finish. If a point is still unclear after rereading, make
a note to discuss the question with another student or with the instructor to
clarify the concept. Then, make sure to reread the relevant point again after that
discussion to check your new understanding. This is crucial because listening to Think about it
a clear explanation does not necessarily make it stick in your mind, even if you
feel strongly at the time that it will (a phenomenon psychologists call the fluency If you find the main text on a page
illusion). relatively clear and easy to digest, you
should be simultaneously engaged in
At the end of a chapter, check the list of key concepts in the chapter summary relating it to earlier points and to
and ask yourself if you understand them completely. The chapter summary will personal experience; these notes help
come in handy when reviewing or rereading, but do not fool yourself into thinking prompt this engagement, and help
answer questions such as “But how is
that reading—or even memorizing—the summary alone is a substitute for deeply that consistent with...?” In your first
engaged reading. A great way to process the ideas is to close the book and attempt time through any given section, you
to write down the major points yourself. Writing boosts your learning by engaging may have cognitive overload just pro-
cessing the main text. In that case, it
a different set of brain circuits. may be better not to dwell on a Think
Chapter end matter includes both exercises and problems, and the distinction About It note, but make sure to reread
is extremely important. Exercises are straightforward procedures that help you the section later when you are able to
process it on this deeper level.
rehearse concepts and skills. Problems do not come with a well-defined procedure;
you really have to think about the solution. Take rock climbing as an analogy. If
you want to be a good rock climber, you need strong arms so you repeatedly do
chinups, which are straightforward and trivial to describe, but still take practice.
xviii Guide to the Reader

But you also need to practice climbing on real obstacles; this is where the skill of
rock climbing is. Exercises are necessary, but problems develop higher-level skills.
Problems force you to apply your thinking tools to new and unfamiliar situations.
This can be the most difficult part of learning—but also the most rewarding,
because it builds true understanding.
*Optional sections.One of the beauties of science is that everything is connected,
but this is also one of the difficulties of teaching science: where to stop? Sections
marked with asterisks (and boxes, which are smaller) are not absolutely necessary
to understanding the main thread of the course. Students who feel comfortable
with the main thread will benefit from making these additional connections, but
students who need to focus fully on the main thread may skip these boxes at first.
Of course, instructors will vary in their opinion of what is optional, depending
on the length of the term and the level of student preparation; students are
advised to rely on their instructor for detailed guidance. Readers who are teaching
themselves should pay close attention to the asterisks; if an optional topic seems
more confusing than enriching, refocus on the main thread and return to the
optional topic later as desired.
A First Look at Relativity
1
Relativity is a set of remarkable insights into the way space and time work. The
basic notion of relativity, first articulated by Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), explains 1.1 Coordinates and displacement 1
why we do not feel the Earth moving as it orbits the Sun and was successful 1.2 Velocity 3
for hundreds of years. By the turn of the twentieth century, however, it became
1.3 Galilean velocity addition law 4
apparent that Galilean relativity did not provide a complete description of nature,
1.4 Velocity is an arrow 8
particularly at high speeds such as the speed of light. In 1905, Albert Einstein
1.5 Symmetry and the principle
(1879–1955) discovered unexpected relationships between space and time that of relativity 9
allow relativity to work even at high speeds; this is now called special relativity.
Chapter summary 10
Soon after, Hermann Minkowski (1864–1909) found a way to express these
Study advice 10
relationships in terms of the geometry of a single unified entity called spacetime.
Check your understanding:
Einstein initially resisted this point of view but eventually adopted it and pushed it explanations 11
much further in his 1915 general theory of relativity, which explained gravity itself
Exercises 11
in these geometric terms. The insights of general relativity are abstract and help us
Problems 12
understand extreme phenomena such as black holes, but they also have everyday
consequences: general relativity is used by smartphones everywhere to locate
themselves in Earth’s gravitational field with the help of the Global Positioning
System.
We begin with Galilean relativity.

1.1 Coordinates and displacement

Understanding relativity requires, first of all, clear language for describing motion.
Imagine an unmoving camera capturing a series of images of a bicyclist going by
from west to east:

Assuming we care only about the overall position of the bike at any given time
we can boil this information down to a motion diagram, which represents the
position of the bike at any given time as a dot:

The Elements of Relativity. David M. Wittman, Oxford University Press (2018).

© David M. Wittman 2018. DOI 10.1093/oso/9780199658633.001.0001
2 1 A First Look at Relativity

To help you recognize the order in which the positions were recorded, the older
dots are progressively more faded. This motion diagram eliminates details such as
how the pedals were turned or when the rider drank from the water bottle, but it
captures the essence of the motion. By simplifying the bike down to a featureless
dot we have adopted a particle model of the bike. The word particle will appear
often in this book, indicating that we do not care about the details of the object
performing a particular motion. For variety, we may also refer to named objects
or characters in motion, but the particle model is still implicit unless otherwise
noted.
By stripping out other details, the motion diagram helps us focus on a particle’s
position. The change in a particle’s position from one time to another is called
Confusion alert its displacement during that time. Displacement is distinct from position; if an
object never moves during an experiment, it has no displacement, but it definitely
Position in this book refers to location has a position! Although they are distinct concepts, we measure displacement and
alone. We will never use the secondary position in the same units, the most common being meters (abbreviated to m) and
meaning of position that refers to ori-
entation, for example in the phrase kilometers (km). We will also occasionally use feet and miles for variety.
“reclining position.” To quantify position and displacement, imagine a tape measure anchored at
the west edge of the scene and stretched to the east:

0 5 10

The bicycle’s displacement between two snapshots is then the tape measure
reading in the second snapshot minus the tape measure reading in the first
snapshot. To avoid cumbersome phrases such as “the tape measure reading in the
second snapshot” we give the tape measure reading a shorter name; physicists like
to use x. By itself, x will refer to a tape measure reading at any time. Subscripts will
refer to specific tape measure readings; for example, x1 is the tape measure reading
in the first snapshot and x2 is the tape measure reading in the second snapshot.
Furthermore, the symbol  (the upper-case Greek letter “delta”) will indicate a
change in any quantity; for example, x is the change in x. So the displacement
between the first two snapshots is x = x2 − x1 = 3.5 − 0.5 = 3.
By the simple act of placing the tape measure, we have defined a coordinate
system. A coordinate system consists of an origin (the start of the tape measure),
a direction (numbers increase to the east, for example), and a scale (meters, feet,
inches, or whatever is most convenient). Note that our choice of origin does not
affect the displacement we compute; had we anchored the tape measure 10 m
more to the west, then each of the two readings that determine the displacement
would be 10 m larger, and their difference would not be affected. So, in physics
problems we are free to set the origin where it is most convenient. We may
encounter problems where a proper choice of origin makes the answer easier
to calculate, but the physical result cannot depend on the choice of origin. For
example, we can choose to measure the height of a tennis ball in terms of height
 1.2 Velocity 3

above ground or height above the net. This choice affects the numerical value
of the height of the ball and of the height needed to clear the net, but does not
change the answer to the question, “Did the ball clear the net?” This is just one
example of coordinate independence, a key idea that will appear in additional
forms throughout the book.

