Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

IA Marks: 50 1 Angstrom (1 A) = 10-10 meter

Hours/ Week: 04 Exam Hours: 03 1 nanometer = 10 Angstrom
Total Hours: 40 Exam Marks: 50
Relative size of the microorganisms and
their visibility. Man can see about 0.5 mm sized
.Module – 2
object whereas the light microscopes can be used
Syllabus
to visualize upto 1 m and EM (electron
Characterization of Nanomaterials
microscopes) can be used to view 1 nm objects.
Basic principles and instrumentations of Electron
Microscopy –Transmission Electron Microscope, Basic Quality Parameters of Microscopic
Scanning, Electron Microscope, Scanning Probes- Images
Scanning Tunneling microscope, Atomic Force The microscopic images should have four
Microscope –different imaging modes, comparison basic quality parameters, through which the
of SEM and TEM, AFM and STM, AFM and SEM. microscopes can be graded.
Basic principles of working of X-ray diffraction, 1. Focus: It refers whether the image is well
derivation of Debye-Scherrer equation, numerical defined or blurry (out of focus). The focus
on Debye Scherrer equation, Optical Spectroscopy- can be adjusted through course and fine
Instrumentation and application of IR, UV/VIS adjustment knobs of the microscope
(Band gap measurement) which will adjust the focal length to get
Introduction clear image. The thickness of specimen,
Microorganisms are too small to be seen by slide and coverslip also decide the focus
our unaided eyes and the microscopes are of crucial of the image. (Thin specimens will have
importance as they help to view the microbes. A good focus).
microscope is an optical instrument consisting of
2. Brightness: It refers how light or the dark
one or more lenses in order to magnify images of
the image is. Brightness of the image is
minute objects. Thus it is important to gain a
depends on the illumination system and
preliminary knowledge about the principles of
can be adjusted by changing the voltage of
microscope and its types. This chapter gives a brief
the lamp and by condenser diaphragm.
introduction to microscopy
3. Contrast: It refers how best the specimen
Principles of Light Microscopy is differentiated from the background or
The light is the primary source on which the adjacent area of microscopic field.
magnification is based in light microscopes. The
4. Resolution: It refers the ability to
magnification is obtained by a system of optical
distinguish two objects close to each
lenses using light waves. Magnification refers the
other. The resolution depends on the
number of times a specimen is appeared to be
resolving power, which refers minimum
larger than its original size.
distance between the two objects which
Basic Units For Microscope can be distinguishable.

1 meter = 1000 millimeter The Limit of Resolution

1 millimeter = 1000 micrometer ( m) = 10-6 The limit of resolution refers the smallest
meter distance by which two objects can be separated
and still be distinguishable or visible as two
1 micrometer = 1000 nanometer (nm) = 10-9
separate objects.
meter

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 1
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

Types of Microscopes Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Microbiologists use a variety of Principle:
microscopes, each with specific advantages and When the accelerated primary electrons
limitations. Microscopes are of two categories. strikes the sample, it produces secondary electrons.
These secondary electrons are collected by a
a. Light Microscope: Magnification is positive charged electron detector which in turn
obtained by a system of optical lenses using gives a 3- dimensional image of the
light waves. It includes (i) Bright field (ii) Dark sample
field (iii) Fluorescence (iv) Phase contrast and Construction:
(v) UV Microscope. • An electron gun is used to produce high energy
b. Electron Microscope: A system of electrons.
electromagnetic lenses and a short beam of • Two magnetic lenses are used as condenser
electrons are used to obtain magnification. It is lenses to convert the diverging electron beam
of two types: (I) Transmission electron into a fine beam of spot diameter of the order of
microscope (TEM) (ii) Scanning electron a few nanometers.
microscope (SEM). • A scanning coil is used to deflect the electron
beam to scan the sample.
• The objective lens is used to focus the scanning
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
beam on a desired spot on the sample.
In electron microscope, short beam of
electrons and magnetic condenser lenses are • The intensities of secondary electron, back-
employed to produce the image. The electrons scattered electrons and the X-rays are recorded
have short wavelength, which helps in better using detectors.
resolution. It is possible to resolve objects as small • The images are then displayed on TV monitor.
as 10°A, which is 100 times more than that of light
microscope. It can magnify object up to 200,000X.
• Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
• Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 2
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

