SPM IMP Questions

Q1. Explain project life cycle.



The project life cycle refers to the series of phases a project undergoes from initiation to closure. It
comprises four main phases: Initiation, Planning, Implementation, and Closure. Each phase has specific
tasks and objectives that guide the project towards successful completion.
1. Initiation Phase
In this first phase, the project's purpose is identified. This could involve addressing a problem
or taking advantage of a new opportunity. A feasibility study is conducted to determine if the
project is possible and valuable, and then a solution is selected. Once approved, the project
manager is appointed, and initial plans are outlined. Approval is then sought to move to the
next phase.
2. Planning Phase
This phase involves detailed planning for the project. The team defines all the tasks and
resources required, creates a project schedule, and sets a budget. This is where risk management
is also conducted, identifying potential issues and solutions to avoid delays or problems.
Stakeholders are identified, and a communication plan is set up to keep everyone informed.
Quality standards are also established to ensure a high-quality result. Once everything is
documented, the project is ready for execution.
3. Implementation (Execution) Phase
In this phase, the project plan is put into action. The project manager monitors progress,
communicates with the team, and makes any adjustments needed to stay on track. Regular
reports are reviewed to ensure the project is progressing as planned. Any changes or delays are
documented, and stakeholders are updated regularly. The aim is to complete all tasks and meet
the project’s objectives as specified.
4. Closing Phase
In the final phase, the project wraps up. Deliverables are handed over to the customer,
documentation is organized, and resources are released. A lessons-learned review is conducted
to capture what worked well and what didn’t. This helps improve future projects by sharing
insights and experiences.
These four phases together form the project life cycle, guiding a project from its start through
to completion.

Q2. Spiral Model with its advantages and disadvantages.


Spiral Model
The Spiral Model combines iterative development with the systematic approach of the Waterfall Model,
emphasizing risk analysis at each iteration. It allows for incremental refinement of the product through
multiple cycles, called spirals.
Phases of the Spiral Model:
1. Customer Communication – Tasks required to establish effective communication between
developers and customers.
2. Planning – Tasks required to define resources, timelines, and other project-related
information.
3. Risk Analysis – Tasks required to assess both technical and management risks.
4. Engineering – Tasks required to build one or more representations of the application.
5. Construction and Release – Tasks required to construct, test, install, and provide user
support, including documentation and training.
6. Customer Evaluation – Tasks required to obtain customer feedback based on evaluation of
the software representations created during the engineering stage and implemented during the
installation stage.

Advantages of the Spiral Model

 Accommodates changing requirements effectively.
 Promotes early user involvement through prototypes.
 Risk management is integral to the process.
 Users see early versions of the system.
 Supports development of complex projects in manageable increments.
Disadvantages of the Spiral Model
 Management and documentation are more complex.
 Not suitable for small or low-risk projects.
 The process can be expensive and time-consuming.
 Risk of indefinite loops without strict control.

Q3. Explain FTR.

OR
What is FTR and why it is required?
OR
What are Software reviews? Explain the process of FTR.
OR
Explain Fromal Technical Review in detail. State how it helps to improve Quality of software
development.

Formal Technical Review (FTR):
A Formal Technical Review (FTR) is a systematic and structured process conducted to evaluate software
products for errors in functionality, logic, and implementation. It is a vital part of Software Quality
Assurance (SQA), aimed at improving software quality and ensuring adherence to standards.

Purpose of FTR:
● The purpose of an Formal Technical Review (FTR) is to identify errors in function,logic and
implementation of software.
● It is used to verify that the software under review meets its requirements.
● It ensures that the software has been represented according to predefined standards.
● It also helps to achieve software that is developed in a uniform manner and to make projects more
manageable.

Types of Software Reviews in FTR:

Review:
A review is a process or meeting during which a software product is presented to project personnel,
managers, users, customers, user representatives, or other interested parties for comment or approval.
1. Inspection:
An inspection is a visual examination of a software product to detect and identify software irregularity,
including errors and deviations from standards and specifications.
2. Walkthrough:
A walkthrough is a static analysis technique in which a designer or programmer leads members of the
development team and other 144 interested parties through a software product, and the participants ask
questions and make comments about possible errors, violation of development standards, and other
problems.