Check your understanding. In some countries the first floor of a building is

understood to be the floor you walk in on, while in others it is understood to be
the floor immediately above that one. For each of the following statements, assess
whether it is a position or a displacement, and whether it is coordinate-dependent
or -independent: (a) Alice’s office is on the fifth floor; (b) Bob’s office is on the
third floor; (c) Alice’s and Bob’s office are two floors apart.

1.2 Velocity
If displacement tells us how far the bicycle moved, velocity tells us how quickly
it executed this motion. To compute this, we need to introduce an additional
coordinate, time, which is measured by clocks and denoted by t. The difference in Confusion alert
time between measurements of the bike’s position is denoted t, and velocity
is defined as v ≡ x t . The ≡ symbol (read “is defined as”) is used here to
Velocity is one of several words—
reinforce the notion that this is a definition rather than a conclusion. A definition including acceleration, energy, and
momentum—that have specific mean-
is a relationship stronger than mere equality; for example, v = 2 m/s may be true ings in physics but are used loosely
in some particular situation, but we would never write v ≡ 2 m/s. The definition in everyday speech, so take care to
v ≡ x t is useful because it provides a recipe for quantifying the rate of change
understand each physics definition as
it arises.
of the position x. The displacement x alone cannot distinguish, for example,
between the motion of a snail and a sprinter in a 100 m race. The distinction lies
in the sprinter completing the displacement in a small t (thus yielding a large
x x
t ) while the snail requires a large t (thus yielding a small t ).
The direction of motion is inherent in the idea of velocity. If the coordinate
system for the 100 m dash is a tape measure stretched from start to finish,
someone who runs in the wrong direction has a negative velocity because x2 , the
runner’s position at time t2 , is less than x1 , the runner’s position at time t1 . This
makes x = x2 − x1 negative, which in turn makes v = x t negative. In this one-
dimensional coordinate system velocity is a single number, with the direction of
motion encoded by the presence or absence of a minus sign in front of the number.
With coordinate systems that describe two or more dimensions (e.g., a map that
extends north-south as well east-west), the full specification of velocity requires a
bit more care, and we defer that to Section 1.4.
Velocity appears on a motion diagram as follows. Each dot on a motion diagram
indicates an event, which is defined by its time as well as its position. In principle,
we can label each dot in a motion diagram with the time it was recorded, but it is
more convenient to simply record snapshots at regular time intervals so that t
is the same between any two successive snapshots. Then the motion diagram is
4 1 A First Look at Relativity

a visual representation of velocity as well as position and displacement; with t

constant, any variations in x must be due to variations in v and vice versa. In this
particular motion diagram,

0 5 10

we see that x is the same (+3 m) between any two successive snapshots, so the
velocity here is constant. In fact, we will study constant velocity for the remainder
of this chapter because there is much to say even in this simple case.
Because v ≡ x t , velocity can have units of meters per second (m/s), kilometers
per hour (kph), or miles per hour (mph) for everyday things such as cars, or
kilometers per second (km/s) for extremely fast things such as spaceships. In the
motion diagram we have studied, if the units of distance are meters and the camera
takes a snapshot once each second (t = 1), the velocity of the bike is +3 m/s.
I list these units to help you relate velocity to everyday experience, but
physicists find it helpful to focus less on the specific units and more on what they
mean. We will often do abstract things like compare the velocity of some object
to the velocity of light, to see if they are of comparable size. But if they are of
comparable size in one system of units, then they are of comparable size in any
system of units. So, in a very important sense, units will not matter in much of this
book; what matters is that velocity is a displacement divided by a time. That said,
sometimes attaching specific units to an abstract idea does help you understand
the idea. Feel free to take any abstract statement or idea in this book and take it
for a test drive in the units of your choice.

Check your understanding. What is the velocity of a rocket that moves 10 km

eastward in 0.5 s? What is the velocity of a car that moves the same 10 km in
10 minutes? Compare the two velocities in the same units.

1.3 Galilean velocity addition law

Let us call our bicyclist Alice. In Section 1.2 we used a motion diagram to
determine Alice’s velocity as +3 m/s (or 3 m/s to the east). This really means
3 m/s to the east through the coordinate system we defined. You probably assumed the
coordinate system and attached camera were fixed to the road, thus interpreting
Alice’s velocity as 3 m/s to the east relative to the road. But not all coordinate
systems are fixed to the road. Imagine that the motion diagram data were actually
recorded by a camera in the helmet of a second cyclist, Bob, who is himself moving
relative to the road as shown in Figure 1.1. If this is the source of the motion
diagram data we saw in Section 1.2, we must specify that Alice moves at +3 m/s
relative to Bob.
 1.3 Galilean velocity addition law 5

Figure 1.1 Alice, Bob, and Carol move at different velocities. Arrows represent the velocities of each character as measured in
coordinate systems attached to Alice (left panel), to Bob (middle), and to Carol (right). Any two characters always measure
each other as moving at the same speed but in opposite directions; arrows have been shaded to help you match equal and opposite
velocities. The challenge in this section is to see how relative velocities of two characters, say Alice and Carol, could be deduced from
measurements in a third frame such as Bob’s.