Working: • Magnetic condensing lens is used to condense the

When the high energy electron beam strikes electrons and is also used to adjust the size of the
the sample, some electrons are scattered due to electron that falls on to the specimen.
elastic scattering (the back-scattered electrons), • The specimen is placed in between the
some electrons are knocked off from the surface (the condensing lens and the objective lens.
secondary electrons) and some electrons penetrate • The magnetic objective lens is used to block the
deep into the inner shells of the sample atoms to high angle diffracted beam
knock off inner shell electrons due to which
characteristic X-rays are produced. These are
detected using detectors and the signals are
amplified and displayed on a TV monitor.
Applications:
➢ Used for the morphological analysis of the
surface
➢ To identify cracks, imperfections, or
contaminants on the surfaces
➢ To determine the size and shape of tiny
particles
➢ Used to study chemical compositional
information
Advantages:
➢ SEM can provide digital image resolution as
low as 50 nm
➢ It is easy to determine the thin-film thickness,
grain size and particle size because of the
calibrated imaging technique.
➢ SEM provides great depth of focus Working
• Stream of electrons are produced by the electron
Disadvantages gun and is made to fall over the specimen using
➢ SEM samples must be solid, and vacuum- the magnetic condensing lens.
compatible
• Based on the angle of incidence the beam is
➢ Samples that are strong insulators must be
partially transmitted and partially diffracted.
coated—usually with gold before testing.
• Both these beams are recombined at the E-wald
➢ SEMs are expensive and bulky
sphere to form the image.
• The combined image is called the phase contrast
Transmission Electron Microscopy image.
(TEM) • In order to increase the intensity and the contrast
Principle of the image, an amplitude contrast has to be
Electrons are made to pass through the specimen obtained.
and the image is formed on the fluorescent screen, • This can be achieved only by using the
either by using the transmitted beam or by using the transmitting beam and thus the diffracted beam
diffracted beam. can be eliminated.
Construction
• Electron gun to produce electrons.
Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 3
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

• Now in order to eliminate the diffracted beam, ➢ Samples are limited to those that are electron
the resultant beam is passed through the magnetic transparent
objective lens and the aperture.
• The aperture is adjusted in such a way that the Difference between SEM and TEM:
diffracted image is eliminated.
• Thus, the final image obtained due to transmitted Scanning Transmission
Electron Electron
beam alone is passed through the projector lens Parameters
Microscop Microscopes
for further magnification. es (SEM) (TEM)
• The magnified image is recorded in fluorescent Fine,
Electron
screen or CCD. This high contrast image is called focused Broad beam
stream
Bright Field Image. Also, it has to be noted that beam
the bright field image obtained is purely due to Topographi Internal
Image taken
the elastic scattering (no energy change) i.e., due cal/surface structure
Lower Higher
to transmitted beam alone. Resolution
resolution resolution
Applications: Up to Up to
• TEM is used to study topographical, Magnification 2,000,000 50,000,000
morphological, compositional, and crystalline times times
information. Image
3-D 2-D
dimension
• To analyse the structure and texture of the
Thin and
specimen. Sample thick Ultrathin
• TEM is used in semiconductor industries thickness samples samples only
• Used in technology-based companies to identify okay
flaws, fractures, and damages to micro-sized Penetrates
No Yes
objects. sample
Sample Less
Advantages More restrictive
restriction restrictive
• TEM has high resolving power and can produce Less More
high-quality and detailed images with 2 nm Sample
preparation preparation
preparation
resolution required required
• It can yield information on surface features, Less
Cost More expensive
shape, size and structure expensive
➢ No stain coating is needed for imaging, thus, it Speed Faster Slower
More
is convenient for the structural imaging of
complicated;
organic materials Operation Easy to use
requires
➢ TEM can also offer phase identification of the training
crystal, symmetry determination, lattice
parameter measurement, disorder, and defect
identification.
Disadvantages
➢ TEM setup is bulky, require special housing
and expensive
➢ It involves laborious sample preparation
➢ Operating the TEM setup and analysing the
data require special training