Process of FTR
1. Orientation: Participants familiarize themselves with the product being reviewed.
2. Preparation: Reviewers examine the product individually to identify defects.
3. Review Meeting: Conducted by a moderator, the team discusses identified defects.Suggestions for
improvement are documented.
4. Follow-up: The author resolves issues identified during the review. The moderator ensures that all
actions are completed.

Roles in FTR
1. Moderator: Facilitates the review process.
2. Author: Presents the product and implements corrections.
3. Reviewer: Examines the product and provides feedback.
4. Scribe/Recorder: Documents findings and outcomes of the review.

How FTR Improves Software Quality

 Encourages early detection of defects, reducing rework and costs.
 Enhances collaboration among team members, ensuring better understanding of requirements.
 Helps standardize development practices, ensuring uniformity across the project.
 Increases customer satisfaction by delivering high-quality software.

Q4. What are different requirement elicitation techniques? explain in detail.

 OR
Define requirement engineering. Explain any two requirement elicitation techniques.
OR
What is requirement elicitation? Explain various methods used in it.
OR
What are different techniques used in requirement elicitation.


Requirement Engineering
Requirement Engineering is the process of systematically gathering, analyzing, documenting, and managing
the requirements of a software system. Its goal is to ensure that the system meets the needs and
expectations of stakeholders. It involves stages such as requirement elicitation, specification, validation,
and management.

Requirement Elicitation
Requirement elicitation is a crucial step in requirement engineering, aiming to understand the stakeholders'
needs, the environment in which the system will operate, and the features required for the new system. Its
purpose is to bridge the gap between vague stakeholder ideas and concrete system requirements.

Techniques for Requirement Elicitation

1. Interviewing:
Interviews involve direct communication between stakeholders and requirements engineers to gather
insights about the current system and the expectations for the new system.

Interviews may be of two types:

1. Closed interviews, where the stakeholder answers a predefined set of questions.
2. Open interviews, in which there is no predefined agenda. The requirements engineering team explores a
range of issues with system stakeholders and hence develops a better understanding of their needs.
Advantages:
 Provide a deep understanding of stakeholder work processes.
 Encourage stakeholders to share their challenges and expectations.

2. Brainstorming:
Brainstorming is a group-based requirement elicitation technique aimed at generating a large number of
ideas quickly. It fosters creativity and innovation among stakeholders to better understand the system’s
requirements.

Steps in Brainstorming:
1.Preparation: Select participants and a trained facilitator. Define the agenda clearly.
2. Conducting the Session: Encourage unrestricted idea sharing without criticism. Record all ideas visibly
for participants to view. Use creativity tools like mock-ups or provocative problem statements to spark
discussions.
3. Post-Session Activities: Review and refine ideas, resolving incomplete ones. Categorize and prioritize the
final list of requirements. Prepare a detailed report in simple language for clarity.

Advantages:
 Encourages creativity and innovation.
 Helps uncover unconventional ideas and solutions.
  Provides a platform for stakeholders to share concerns and expectations.

3. Questionnaires:
Questionnaires are a requirement elicitation technique involving a series of structured or unstructured
questions designed to collect specific information from stakeholders. This technique is particularly useful
when information must be gathered from a large group efficiently.

Types of Questions in Questionnaires:

1. Closed Questions: Provide a set of predefined alternatives for respondents to choose from.
Examples: Fill-in-the-blank, Dichotomous Questions (Yes/No), Multiple-Choice Questions, Ranking
Scales.

2. Open Questions: Allow respondents to provide descriptive, detailed answers. Useful for gathering
opinions, ideas, and new perspectives.
4. Facilitated Application Specification Technique (FAST):
Its objective is to bridge the expectation gap– difference between what the developers think they are
supposed to build and what customers think they are going to get. A team-oriented approach is developed
for requirements gathering.