This example demonstrates that the meaning of a velocity depends on the

coordinate system—also known as the frame of reference, or simply frame—in
which it is measured. When you read the phrase “Bob’s frame” picture an entire Think about it
coordinate system attached to Bob; in this frame Bob’s velocity is always zero.
Practice thinking in different frames of reference for a moment. Figure 1.1 Each coordinate system includes time
adds a third character, Carol, who is fixed to the road. The middle panel shows as a coordinate; without this coordi-
nate we could describe locations but
that in Bob’s frame Alice is moving to the east but Carol is moving to the west. To not motion. Time is measured by
see why, imagine the view from a camera attached to Bob: Alice is passing him clocks rather than rulers, so thinking
even as he passes Carol. For more practice, imagine the view from Alice’s frame of time as a coordinate may take some
effort initially—but this effort will pay
as in the right panel of Figure 1.1. In this frame, Bob has a westward velocity, off in the long run.
and Carol has an even larger westward velocity. We will use subscripts to track the
frame in which a velocity is measured: vAB is Alice’s velocity as measured in Bob’s
frame (also stated as “relative to Bob”), vBC is Bob’s velocity relative to Carol,
and so on. Note that any two frames always have equal and opposite velocities Confusion alert
relative to each other: if Carol measures Bob moving east at 5 m/s relative to her
(vBC = 5 m/s), then Bob must measure Carol as moving west at 5 m/s relative to Avoid using terms such as left and
him (vCB = − 5 m/s). right when describing directions of
motion. These terms cause confusion
Let us return to Bob’s frame to ask a fundamental question. If we know what because they depend on the direc-
Bob measures for Alice’s velocity and what he measures for Carol’s velocity, tion a person is (or imagines) facing,
can we deduce what Carol and Alice measure for their velocity relative to each whereas all participants agree on the
meaning of terms such as east and
other? Most people have a strong intuition on this question, based on everyday west.
experience. To use a money analogy, if Alice has $3 more than Bob and Bob has
$5 more than Carol, then Alice clearly has $8 more than Carol. Why would we
not do the same with velocities? If we know that vAB = + 3 m/s and vBC = + 5
m/s, how can it not be the case that vAC = +8 m/s? Abstracting away from specific
numbers, this intuition suggests that velocities add according to vAC = vAB + vBC .
6 1 A First Look at Relativity

This is called the Galilean velocity addition law. You can make sense of the
subscripts in this equation by thinking of Bob as a middleman: the left side of
the equation cuts out the middleman and predicts the result of a direct velocity
measurement between the other two parties.
Think about it The Galilean law makes intuitive sense, but intuition is often flawed—velocity
measurements are based on rulers and clocks, and do not necessarily behave
The type of addition used in the like money. Science demands a two-pronged strategy here: identify the assump-
Galilean law is referred to as linear. tions behind our intuition so we can present a clearly defined model of nature,
To illustrate that other kinds of addi-
tion are possible, consider a stack and perform experiments to determine whether nature actually follows this
of pillows: because the lower pillows model. Experiments do show that the Galilean law works very well for everyday
compress, the height of the stack is velocities—but not for very large velocities. This section unravels the model
less than the sum of the heights of
the pillows separately. The addition of behind why it works for everyday velocities, so we can better understand (in later
pillow heights is sub-linear. chapters) why it does not work in all situations.
Ready to unravel the assumptions? We are asked to predict vAC (Alice’s velocity
through Carol’s coordinate system) given a measurement of Alice in another
coordinate system. If we assume, as did Galileo, that clock velocities do not affect
their time measurements, then the time t between any two events is the same
regardless of the coordinate system, and we can write vAC = xtAC without putting
any subscript on the t to specify the frame of the clocks involved. This seems
reasonable, but keep in mind that this is an assumption about the behavior of clocks,
to be revisited in later chapters.
Next, we predict xAC (Alice’s displacement through Carol’s frame) know-
ing only xAB (Alice’s displacement through Bob’s frame) and xBC (Bob’s
displacement through Carol’s frame). If we assume (as did Galileo) that ruler
velocities do not affect their distance measurements, then meters of displacement
measured in Bob’s frame are completely interchangeable with those measured in
Carol’s frame. Again, this is an assumption, not a conclusion, and evidence will
forced us to revise this assumption in later chapters. But for now, this assumption
allows us to add displacements as if they had been measured by the same ruler:
xAC = xAB + xBC . Under these assumptions, then, vAC = xtAC = xABt +xBC
.
xAB xBC
We can rewrite this last quotient as t + t , which, under the interchangeable-
time assumption. is the same as vAB + vBC . This completes the proof that
vAC = vAB + vBC , provided that our assumptions about rulers and clocks are
correct.
You are probably not surprised that velocities add this way—anyone who has
walked on a moving sidewalk or train has experienced it. Yet, if all velocities add
this way there will be profound implications:
Nature should have no speed limit. In principle, there is no upper limit to the
speed we can achieve by concatenating an arbitrarily large number of velocity
additions, such as firing a bullet from a missile launched from a moving train and
so on. A more practical way to achieve such high speeds would be in space, where
there is no air resistance, using an engine to provide a long series of small boosts
rather than a few dramatic boosts. But the practical details are less important than
the logical conclusion that the Galilean model must allow arbitrarily high speeds.
 1.3 Galilean velocity addition law 7

Today it is common knowledge that nature does have a speed limit—the speed of
light—so you already know that one or more of Galileo’s assumptions must be
wrong. In later chapters we will discover how and why they are wrong.
The laws of motion are the same in any constant-velocity frame. If all frames
have equally valid distance and time measurements then there is nothing special
about a frame fixed to your portion of the surface of the Earth. Imagine yourself
inside a smoothly moving train or airplane. If you drop an object, it does not fly
backward as it would if it were stuck to the frame of the Earth; it simply falls
straight down relative to the moving vehicle. Galileo was the first to notice this:
inside any laboratory (which is just a more concrete word for frame of reference)
moving at constant velocity, the laws of motion are the same as on the “stationary”
ground. He argued that if the laboratory’s motion has no effect on experiments
inside, there is no reason to declare one laboratory “stationary” and the other
“moving”—we can only say that they are moving relative to each other. We are
tempted to reserve the words “stationary” or “at rest” for labs fixed to the surface
of the Earth, but the insight here is that even Earth need not be stationary—we
would not feel or measure anything different on a stationary Earth versus an Earth
moving at constant velocity. Galileo’s insight into relativity helped overcome a
persistent objection to the idea that Earth orbits the Sun: that if Earth moved, we
would feel it.
Today it is easy to view those who argued “if Earth were moving people would Think about it
feel it” as ignoramuses, but their experience was rife with situations in which
motion is felt. Consider running or horseback riding: you feel the wind in your The velocity of Earth in fact varies
face and dropped objects do fly backward. We now attribute this to air resistance over time, but these variations are too
small to notice in everyday life.
because we can contrast the feeling of riding in a car with the windows open (or
in a convertible with the top down) versus with the windows closed (or the top
up). Seventeenth-century citizens never saw air resistance turned off, nor could
they easily imagine the emptiness of space that allows Earth to move forever
without resistance. A second reason behind the widespread “if you are moving
you feel it” belief is that everyday life is full of variations in velocity, which can be
felt; the laws of motion are not the same in frames that change their velocities. We
defer more discussion of this important point to Chapters 2 and 4.
You might think that glancing out the window of a smoothly moving laboratory
is enough to tell you whether it is moving, but in fact this only tells you whether
it is moving relative to the Earth. This is the origin of the word relativity: we can
determine the relative velocities of laboratories, but there is no such thing as an
absolute velocity.
If the laws of motion are the same in any constant-velocity frame, then perhaps
all the laws of physics are the same in any constant-velocity frame. This in fact
seems to be the case, as no counterexample has ever been found. Experiment
alone can never prove this conjecture because we can never do all possible
experiments. But because no exceptions have been found, we take this conjecture
as a working hypothesis and deduce further consequences that are then tested by
new experiments. This process of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is the backbone
8 1 A First Look at Relativity

of science. Relativity is a wonderful arena for hypothetico-deductive reasoning

because many fascinating and testable consequences can be deduced from a few
basic principles.