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 4
 Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM): • By using a feedback loop to control the height of
Principle: the tip above the surface- thus, maintaining
The Atomic Force Microscope works on the constant laser position, the AFM can generate an
principle measuring intermolecular forces and see accurate topographic map of the surface features.
atoms by using probed surfaces of the specimen in
nanoscale. Operation Modes
Construction and working 1. Contact mode
A typical AFM consists of a cantilever with In contact mode, the tip is in soft physical
a small tip (probe) at the free end, a laser, a contact with the surface. The tip is able to move
photodiode and a scanner. above the surface with a specific height or under a
• In AFM, a tip is used for imaging. It is generally constant force.
made of silicon or silicon nitride (Si3N4). The tip 2. Dynamic (Tapping) Mode
is attached to the free end of the cantilever, that This mode of operation is less destructive
approaches the sample in a range of interatomic than the contact mode. The cantilever oscillates
distances around 10 Å. nearby its resonance frequency
• A laser beam is focused onto the back of the 3. Non-contact mode
cantilever. It can be reflected in a 4-quadrant In this mode tip does not touch the sample,
photodiode detector. however, it oscillates above the surface during the
• With the help of this position-sensitive scan.
photodiode, the bending of the cantilever can be Applications:
measured precisely. ➢ Used in quality control and imaging for
• The cantilever deflects according to the atomic silicon integrated circuits
force variations between the tip and the sample ➢ Used in study and characterization of
and thereby the detector measures the deflection graphene composite materials
➢ Aerospace and automotive industries to
• Images the topography of a sample surface by
determine a variety of mechanical
scanning the cantilever over a region of interest.
properties at the nanoscale level
• The raised and lowered features on the sample
➢ AFM can be used in biological research to
surface influence the deflection of the cantilever,
distinguish cancer cells from normal cells,
which is monitored by the position-sensitive
based on their stiffness.
photodiode.
Advantages:
➢ AFM generates true, high-resolution, 3-
dimensional surface images
➢ It does not require special sample
treatments that can result in the sample's
destruction or alteration
➢ It does not require a vacuum environment
to operate

Disadvantages:
➢ The image size that it provides is much
smaller than what electron microscopes can
create

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 5
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

➢ It is slow in scanning an image, unlike an Construction

electron microscope which does it in almost A typical STM microscope consists of major three
real-time components.
➢ Tip convolution--not true sample 1. Scanning Probe
topography, but the interaction of the probe It is made of tungsten or platinum-iridium alloy.
with the sample surface Where at the end of the tip called apex
➢ Tips are expensive 2. Piezoelectric tube ( PZT)
The scanner tip is attached to the piezoelectric
Comparison between SEM, TEM, And AFM tube scanner, piezoelectric effect is a
phenomenon under which the material changes
its length accordingly put under electrical
voltage
3. Distance control and Scanning Unit
Position control using piezoelectric means is
extremely fine so coarse control is needed to
position the tip close enough to the sample
before the piezoelectric control can take over
4. Data Processing Unit (computer)
Scanning Tunnelling microscopy The computer recording the tunnelling current
(STM): and control the voltage to the piezoelectric
tubes to produce the 3 dimensional map of the
sample surface
Principle:
Scanning tunneling microscopy works in the
principle of quantum mechanical electron Working
tunneling. The tip is brought close to the sample by a
coarse positioning mechanism that is usually
monitored visually. At close range, fine control of
the tip position with respect to the sample surface is
achieved by piezoelectric scanner tubes whose
length can be altered by a control voltage.
A bias voltage is applied between the
sample and the tip, and the scanner is gradually
elongated until the tip starts receiving the tunneling
current. The tunneling current, being in the sub-
nanoampere range, is amplified as close to the
scanner as possible. Once tunneling is established,
the sample bias and tip position with respect to the
sample are varied according to the requirements of
the experiment.
As the tip is moved across the surface in a
discrete x–y matrix, the changes in surface height
and population of the electronic states cause
changes in the tunneling current.