Each attendee is asked to make a list of objects that are --

1.Part of the environment that surrounds the system. 2. Produced by the system 3. Used by the system
Each participant prepares his/her list, different lists are then combined, redundant entries are eliminated,
team is divided into smaller sub-teams to develop mini-specifications and finally a draft of specifications is
written down using all the inputs from the meeting.

5. Use Case Approach:

Use cases describe the interactions between users (or other systems) and the software system to capture
functional requirements.
Components of a Use Case:
 Actors: Entities (human users or other systems) interacting with the system.
 Use Cases: Specific interactions or tasks the system must perform for the actor.
 Scenarios: Detailed sequences of steps for normal interactions and exceptions.
Example:
For a library management system:
 Actor: Librarian.
 Use Case: "Issue Book" (Librarian issues a book to a member).

Q5. Define project. Explain project management framework.

OR
Explain software project management framework.

Project:
A project is “a temporary endeavor(aim) undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.”
Projects are different from operations in that they end when their objectives have been reached or the
project has been terminated. A project is temporary. A project’s duration might be just one week or it
might go on for years, but every project has an end date. You might not know that end date when the
project begins, but it’s there somewhere in the future.
Project Management Knowledge Areas:
Knowledge areas describe the key competencies that project managers must develop.
• The four core knowledge areas of project management include project scope, time, cost and quality.
• The five facilitating knowledge areas of project management are human resource, communications, risk,
procurement and stakeholder management.

Core knowledge areas:

 scope management involves defining and managing all the work required to complete the project
successfully.
 time management includes estimating how long it will take to complete the work, developing an
acceptable project schedule, and enduring timely completion of the project.
 cost management consist of preparing and managing the budgets for the project
 quality management ensures that the project will satisfy the stated or implied needs for which it was
undertaken.

Facilitating knowledge areas:

 human resource management is concerned with making effective use of the people involved with the
project.
 communication management involves generating, collecting, disseminating and storing project
information.
 risk management includes identifying, analysing and responding to risk related to the project.
 procurement management involves acquiring or producing goods and services for a project from
outside the performing organization.
 stakeholder management includes identifying and analysing stakeholder needs while managing and
controlling their engagement throughout the life of the project.

Project Integration Management: This sits at the centre of all knowledge areas, ensuring that they work
together effectively. Integration management coordinates processes and activities to achieve project goals.
Tools and Techniques: Various tools, such as project management software, Gantt charts, and progress
reports, help in planning, tracking, and controlling project tasks and resources.
Project Portfolio: A collection of projects, which, when successfully managed, contribute to Enterprise
Success. Each individual project is aimed at achieving project Success, but collectively, they align with the
organization's strategic goals and objectives.

Q6. What is CPM? explain with an example.

OR
Explain critical path and how it is calculated with example.
OR
What are steps for CPM.

Critical Path Method (CPM):
The Critical Path Method (CPM) is a project management technique used to estimate the total duration of a
project. It identifies the critical path, which is the sequence of activities that determines the shortest time
in which the project can be completed.

Key Concepts in CPM:

1. Critical Path:
o The longest path through the project network diagram.
o It has zero slack (float), meaning any delay in activities on this path will delay the project
completion.
2. Slack/Float:
o The amount of time an activity can be delayed without impacting the project schedule.
3. Time Parameters:
o Earliest Start (ES): Earliest time an activity can start, considering task dependencies.
o Earliest Finish (EF): Earliest time an activity can finish, calculated as: EF = ES + Duration
o Latest Finish (LF): Latest time an activity can finish without delaying the project.
o Latest Start (LS): Latest time an activity can start without delaying the project, calculated as:
LS = LF − Duration
4. Float:
o Calculated as: Float = LS – ES or LF – EF

Steps to Calculate the Critical Path:

1. Develop the Network Diagram:
Create a network diagram representing the project's activities and their dependencies.
2. Calculate Path Durations:
Add the duration estimates for all activities in each path of the diagram.
3. Identify the Critical Path:
The critical path is the longest path through the network with zero float.
4. Perform a Forward Pass:
Calculate the earliest start (ES) and earliest finish (EF) for each activity.
5. Perform a Backward Pass:
Determine the latest finish (LF) and latest start (LS) for each activity.
6. Calculate Total Float:
Use the formula: Float = LS – ES or LF − EF

Example: Determining the Critical Path

Project Activities:
Activity Duration (Days) Predecessor(s)
A 3 None
B 2 A
C 4 A
D 5 B, C
Steps:
1. Draw the Network Diagram:
Visualize activities and their dependencies.
2. Calculate Durations of Paths:
o Path 1: A → B → D = 3+2+5=103 + 2 + 5 = 103+2+5=10 days
o Path 2: A → C → D = 3+4+5=123 + 4 + 5 = 123+4+5=12 days
3. Identify Critical Path:
o Path 2 (A → C → D) is the critical path as it has the longest duration (12 days).
4. Perform Forward and Backward Pass:
o Forward Pass: Compute ES and EF for each activity.
o Backward Pass: Compute LS and LF for each activity.
5. Calculate Float:
o Activities on the critical path have zero float.

Q7. Write a short note on cocomo model. OR Different types on cocomo model.

COCOMO Model:
The Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO) is a software cost estimation model proposed by Barry W. Boehm
in 1981. It is a single-variable regression model that predicts the effort and development time required for
software development based on project size, measured in KLOC (thousands of lines of code). COCOMO is
particularly useful for project managers and software engineers to make informed decisions regarding
project planning and resource allocation.

Types of COCOMO Models:

1. Basic COCOMO:
 This is the simplest form of the COCOMO model, which provides a rough estimate of the effort and
cost based on the size of the software measured in lines of code (LOC).
 The formula for effort estimation is: Effort (person-months) = a × ( KLOC ) b
 This model is best suited for early-stage projects where detailed information is not yet available.
 Example modes:
o Organic (Small, simple projects).
o Semi-Detached (Medium projects).
o Embedded (Large, complex projects).

2. Intermediate COCOMO:
 This model extends the Basic Model by incorporating additional cost drivers that account for various
project attributes, such as product reliability, team experience, and development environment.
  It provides a more refined estimate by considering factors like Required software reliability,
Database size, Product complexity.
 The effort estimation formula is similar to the Basic Model but includes multipliers for the cost
drivers: E (Effort) = a *(KLOC)b * EAF (in Person-Month)

3. Detailed COCOMO:
 The Detailed COCOMO model includes all the features of the Intermediate model and further
breaks down the project into phases (e.g. requirements, design, implementation, testing).
 It allows for a more granular analysis of effort and cost by considering the impact of various phases
on the overall project.
 This model is suitable for large and complex projects where detailed planning and estimation are

Effort (E) = a * (KLOC)b * EAF

critical.

Development Time (D): D = cb * (E)d

Q8. Discuss the principles of risk management.


Risk management in software development follows seven key principles that work together to create a
comprehensive approach.
1. Global Perspective: Software risks must be evaluated within the broader system and business
context, ensuring solutions align with intended objectives.
2. Forward-Looking View: Organizations need to anticipate future risks and develop contingency plans
proactively rather than just reacting to current issues.
3. Open Communication: All stakeholders and users should be encouraged to identify and report risks
at any point, fostering a culture of transparency.
4. Integration: Risk management should be embedded within the software development process
rather than treated as a separate activity.
5. Continuous Process: Risk management is dynamic - identified risks should be regularly updated as
new information emerges and additional risks are discovered.
6. Shared Product Vision: Having all stakeholders aligned on a common vision improves risk
identification and assessment accuracy.
7. Teamwork Focus: Effective risk management leverages collective expertise by pooling skills and
experience from all stakeholders during risk-related activities.

These principles emphasize proactive, collaborative, and systematic approaches to identifying and
managing software development risks.