Check your understanding. Aboard a train moving eastward at 90 kph, a bicyclist

rides toward the rear of the train. The speedometer on the bike reads 20 kph.
(a) What is the velocity of the bike relative to the ground? (b) The bicyclist sees
an ant on the bike, crawling at 0.1 kph toward the rear of the bike. What is the
velocity of the ant relative to the ground?

1.4 Velocity is an arrow

Imagine that, in previous sections, Alice was riding her bicycle away from home.
She now returns home:

5 10

From one snapshot to the next, displacement is now negative; for example,
x2 − x1 = − 3. The velocity between those snapshots is also negative because
its numerator (the displacement x2 − x1 ) is negative. The sign of the displacement
or velocity tells us which direction the bicycle moved. Displacement and velocity
are called vector quantities because they describe a direction as well as a size—
think of them as arrows rather than numbers. A quantity that is simply a size
northward component

with no associated direction, such as two cups of flour, is called a scalar

quantity.
In many situations, the size—also called the magnitude—of a vector is more
ort

important than the direction. For example, a 100 kph wind is dangerous regardless
vec

of its direction. Physicists therefore have a special word just to describe the
magnitude of the velocity vector: speed. In the one-dimensional motion diagrams
in this chapter, a speed of 3 m/s can correspond to one of only two velocities: 3 m/s
to the east (+3 m/s) or to the west (−3 m/s). In this special case you can infer the
direction from the sign on the number, but this will not be possible for motions in
two or three dimensions.
Vectors are often described with a magnitude and a direction: for example,
100 m to the southwest or 50 kph to the north-northeast. But we will more
often describe a vector by breaking it down into components that align with the
coordinate system. For example, a 13 m displacement to the north-northeast may
eastward component break down into 5 m to the east and 12 m to the north (Figure 1.2). Keep in mind
that either method is simply a way to describe an arrow. You should always think
Figure 1.2 A vector broken down into of a vector, such as displacement or velocity, as an arrow rather than a number or
perpendicular components. list of numbers.
 1.5 Symmetry and the principle of relativity 9

The velocity addition law vAC = vAB + vBC (and all other equations involving
vectors) work with either type of vector description. For those who prefer literally
drawing arrows, there are many internet resources demonstrating graphical vector
addition and subtraction. Those who prefer components should simply apply
the equation separately to each component. Practicing vector laws with a single
component therefore saves time and is usually enough for a solid understanding.
Most examples in this book deal with motion in one dimension, which is depicted
as toward the right (“east”) or left (“west”) of the page. When the direction of
motion is perfectly clear from the context, a simple number such as v = 10 m/s
may be an acceptable way to specify velocity. “Velocity is an arrow” then helps us
see that v = − 20 m/s would be an arrow twice as long in the opposite direction.
Let us practice the velocity addition law with velocities of different signs in one
dimension. Draw this out for yourself: a car moves east with a velocity relative to
the road of vCR = 100 kph and in the frame of the car, a fly flies from front to
back at 10 kph. Because the fly is moving to the west in the frame of the car and
we have decided that eastbound velocities are positive, the velocity of the fly as
observed by the car must be written as vFC = − 10 kph. The velocity of the fly
relative to the road therefore must be vFR = vFC + vCR = − 10 + 100 = 90 kph.
A variation on this example: a child in the back seat of this car throws a toy forward
at 5 kph (in the frame of the car). The velocity of the toy relative to the road is
then vTR = vTC + vCR = 5 + 100 = 105 kph.

Check your understanding. Consider a one-dimensional motion. (a) Can an object

with negative velocity have a positive position (x > 0)? (b) Can an object with
positive velocity have a negative position (x < 0)?

1.5 Symmetry and the principle of relativity

The experimentally determined laws of physics do not seem to depend on where
the experiment is done; one part of the universe is like any other as far as the laws of
physics are concerned. When parts of a whole are similar to each other we say that
the whole has symmetry. For example, the appearance of a wheel is unchanged
by turning it (rotational symmetry), and human beings have a particular kind of
symmetry in which the left half is similar to the right half (bilateral symmetry).
A useful way to think about symmetry is that it allows something to remain Think about it
unchanged when you perform an action on it, such as rotation (for a wheel)
or reflection in a mirror (for a human being). This helps us use symmetry as Real human beings are not exactly
a thinking tool in more abstract situations—for example, we can ask if the laws of symmetric; for example, the heart is
on the left side. In this case physicists
motion remain unchanged when we change the velocity of the laboratory. say the symmetry is “broken”—it is
Symmetry is a big idea in physics for both practical and profound reasons. not perfect but it still provides a useful
Practically, symmetry provides a valuable tool for solving problems, as we shall approximate description.
see throughout the book. More profoundly, the symmetries we observe in the
laws of physics are clues to the nature of the universe we live in. The vast amount
10 1 A First Look at Relativity

of experimental evidence supporting the principle of relativity—the idea that

the laws of physics are the same in any constant-velocity frame—implies a new,
nonobvious “velocity symmetry” of the universe. This principle by itself is too
broad to allow us to deduce any details such as how to add velocities. If we assume
that Galileo’s velocity addition law is correct, we can fill in many more details; the
resulting set of conclusions is called Galilean relativity (Chapters 3 and 4).
Nature, however, seems to add velocities in a way that approximates the Galilean
law at low speeds while prohibiting speeds above 299,792.458 m/s. Starting in
Chapter 5 we will see how this observation, combined with the principle of
relativity, allows us to deduce a more nuanced set of conclusions called special
relativity. We will then see how understanding special relativity forces us to
think about gravity in a new way; the resulting model of gravity is called general
relativity.

Check your understanding. In what ways are each of these objects at least approxi-
mately symmetric? (a) a pinwheel; (b) a ball; (c) a sea star.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

• Coordinate independence: because the physical result in any situation

cannot depend on your choice of coordinate system, you are free to define
whatever coordinate system you find convenient.
• Galilean velocity addition law: if Alice moves through Bob’s coordinate
system with velocity vAB and Bob moves through Carol’s coordinate sys-
tem with velocity vBC then Alice moves through Carol’s coordinate system
with velocity vAC = vAB + vBC .
• Principle of relativity: the laws of physics are the same in any constant-
velocity frame of reference.