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 6
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

Operation Modes
1. Constant current mode: In this mode, the
current is made constant during scanning by
changing the distance between the tip and
surface.
2. Constant height mode: In this mode, tip
height is made constant and tunneling
current at every step of scanning is
measured.

Applications:
• The shape, size, and organization of individual
particles or molecules along with the
X-Ray diffractometer (XRD)
topographical information can be determined.
German physicist Max von Laue first
• The topographical information obtained from
observed the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction. The
the analysis of STM helps to characterize the
detailed analysis of crystal structure was given by
surface roughness of the samples.
Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence
• Electronic information of various conducting
Bragg, who were regarded as founders of X-ray
surfaces can be determined.
diffraction science. X-ray scattering and Bragg
• A large charge in tunnelling current is an
diffraction can access the structural information of
indicator of the presence of atoms of different
the investigated nanomaterials.
types or the presence of contaminants like
The “crystal structure” of material commonly refers
absorbed gas.
to its composition at different levels of complexity,
• Advantages: ranging from the basic molecular formula (revealing
• STM provide true, high-resolution, 3- which elements are present and in what ratio) to the
dimensional surface images exact positions of all atoms in the molecule. XRD is
• STMs are versatile, They can be used for ultra a widely used technique to derive materials
high vacuum, air water, and other liquid and information like lattice constant, preferred
gas samples orientation, lattice strain, chemical composition,
• It works faster than AFM dislocation density, crystallite size, etc.
• Resolution of STM better than AFM Principle
• Disadvantages: X-ray diffraction is based on constructive
• The image size that it provides is much smaller interference of diffracted monochromatic
than what electron microscopes can create. Construction and working
• STM requires a vacuum atmosphere. X-ray diffractometers consist of three basic
• STM requires smooth and stable surfaces. elements: A source X-ray, a sample holder, and an
• STM analysis for only conductive samples, x-ray detector.
• Tips are expensive. • A source of X-ray
X-rays are generated in a cathode ray tube by
CAMPARISION OF STM AFM, TEM And heating a filament to produce electrons, accelerating
SEM the electrons toward a target by applying a voltage,
and bombarding the target material with electrons.

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 7
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

Sample holder Limitations (Disadvantages)

X-rays produced from the x-ray tube collimated to a 1. The sample should be homogeneous.
narrow beam by two fine lead slits S1 and S2. This 2. Interpretation requires access to standard
collimated beam is made to fall on the nanomaterial reference data
C mounted on the centre of the turntable. X-ray
3. Preparation of samples often requires grinding
beam and X-ray detector rotates at an angle of θ with
them down to a powder or as a film
the sample. The instrument used to maintain the
angle and rotate the source and detector is termed a
Crystal size determination by Scherer equation
goniometer. The diffracted rays are made into a
The pattern obtained from the X-ray
narrow beam using the slits S3 and S4.
diffractometer is as shown in the figure below where
peak broadening β (Full width half Maximum –

• X-ray detector FWHM) can be calculated for all the peaks.