Q9. Discuss the various steps involved in risk management.


Project risk management provides an early warning system for identifying and addressing potential
problems while also identifying opportunities.

1. Plan Risk Management

o Define how to approach and execute risk management activities.
o Develop a risk management plan, including strategies for mitigation, monitoring, and
management.
2. Risk Identification
o Systematically identify risks that may impact project scope, schedule, budget, or quality.
o Use tools like risk item checklists to evaluate risks in categories such as product size, business
impact, customer characteristics, development environment, and staff expertise.
o Include all stakeholders in identifying risks related to project goals.

3. Risk Analysis
o Qualitative Analysis: Assess the probability and impact of risks. For example:
 Uncertainty: Risk may or may not occur.
 Loss: If the risk materializes, it results in unwanted consequences.
o Quantitative Analysis: Evaluate risks numerically by calculating risk exposure using
RE = P × C, where P is the probability and C is the cost impact.

4. Risk Projection and Prioritization

o Rate each risk based on likelihood and consequences using a risk table.
o Sort risks by probability and impact to identify high-priority risks.
o Use first-order prioritization (high-probability, high-impact risks) and second-order
prioritization (risks with lower probability but significant impact).

5. Risk Mitigation, Monitoring, and Management (RMMM)

o Mitigation: Take steps to reduce the likelihood or impact of risks, such as improving
communication or providing training.
o Monitoring: Track risks to see if they occur and ensure that mitigation steps are effective.
o Management: Develop contingency plans for managing risks if they materialize.

6. Risk Assessment
o Reassess risks to validate the estimates of probability and impact.
o Rank risks and analyze compound effects of multiple risks on project objectives.

Types of IT Project Risks:

1. Project Risks: Affect the schedule, cost, or staffing.
2. Technical Risks: Affect the quality and feasibility of software development.
3. Business Risks: Jeopardize the viability of the project or product (e.g., market risk, strategic risk).
4. Known Risks: Identifiable after evaluation.
5. Predictable Risks: Extrapolated from past experiences.
6. Unpredictable Risks: Difficult to foresee but still possible.

Q10. What is the purpose of risk analysis and assessment? Also explain proactive and reactive risk
strategies.

Purpose of Risk Analysis and Assessment
The purpose of risk analysis and assessment in software project management is to identify, evaluate, and
manage uncertainties that could impact project outcomes. It aims to:
1. Identify Potential Risks: Determine what could go wrong during the project lifecycle.
2. Evaluate Likelihood and Impact: Analyse the probability of risks occurring and their potential
impact on project scope, schedule, cost, and quality.
3. Prioritize Risks: Rank risks based on their severity to focus on critical ones.
4. Develop Mitigation Strategies: Plan measures to minimize or avoid the occurrence of risks and their
consequences.
5. Improve Decision-Making: Support proactive decision-making to enhance project success rates.
6. Ensure Project Stability: Provide a framework to monitor, manage, and control risks throughout the
project.

1. Reactive risk strategies

1. Reactive risk strategies follows that the risks have to be tackled at the time of their occurrence.
2. No precautions are to be taken as per this strategy.
3. They are meant for risks with relatively smaller impact.
2. Proactive risk strategies
1. Proactive risk strategies follows that the risks have to be identified before start of the project.
2. They have to be analysed by assessing their probability of occurrence, their impact after occurrence,
steps to be followed for its precaution.
3. They are meant for risks with relatively higher impact

Q11. What is UML? Explain the features provided by UML.

OR
Explain any two UML diagram.
OR
Explain various UML diagrams.
OR
Explain nature and purpose of UML model.

UML: Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standardized general-purpose modeling language used in software
engineering to visualize, specify, construct, and document the artifacts of a software system. UML helps in designing
and understanding complex software applications by representing their components graphically.