STUDY ADVICE

Research has shown that the best way to study is to practice these concepts from memory without looking at your list
retrieval at spaced intervals. For each of the concepts in and repeat again within a few more days. It may feel awk-
the chapter summary, write down now what you remember ward to put things in your own words but research has
without looking back at the text; the effort of trying to also shown that generating your own statements is key to
remember may be difficult but this effort is good for your learning. This system is much more effective than other
learning. (Of course, you are encouraged to look back at forms of studying, such as highlighting and rereading, and
the text to check and refine your list after writing down will help you target your rereading to where it is most
everything you remember.) Tomorrow, practice retrieving needed.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
kuluneet saappaat, päässä rähjäinen karvalakin kulu sekä kädessä
paksupäinen ryhmysauva, astuu edellämainitusta solasta pihaan.)
Hyvää ehtoota!

TAHVO. Jumal' antakoon!

TUOMAS (Pysähtyy keskelle pihaa ja silmäilee ympärilleen.) Onko

todellakin tämä Jaakkolan talo vai?

TAHVO. On kyllä. Vieras taitaa olla kaukaakin? (Vappu tulee

ämpäri kädessä portaille.)

TUOMAS. Kaukaa, kaukaa. (Menee aitan eteen, katsoo sitä

hetkisen ja kopahuttaa sitten sauvallaan ovea.) Tämän aitan minä
kumminkin tunnen. Mutta ei tule Eveliina enää ovea avaamaan.

VAPPU (Tahvolle.) Mielipuoliko se on tuo kulkijain?

TAHVO. Hiukan omituiselta se tuntuu.

TUOMAS (Kääntyen äkkiä ja tullen edellisten luo.) Oletteko te

entistä
Jaakkolan sukua vai?

TAHVO. Kyllä ollaan. Ainakin sata vuotta on meidän suku tässä

asunut.

TUOMAS. Sappermenttu! Sinähän olet sitten Tahvo!

TAHVO. Niin olenkin. Mutta —

TUOMAS. Ja tuo on sinun eukkosi, entinen Takamäen Vappu,

luulen.
 TAHVO. Niin juuri, mutta —

VAPPU. Kuka ihmeessä se on, kun en kuolemaksenikaan muista

nähneeni?
(Vanha emäntä tulee pirtistään.)

TUOMAS. Mutta missä Eveliina on? (Äänettömyys.) Onko hän

elävien
mailla, naimisissa jonkun kanssa… vai miten on laitansa?
(Äänettömyys; Tuomas jyskyttää sauvaansa kärsimättömästi
pihakiveen.)
No?

TAHVO. Siihen on vaikea vastata, sillä kolmeenkolmatta vuoteen ei

meillä Eveliinan ja Katrin kohtalosta ole ollut mitään tietoa. Mutta —

TUOMAS. Ei mitään tietoa! Kuinka se on ymmärrettävä? Eihän vain

—

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Onko täällä Tavon Tuomas?

TUOMAS (Hämmästyneenä vanhaan emäntään kääntyen.) Tässä

olen, mutta te
— Jaakkolan emäntäkö vai?

TAHVO. Tavon Tuomas! Tapahtuuko ihmeitä! En olisi sinua

mitenkään tuntenut. Terve mieheen! (Kättelevät.) Silmänluontisi
näytti kyllä heti alussa hiukan tutulta, mutta tuo partarykelmä peitti
muun muodon.

VAPPU (Lähestyen Tuomasta.) Terve minunkin puolestani.

(Kättelee
Tuomasta.) Kuka olisi tätä uskonut!
 TAHVO. Olemme jo kaksikymmentä vuotta pitäneet sinua
kuolleena.

VANHA EMÄNTÄ (Tuomaalle.) Sinä tulit tietysti Eveliinaa

tapaamaan. Hän on Katrin kanssa vielä kaurahalmeella, mutta kyllä
he pian tulevat. Mene vain tupaan vartomaan. (Palaa pirttiinsä virttä
hyräillen.)

TUOMAS. Sappermenttu, jos tästä kaikesta sanaakaan ymmärrän!

Sanoithan, Tahvo, äsken, ettei teillä kolmeenkolmatta vuoteen ole
ollut mitään tietoa sisartesi kohtalosta, ja nyt ilmoittaa äitisi, että he
ovat vain kaurahalmeella. Kautta tammisen matkasauvani, miten
tämä on ymmärrettävä?

VAPPU. Parempi, Tuomas, kun et kyselisikään.

TUOMAS. Mutta nyt minä vasta kyselenkin! No siis?

TAHVO. Kaksikymmentäkolme vuotta taapäin hävisivät sisareni

jäljettömiin, ollessaan kaurahalmeella leikkaamassa…

TUOMAS. Jäljettömiin —?

TAHVO. Niin. Pohjanmaalta palasi silloin joukko kasakoita, heidän

tiensä kulki kaurahalmeen vieritse ja he veivät tyttäret matkassaan.
Sen jälkeen heistä ei ole mitään kuultu. (Äänettömyys.)

TUOMAS. Kuolema ja kirous! — Mutta äitisihän odotti heitä

leikkuupellolta palaaviksi?

TAHVO. Samana päivänä surmasivat viholliset isäni ja polttivat

talomme — niin että tuo aitta on ainoastaan entisestä jälellä. Kaiken
tämän johdosta meni äitini järki sekaisin. Siitä päivin on hän elänyt
jonkunlaisessa unheessa, vuottaen yhä tyttäriä leikkuupellolta
palaaviksi.

VAPPU. Ja tänään hän on ollut tavallista levottomampi. Se on ehkä

johtunut sinun tulostasi, Tuomas.

TAHVO. Mutta nytkö sinä vasta olet päässyt Venäjältä palaamaan?

TUOMAS (Seisoo mitään vastaamatta ja tuijottaa eteensä.)

VAPPU (Tahvolle.) Hän ei kuule mitään, vaan tuijottelee niin

synkästi, että —

TUOMAS (Sauvaansa heristäen ja puhuen kumeasti kuin

itsekseen.) Kirous ja kuolema! Jos minä tämän tiesin, niin… vaikka
koko ikäni olisin saanut ryssän maata kierrellä, niin ennen en olisi
sieltä lähtenyt, ennenkuin olisin Eveliinan mukaani saanut.
(Sauvaansa kohottaen.) Tällä sauvallani olisin murskannut kallon
jokaiselta ryssältä, joka olisi poikkiteloin tielleni asettunut.

VAPPU (Arasti.) Mutta jospa Eveliina ja Katri eivät enää elävien

ilmoilla olekaan.

TAHVO. Luultavinta ja toivottavinta on, että sisar-poloiseni

lepäävät jo aikoja sitten nurmen alla:

TUOMAS. Silloin tahtoisin kostaa heidän ryöstäjilleen.