In the detector, the x-ray produces ionization of the Scherrer derived a formula relating the average
gas in chamber D and the ionization current is crystallite size, D, of a powder to the broadening, β,
measured by an electrometer. Ionization current is of its powder diffraction peaks.
measured for different values of glancing angle. A Kλ
sudden rise in the ionization current indicates an X- That is D=
βcosθ
ray beam at an angle of incidence satisfying the
where K is the constant depends on the geometrical
Braggs law.
shape of the crystallite, θ is the Bragg angle, λ is the
Applications:
X-ray wavelength. Thus, β and D are reciprocally
• It is a popular technique to identify the crystalline related: the greater the broadening the smaller the
phase crystallite size and vice-versa.
• It is used to determine the structural properties
such as lattice parameter, crystal size, crystal
strain etc.
• It is used to determine atomic arrangement
Advantages
• It is a rapid technique for identifying unknown
materials
• It only requires preparation of a minimal sample
for analysis
• It is a non-destructive technique
• Easy to interpret the resulting data

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 8
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

Optical spectroscopy • Filters are made up of Lithium Fluoride and

Infra-red Spectroscopy Diffraction gratings are made up of alkali
halides.
Introduction • Detectors – Detectors are used to measure the
intensity of unabsorbed infrared radiation.
IR-spectroscopy gives the information about
Detectors like thermocouples, Bolometers,
molecular vibrations or more precisely on thermistors, Golay cell, and pyro-electric
transitions between vibrational and rotational detectors are used.
energy levels. Since the absorption of infrared • Recorders – Recorders are used to record the IR
radiation leads to transition between vibrational and spectrum.
rotational energy levels, it is also vibrational-
rotational spectroscopy. Applications
• Identification of functional group and
Instrumentation structure elucidation.
• Identification of substances. ...
The basic components of a dispersive IR • Studying the progress of the reaction.
spectrometer include a radiation source, Sample and
• Detection of impurities.
reference cells, monochromator, detector, amplifier
• Quantitative analysis.
and recorder. A schematic diagram of a typical
dispersive spectrometer is shown in Fig. Advantages

• Qualitative and quantitative analysis: One of

the key advantages of Infrared spectroscopy is
without destroying the sample it can provide
qualitative and quantitative chemical
information.
• Sample Preparation: The major advantage of
infrared spectroscopy is that the sample does
Construction and working not need any particular preparation.
• IR radiation sources:- IR instruments require a • Sensitive and Time-saving technique: IR
source of radiant energy which emit IR radiation spectroscopy is very sensitive, hence it required
which must be steady, intense enough for minimum sample quantity to scan the sample
detection and extend over the desired spectrum and it takes a few seconds to scan a
wavelength. Various sources of IR radiations are whole range of IR.
as follows.
Disadvantages
a) Nernst glower
b) Incandescent lamp • Disadvantages include sometimes difficult
c) Mercury arc handling procedures and maintenance of the
d) Tungsten lamp sample cells.
• sample cells and sampling of substances • There are no infrared spectra in atoms or
IR spectroscopy has been used for the monatomic ions, hence it cannot analyses.
characterization of solid, liquid or gas samples. • To use infrared spectroscopy is that it requires
• Monochromators –
very sensitive and properly tuned devices.
Various types of monochromators are prism,
gratings and filters. Prisms are made of Potassium • The sample having aqueous solutions and
bromide, Sodium chloride or Caesium iodide. complex mixtures are complicated to analyze
by infrared spectroscopy.
Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 9
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
Principle: The radiation emitted from the primary source
The transition of an electron from a non- (polychromatic radiation) enters the
bonding orbital to a π∗ antibonding orbital is monochromator through the entrance slit. The
designated as n to π∗ transition. This transition beam is collimated and then strikes the
involves the least amount of energy in comparison dispersing element (Prism or grit) at a
to all other transitions and therefore gives rise to an particular angle.
absorption band at longer wavelength. Light falling on the prism is reflected at
different angles, depending on the wavelength.
Instrumentation and working The beam is split into its component colors. By
a) Light Source moving the dispersing element or the exit slit,
The most suitable sources of light are radiation of only a particular wavelength can be
• Deuterium lamp which emits the light in the obtained,
UV-region (160-375 nm) Cuvettes
• Tungsten lamp or tungsten-halogen lamp The cells are usually made of glass, plastic
which emits radiation in the Visible and as well as silica or quartz. Of these, glass cells
near infrared regions (350-2500 nm) cannot be used for the UV region as they absorb
• Xenon arc lamp which emits radiation in light in the UV region but can be used
the range 190-800 nm satisfactorily in the visible region. Quartz is
• Light emitting diodes (LED) which emits transparent in all (200-700 nm) ranges and is the
radiation in the visible range 400-800 nm best choice and hence can be easily used in UV
as well as visible region.
b) Monochromator
Monochromator source is used; before
The main function of the monochromator is to
reaching sample, light is divided in two parts of
disperse the beam of light obtained from the
similar intensity with a half-mirror splitter. One
primary source, into its component (Figure 3).
part (or sample beam), travels via the cuvette
The principle components of monochromator
having the solution of material to be examined
are
in transparent solvent. Second beam, or
• An entrance slit
reference beam, travels via similar cuvette
• A collimating lens
having only solvent. Reference and sample
• A dispersing device
solution containers have to be transparent
• A focusing lens
towards passing beam.
• An exit slit
c) Detectors
A detector converts a light signal into an
electrical signal. After the beams are passed through
the sample under study as well as the reference cell,
the intensities
Applications of UV-Vis spectroscopy
• DNA and RNA analysis
• Pharmaceutical analysis
• UV-Vis spectroscopy is utilised frequently in
bacterial cultivation. To assess cell concentration
and monitor growth, 600 nm OD readings are