Features Provided by UML

1. Graphical Representation: UML provides a visual approach to understanding software systems using
diagrams.
2. Standardization: It is a standardized language, ensuring consistency across projects.
3. Supports Object-Oriented Design (OOD): UML aligns with object-oriented concepts like classes, objects,
inheritance, and polymorphism.
4. Flexibility: It can be applied to different domains, such as software, hardware, and business processes.
5. Interoperability: Enables communication among various stakeholders, such as developers, analysts, and
clients.
6. Extensibility: UML can be customized using stereotypes and profiles to meet specific needs.
The Main 4 UML Diagrams
1. Use Case
A use case is a description of a specific interaction between a user (or actor) and a system to achieve a particular
goal. It outlines the steps involved in the interaction, focusing on the what the system should do rather than how it
does it. Use cases are used to capture functional requirements and typically involve scenarios that describe user
actions and system responses. They are commonly represented in textual format and use case diagrams, which help
in understanding and communicating system functionality.

Association: Generalization: Include: Extend:

2. Class Diagram
A Class Diagram is used to represent the structure and behavior of a system by illustrating its classes, attributes,
operations (methods), and the relationships between the classes. It serves as a conceptual model of the system,
capturing the static view of the system’s entities and their interactions. Class diagrams are essential in requirement
capture and end-user interaction, and more detailed versions are used by developers.

Key elements in a class diagram include:

1. Classes: Represented by rectangles divided into three
compartments (name, attributes, and operations).
2. Visibility Modifiers: Indicate the access level of attributes and
operations, such as Public (+), Protected (#), and Private (-).
3. Relationships: Include Generalization (parent-child) and
Association, which can further be categorized into Aggregation
and Composition.

3. Sequence Diagram
A Sequence Diagram is used to model the interaction between objects in a system over time. It shows how objects
communicate with each other by sending messages, and is particularly useful for visualizing single-scenario
situations. The diagram emphasizes the control focus in objects and can include various types of interaction
messages such as synchronous, asynchronous, and simple.

Key elements of a Sequence Diagram include:

 Lifelines: Represent objects participating in the interaction.
 Activation Bars: Indicate the period when an object is active and processing.
 Messages: Represent communication between objects, with different types such as synchronous (operation
call), asynchronous (independent execution), and self-calls (messages an object sends to itself).
 Object Creation and Deletion: Objects are created using a "create" message and deleted with an ‘X’ on the
lifeline.

4. State Diagram
A State Diagram is used to describe the behavior of a system by modeling the different states an object can be in as
events occur. It represents the life cycle of an object in a system, tracking its transitions between states through
various events. Typically, state diagrams focus on a single class and are used to demonstrate the object's behavior
across different use cases.
Key elements of a state diagram include:
 States: Represented by rounded boxes, indicating the condition of an object.
 Transitions: Arrows showing how the object moves from one state to another due to events or conditions.
 Activity: Depicts the actions the object performs while in a particular state.

Q12. What is SRS? why it is Important to develop SRS.



Software Requirements Specification (SRS)

A Software Requirements Specification (SRS) is a document that describes the functional and non-functional
requirements for a software system. It acts as a comprehensive blueprint for both the development team and the
stakeholders, outlining exactly what the software will do, how it will perform, and under what conditions it will
operate. The SRS serves as a contract between the client and the development team, ensuring that the final software
product aligns with user needs and expectations.

Key Components of SRS:

1. Functional Requirements: These describe the specific functions the system should perform. They outline
what the system will do in response to inputs, such as user actions or system triggers.
2. Non-Functional Requirements: These cover aspects like performance, scalability, security, and usability. They
specify how well the system should perform.
3. System Interfaces: Specifies the interactions between the software system and external systems or
hardware.
4. User Interfaces: Describes the interface between the user and the software system.
5. Constraints: These include limitations or restrictions that the system must adhere to, such as technology
constraints or regulatory requirements.
6. Assumptions and Dependencies: Outlines assumptions made during the development and any external
dependencies.