(Äänettömyys, jonka kestäessä Tuomas tuijottaa eteensä, puhuen
sitten harvakseen.) Kun monien vaiheiden ja vaivojen jälkeen
vihdoinkin saavuin tänne synnyinseudulleni, oli kotini raunioina,
pihalla kasvoi miehen korkuinen metsä ja kaikki omaiseni olivat
Manan mailla. Sieltä, kotini raunioilta, suuntasin askeleeni tänne,
toivoen täällä kohtaavani sen, joka lähtiessäni minulle uskollisuutta
lupasi, jota muistellen olen jaksanut kaikki sotavangin vaivat kestää
ja jonka kanssa tunsin kykeneväni vanhan kotini raunioistaan
nostamaan. Mutta Tuonen synkkä yö ammotti täälläkin vastaani.
Turhaan olen siis kaikki vaivat kestänyt, turhaan satojen penikulmien
takaa tänne vaeltanut. Parempi, että olisin saanut jäädä lepäämään
sotatoverieni keskelle siihen suureen yhteishautaan, joka vuosia
kolmekymmentä sitten Pultavan luona umpeen luotiin. (Vaipuu
kivelle istumaan ja painaa päänsä käsiin.)

VAPPU. Voi kuinka minun käy häntä säälikseni! (Kohottaa vyöliinan

silmilleen ja nyyhkyttää.)

TAHVO. (Lähestyen Tuomasta ja laskien epävarmana kätensä

hänen olkapäälleen.) Tuota… eiköhän vielä… (Vaikenee hämillään;
äänettömyyttä jatkuu jonkun tuokion.)

TUOMAS (Äkkiä ylös ponnahtaen.) Sappermenttu! Itkemään ja

allapäin nuhjottamaan ei Tavon Tuomasta ole luotu! Eteenpäin mars!

TAHVO. Mihinkä nyt? Tulehan toki sisälle suunavausta saamaan ja

edes yksi yö lepäämään.

VAPPU. Niin, kun saunakin on valmiina ja sirppijuusto tulella.

Ethän sinä toki yötä Vasten minnekään lähde.

TUOMAS. Lähden kuin lähdenkin. Maa polttaa jalkaini alla.

TAHVO. Minne sitten aijot?

TUOMAS. Sinne josta tulinkin.

TAHVO ja VAPPU (Yht'aikaa.) Ryssän maalleko? Eihän nyt toki!

 TUOMAS. Sinne juuri. Etsimään Eveliinaa.

TAHVO. Mutta kuinka hänet voisit löytää? Jos hän sitäpaitsi enää
elossakaan on.

TUOMAS. Etsin niin kauan kuin jaksan ja jos en muuta voi, niin
kostan, murskaan (heiluttaa sauvaansa) kallon jokaiselta vastaani
tulevalta ryssältä — kunnes minut itseni murskataan. Sen teen!
Jääkää Herran haltuun! (Kääntyy ja yrittää lähteä, mutta pysähtyy,
kun samalla vasemmalta alkaa kuulua laulua.)

KAKSI NAISÄÄNTÄ (Laulaen etäämpänä vasemmalla).

Tuoll' on mun kultani, ain' yhä tuolla,

Kuninkahan kultaisen kartanon puolla;
Voi minun lintuni, voi minun kultani, kun et tule jo!

VANHA EMÄNTÄ (Tulee laulun kestäessä kiirehtien pirtistään,

liikkuu eloisasti ja työntäen huivin korviltaan kuuntelee
herkistyneessä asennossa.) Nyt tyttäret tulevat! Ettekö kuule heidän
lauluaan?

TUOMAS. Sappermenttu! Tuo laulu ja tuo ääni ovat

kahdenkymmenen vuoden ajan sielussani soineet. Tapahtuisiko
todella vielä ihmeitä tämän taivaan alla?

VAPPU. Hyvä Jumala! Olisiko mahdollista, että Eveliina ja Katri…

(Kaikki tähystävät solalle kurotetuin kauloin.) Sieltä tulee kaksi oudon
näköistä vaimoihmistä.

TAHVO. Ja kummallakin sirpit olalla. Taitavat olla vain

leikkuutyöstä palaavia tämän kylän akkoja.
 VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Tyttäret palaavat leikkuupellolta. Enkö minä sitä
ole kaiken päivää sanonut?

TUOMAS. Molemmat puettuja kuin ryssän naiset. Sydämeni

tempoilee kuin ulos hypätäkseen.

EVELIINA ja KATRI (Löysiin ja kuluneihin mekkoihin puettuina,

jalassa kuluneet saappaat, punapohjaiset huivit niskaan työnnettynä
ja olkapäillä pahoin ruostuneet sirppikulut, astuvat solasta pihalle.)

VANHA EMÄNTÄ (Hoippuen heitä vastaan, ilon sortamalla äänellä.)

Tyttäret, Eveliina ja Katri!

EVELIINA ja KATRI (Yht'aikaa.) Äiti!

(Heittäytyvät molemmat hänen kaulaansa; katkonaisia

sanoja ja nyyhkytystä.)

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Lapsi kullat! Viivyitte niin pitkään siellä

kaurahalineella!

EVELIINA (Itkun ja naurun sekaisella äänellä, ottaen sirpin

olkapäältään.) Kaurahalmeella tosiaankin! Ajatelkaas, että me
aivankuin Jumalan johdatuksesta pitkän taivalluksemme jälkeen
ensimäiseksi osuimme sille kaurahalmeelle, josta kasakat
kolmekolmatta vuotta sitten meidät mukaansa raastivat. Nyt siinä
kasvoi itsemme korkuisia puita ja kun me niiden välissä kävelimme,
kilahti sammalen sisällä jaloissani jotakin, ja kun minä kumarruin
lähemmin katsomaan, olivat siellä nämä sirpit — meidän omat
sirppimme, jotka silloin kasakkain tullessa putosivat kädestämme
pellolle. Tunnen omani tuosta merkistä, jota vielä vähän tuossa
kädensijassa häämöttää. Eikö tämä ollut ihmeellistä! (Laskee sirpin
hellävaroen kivelle, samoin Katri; silmäilevät kysyvästi toisia pihalla
seisovia.) Mutta keitä nämä ovat?

VAPPU (Tahvoa tyrkäten.) Etkö tunne omaa veljeäsi?

EVELIINA. Tahvoko? Noin muuttunut! (Tervehtää veljeänsä,

samoin Katri.)
Mutta onkos se ihmekään, kolmessakolmatta vuodessa!

TAHVO (Liikutettuna.) Olkaa tervetulleet, sisar kullat, vanhaan

kotiinne. Ja tässä (Vappua osoittaen) vaimoni — entinen Takamäen
Vappu.

EVELIINA ja KATRI. Vappu! Entinen leikkitoverimme! Terve!

(Syleilevät.)