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 10
Introduction to Nanotechnology Subject Code: 22ETC15C/25C

routinely and rapidly acquired at a wavelength of each successive unit layer absorbs an equal fraction
600 nm. of light incident on it.
• Another common application of UV-Vis A = ɛcb Log10 I0/I= ɛcb
spectroscopy is the determination of specific Where A is the sample’s Absorbance value at
chemicals in beverages. Caffeine content must be specific wavelength or frequency
under specified legal limits which can be ε is the molar absorptivity or the molar extinction
measured with UV light. coefficient of the substance b is the path length of
• UV-Vis spectroscopy is used to study the the sample in cm
electronic and optical properties of materials, c is the concentration of the solute in mol L-1.
such as semiconductors, dyes, and pigments. The value of ε absorptivity coefficient is constant
• UV-Vis spectroscopy is used to study the for a particular material at a particular wavelength.
properties of blood, to monitor the level of Limitations of the Beer-Lambert Law
glucose in blood, and to study the Under certain conditions Beer-Lambert law fails to
photochemistry of biological systems. maintain a linear relationship between absorbance
• UV-Vis spectroscopy is used to analyze trace and concentration of the solution.
evidence, such as fibers and paint, to identify the 1. Deviations in absorptivity coefficients at
source of a sample. high concentrations (>0.01M) due to
• UV-Vis spectroscopy is used to measure the electrostatic interactions between molecules
concentration of food ingredients, to monitor the in close proximity.
quality of food products, and to detect 2. Scattering of light due to particles present in
contaminants. the sample.
Absorption Laws 3. Chemical deviations due to the specific
When the radiation passes through a chemical species of the sample under
solution, some amount of light is absorbed. Suppose investigation.
I0 is the intensity of the incident radiation and I, the 4. Non-monochromatic radiation
intensity of the transmitted radiation. 5. Fluorescence or phosphorescence of the
The amount of radiation absorbed can be measured sample
by Transmittance T = I/I0
% Transmittance = T×100 Absorbance A = Log10
I0/I= Log10 1/T
If the entire light passes through a solution without
any absorption, then absorbance is zero. In this case,
the percent transmittance is 100%.
If all the light is absorbed, then absorption is infinite
and the percent transmittance is zero %.

Beer-Lambert Law: It gives a linear relationship

between absorbance and concentration of an
absorbing species. This law states that the
absorption is directly proportional to the
concentration of absorbing substance and the length
of the path of radiation through the sample. It is
independent of the intensity of the incident light and

Dr, Yashwanth H J
Assistant Professor, Dept of Physics,
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore. 11