TUOMAS (Syrjään.) Olisiko tuo elähtänyt, ryppykulmainen nainen

todellakin Eveliina? Vallan toisenlainen kuva hänestä on sydämessäni
säilynyt! (Vetäytyy sivulle ja tuijottaa ajatuksissaan eteensä.)

VANHA EMÄNTÄ (Joka on hapuillut kivelle istumaan.) Tyttäret —

Eveliina ja Katri, tulkaahan tänne! (Eveliina ja Katri istuutuvat toinen
toiselle, toinen toiselle puolen äitiään.) Kuinka sanoitkaan, Eveliina?
Ettäkö kolmekolmatta vuotta sitten veivät teidät kasakat
kaurahalmeelta?

EVELIINA. Kuinkas sitten? Tottahan sen tiedätte. (Vappu rientää

kuiskuttamaan jotakin Eveliinan korvaan.) Niinkö? Äiti poloista, mitä
hän onkaan saanut kestää! (Purskahtaa itkuun ja kietoo kätensä
äidin ympärille.)

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Kasakoita — tulipalo — mieheni surma —

tyttäret vankina… Kuin kaukaa, pikimustasta yöstä, selkenevät
minulle nyt nämä asiat. Ja kolmekolmatta vuottako on siitä kulunut?
Hyvä Jumala, olen siis nämä vuodet elänyt kuin unessa!

VAPPU (Hiljaa Tahvolle.) Ihmeitten päivä tämä: mummolle palaa

järki!

EVELIINA (Hellästi.) Mutta jospa se onkin ollut teille onnellisinta.

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Niin, niin, sulaa Jumalan hyvyyttä kai se on ollut

ja siitä hänelle kiitos! — Mutta, lapset, eikö täällä äsken ollut
myöskin Tavon Tuomas — vai oliko sekin minun omia unennäköjäni?

EVELIINA ja KATRI (Yht'aikaa.) Tuomasko?

VAPPU. Täällä hän on. Tuossa! (Osoittaa Tuomasta, joka seisoo

syrjin toisiin.)

KATRI. Tuoko olisi se Tuomas, jonka kuva on niin elävänä

sydämessäni säilynyt! (Painaa päänsä käsiin.)

TUOMAS (Syrjään, kummastuneena.) Mitä, Katriko sen sanoi — se

pikku typykkäinen? Onko hänkin — (Vaikenee.)

EVELIINA (Kuin itsekseen.) Tuoko olisi Tuomas?

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Tuomas, missä olet ja miksi pysyt niin vaiti? Etkö
näe, täällä on nyt sinun Eveliinasi?

EVELIINA (Kiivaasti.) Elkää sanoko niin, äiti! Minusta ei ole enää

Tuomaalle. Tietäkää: minä olen kaksi vuosikymmentä elänyt
ryöstäjäni, venäläisen, vaimona.

(Painaa päänsä käsiin ja itkee.)

 TUOMAS (Iskee sauvansa maahan.) Kuolema ja helvetti! Tätä vielä
puuttui! Nyt minulla on kaksinkertainen syy palata Venäjälle. Ja herra
varjelkoon silloin jokaista ryssää, joka vastaani osuu! (Yrittää lähteä
solalle.)

KATRI (Kiveltä nousten.) Tuomas, Tuomas, ei Eveliina ole sitä

omasta tahdostaan ollut, vaan pakosta.

TUOMAS. Omasta tahdostaan tai pakosta, yhtä kaikki — joka

tapauksessa on hän ryssän saastuttama.

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Tuomas, Tuomas, varo kovia kokeneesta

käyttämästä noin tylyjä sanoja!

EVELIINA (Ylös nousten.) Tuomas, muistatko sitä syysiltaa, jolloin

sinä sotaan lähtiessäsi viime kerran tänne Jaakkolaan poikkesit?

TUOMAS (Jurosti.) Enkö muistaisi sitä?

EVELIINA. Tuosta aitasta kuulit sinä silloin laulun "Tuoll' on mun

kultani".

TUOMAS. Tuhat tulimmaista! Se laulu on siitä pitäin soinut

sisässäni ja kun sen äsken tuolta kankaalta kuulin, oli sydän
rinnastani hypähtää.

EVELIINA. Ja sen tytön muistat, jonka sinä pimeässä aitassa syliisi

suljit —

KATRI. Eveliina!

EVELIINA. — ja joka kietoi kätensä sinun kaulaasi?

 TUOMAS. Ne pyöreät käsivarret olen siitä pitäin tuntenut
kaulallani. Mutta nyt polttavat ne minua kaksinverroin ja kehoittavat
kiiruusti jättämään tämän paikan.

EVELIINA. Maltahan vielä ja sano, kuka oli se tyttö, joka lauloi ja

joka kätensä sinun kaulaasi kietoi?

KATRI. Eveliina — oletko!

TUOMAS. Vielä sitä kysytkin!

EVELIINA. Kysyn silti, kun sinä et tiedä, että se oli sisareni Katri.

KATRI. Voi sinua, Eveliina! (Peittää silmänsä käsillään.)

TUOMAS. Mitä? Katriko?

EVELIINA. Hän juuri! Hän on sinua salaa rakastanut ja sinua

ajatellen lauloi hän silloinkin tuota laulua. Minä en silloin sattumalta
ollut kotona ja niin sinä, minuksi luullen, syleilit häntä. Vasta
Venäjällä ollessamme kertoi hän sen minulle. Niin, Tuomas, minä en
katso enää itseäni sinulle mahdolliseksi, mutta tuossa on sisareni,
tulkaa te onnellisiksi ja minäkin olen sitä nähdessäni itseni
onnelliseksi tunteva.

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Tuomas, kuuletko, mitä Eveliina sanoo?

TUOMAS. Mitä pitäisi minun tästä kaikesta ajatella? — Ja Katri, se

suloinen pikku typykkäinen, onko hän sitten edes ryssiltä säästynyt?

EVELIINA. On. Katri tekeysi heti alussa mielipuoleksi ja sellaiset

ovat Venäjällä koskemattomia. Niin on hän säilyttänyt itsensä läpi
näiden pitkien vuosien.
 VAPPU (Kätensä yhteen lyöden.) Voi taivas! Kolmekolmatta vuotta
tekomielipuolena!

VANHA EMÄNTÄ. Katri rukkani! Missä oletkaan?

(Hapuilee käsillään, ja kun Katri tulee hänen lähelleen,

silittää hellästi hänen käsiään.)

TUOMAS (Lähestyen epävarmana.) Katri! Luulenpa, että… niin, se

oletkin siis sinä, jota kaivaten minä olen vaivani kestänyt. Mutta… jos
joskus lienetkin minua rakastanut, niin… tokkopa tällaisesta
köriläästä enää välittäisit?

KATRI (Eloisasti katseensa kohottaen.) Ja sinä, Tuomas, minusta?

Olenhan jo täyttänyt neljäkymmentä vuotta.

TUOMAS. Siis ijässä, jolloin suomalainen nainen vasta alkaa

parhaassa kukoistuksessaan olla. Hei, katsokaapas vain, kuinka
hänellä posket punoittavat! (Karri hämillään painaa päänsä alas.)
Sappermenttu, alanpa hävetä tätä ryssänpartaani ja lakkirähjääni.
Tahvo, onko sinulla partaveistä ja parempata pääkappaletta?

TAHVO (Nauraen.) On kyllä, mutta ne kerkeämme kyllä sauna-

aikana käsille hakea.

EVELIINA. Kyllä sinä voit tuossakin asussa kosintasi päättää.

Samaa ryssän kuosia meilläkin on paaliamme.

TUOMAS. No siis, koska tässä asiat ovat niin hullunkurisesti

kiepahtaneet, että minä, vaikka olenkin ollut tarkoittavinani
vanhempaa siskoa, olenkin tosiasiassa nuorempaa rakastanut ja…
koska vanhemmalla ei ole mitään sitä vastaan, niin… tässä tarjoaa
sinulle, Katri, miehen käden, monia kokenut Kaarle-kuninkaan soturi.
Uskallatko tarttua siihen sekä ryhtyä kanssani vanhaa kotiani
raunioista nostamaan?

KATRI (Luoden avuttoman katseen Eveliinaan.) Mutta, Eveliina…

EVELIINA. Noudata vain sydäntäsi. Tiedäthän, että minä olen

onnellinen sinun mukanasi.

KATRI. Tässä on käteni! (Ojentaa kätensä Tuomaalle.)

TUOMAS. Mummo, kuuletteko, mitä tässä tapahtuu?

VANHA EMÄNTÄ (Liikutettuna.) Kuulen, kuulen! Jumala teitä

siunatkoon, lapset!

(Hapuilee eteensä ja silittää Tuomaan ja Katrin yhdistettyjä käsiä.)

EVELIINA, TAHVO ja VAPPU. Onnellisia olkaa!

TUOMAS (Hellittäen Katrin kädestä ja kohottaen sauvaansa.) Nyt

joutaa tämä matkatoveri pois kädestäni, sillä vaellukseni on
päättynyt. Maailman toisesta laidasta, aina Kaspian meren ääriltä,
tämä sauva onkin minua seurannut.

TAHVO. Niin, äskenhän minun piti sulta kysyä, kuinka sinä nyt
vasta sotavankeudesta palaat, mutta siihen tuli sitten näitä muita
asioita väliin.

TUOMAS. Vaiheeni ovat pian kerrotut. Pultavan tappelussa minä

monen muun toverini kera jouduin vangiksi. Seuraavana vuonna
meitä suomalaisia ja ruotsalaisia lähetettiin viisituhatta miestä
satamatöihin Volgan suulle. Kurjiin oloihin ja ruttoon kuoli siellä
miehiä kuin sääskiä. Jälelle jääneet pistettiin tsaarin sotajoukkoon ja
lähetettiin vieläkin kauemmas, taistelemaan kalmukkeja ja muita
koirankuonolaisia vastaan. Siellä jouduin niiden vangiksi ja minusta
tehtiin orja.

EVELIINA ja MUUT. Orja!

TUOMAS. Niin, orja! Ja sanonpa, että orjana siellä pakanain luona

oli parempi kuin ryssällä sotavankina. Kotiin olin päättänyt kuitenkin
kerran päästä. Niinpä onnistuin sitten karkuun livistämään ja
harhailin viikkoja ja kuukausia erämaassa, kunnes taasen jouduin
ryssäin käsiin. Silloin oli jo rauha tehty ja minut olisi tullut suosiolla
päästää kotimaahan, mutta eihän ryssänmaalla mikään asia ole
niinkuin ihmisten ilmoilla. Hovin herra, jonka käsiin jouduin, pisti
minut maaorjainsa joukkoon. Raataa sain kuin hurtta ja yöt olin
vankina lukkojen takana. Kuinka kauan lienen tätä kurjaa elämää
viettänyt, en tarkalleen tiedä, sillä ajan kulku oli jo aikoja päästäni
haihtunut. Mutta kotiin olin päättänyt kerran päästä ja minkä
suomalainen päähänsä saa, sen hän myöskin pitää. Eräänä päivänä
ryhtyi työvouti minua pahoinpitelemään. Te tiedätte, että
suomalainen on arka nahastaan. Kaikkea muuta hän sangen pitkälle
sietää, mutta tulla koskettelemaan, silloin on leikki lopussa.
Jaloissani sattui olemaan jykevä tammenoksa, minä sieppasin sen ja
sivalsin voutia päähän, niin ettei hän enempää tarvinnut. Sitten
metsään, koko orjalauma kintereilläni. Kiinni ei minua enää saatu.
Kuinka kauan lienenkään sitten saanut metsiä ja erämaita harhailla,
en tiedä itsekään, mutta tässä minä nyt lopultakin seison onnellisena
sulhasmiehenä, kuten näette. Ainoana aseenani tällä matkalla on
ollut tämä samainen tammenoksa, jolla sen ryssänvoudin surmasin.
Nyt tämä joutaa kädestäni. (Laskee sen kivelle, jossa sisarusten
sirpit ovat.) Jahka uusi pirttimme valmistuu, ripustamme sen yhdessä
tuon Katrin sirpin kanssa peräseinälle muistoksi menneistä päivistä.
 VAPPU. Mutta nyt sisälle, sauna vartoo ja samoin sirppijuusto. Sitä
syödessämme saavat tyttäret kertoa omat vaiheensa.

TUOMAS. Mutta sitä ennen tahdon kuitenkin päästä tästä ryssän

parrasta.
Usko pois, Katri, tämän karvarykelmän takaa löytyy vielä pulska
mies!

TAHVO. Leikkuumiehetkin tulevat jo tuolla kangastiellä. Nythän

sopiikin viettää samalla sekä leikkuun lopettajaisia että kihlajaisia.

TUOMAS. Sappermenttu, se sopii mainiosti! Ja sitten kemujen

jälkeen taloa pystyyn panemaan. Kyllä se ryssä on koittanut
parastaan meitä maahan tallatakseen, mutta me nousemme aina
vain uutena. Ja nyt minä, näitten omien vaiheittemme valossa, uskon
lujasti että tämä maa kukoistaa vielä silloinkin, kun ryssän
valtakunnasta ei ole muuta kuin löyhkä jälellä.

(Lähtevät kaikin sisälle.)

Esirippu.
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