Importance of Developing an SRS

1. Clear Communication: Ensures a shared understanding of system functionalities and requirements between
stakeholders, developers, and users.
2. Guidance for Design and Development: Acts as a reference for developers and designers to align the system
design with the requirements.
3. Helps in Validation and Verification: Provides a benchmark to validate if the system meets business goals
and verify if the requirements are fulfilled.
4. Scope Management: Defines the system's scope, preventing scope creep by outlining included and excluded
features.
5. Improved Quality: Ensures focus on key requirements, leading to a higher-quality product and proper
testing.
6. Legal and Contractual Purpose: Serves as a contract, defining the software's functionality and resolving
disputes.
7. Documentation for Future Reference: Acts as a permanent record for future updates, maintenance, and
troubleshooting.

Q13. DevOps Lifecycle.


DevOps:
DevOps is a set of practices, tools, and a cultural philosophy designed to integrate and automate the processes
between software development and IT operations teams. The primary goal of DevOps is to shorten the development
lifecycle, increase the quality of software, and improve collaboration between development and operations teams.
DevOps Lifecycle
The DevOps Lifecycle is a continuous, iterative process that emphasizes collaboration, feedback, and
improvement at every stage. It is often represented as an infinity loop, symbolizing the ongoing nature of
DevOps activities. The lifecycle is divided into eight phases, each focusing on specific processes,
capabilities, and tools necessary for development and operations.

Phases of the DevOps Lifecycle:

1. Discover: In this phase, teams align on the goals of the project, ensuring that ideas and features are
connected to strategic business objectives. Agile methodologies are often employed to organize and
prioritize ideas based on customer impact.
2. Plan: DevOps teams adopt Agile practices to break down tasks into smaller increments. This helps
improve speed and quality by allowing teams to deliver incremental value.
3. Build: This phase involves the development of the software. Tools like Git are used for version
control, enabling better collaboration and management of code across the development process.
4. Test: Continuous integration (CI) is a key part of the testing phase, where automated tests are run
every time code is integrated. This ensures that code changes do not negatively affect the
functionality or quality of the system.
5. Deploy: Continuous Deployment (CD) automates the release of features into production.
Deployment can also be controlled using feature flags, which allow teams to release new features
gradually, minimizing the risks of large-scale deployments.
6. Operate: This phase focuses on managing the end-to-end delivery of IT services. It involves
maintaining and configuring infrastructure to support the deployed application, ensuring the system
operates efficiently.
7. Observe: Observability is crucial in DevOps. This phase focuses on monitoring the application in
real-time to identify issues and performance bottlenecks. Teams can automatically receive alerts if
failures or high-risk actions occur, allowing them to quickly respond to potential problems.
8. Continuous Feedback: Feedback is gathered after each release to assess performance and identify
areas for improvement. This feedback loop helps teams refine their processes and integrate
customer insights, fostering continuous improvement in future releases.

Q14. Explain difference between spiral model and incremental model.


Aspect Spiral Model Incremental Model

Definition The Spiral Model combines iterative The Incremental Model divides the system
development with risk management, focusing into small, manageable parts (increments)
on repeated cycles or spirals. that are developed and delivered one at a
time.

Focus The Spiral Model highlights risk management The Incremental Model focuses on
 and iterative refinement. delivering functional parts of the system in
stages.

Risk Handling The Spiral Model explicitly identifies, The Incremental Model handles risks
evaluates, and mitigates risks at every phase. gradually as increments are added.

Phases The Spiral Model includes planning, risk The Incremental Model ensures that each
analysis, engineering, and evaluation in each increment undergoes requirements
cycle. analysis, design, development, and testing

Flexibility The Spiral Model is highly adaptable due to The Incremental Model is less flexible, but
continuous risk analysis and iterative future increments can adapt to changes.
refinement.

Complexity The Spiral Model is suitable for complex and The Incremental Model is suitable for
high-risk projects. simpler projects with well-defined
requirements.

Time to The Spiral Model takes longer to deliver as it The Incremental Model provides quicker
Deliver focuses heavily on risk management. delivery of functional parts.

Customer The Spiral Model involves customer feedback The Incremental Model considers
Feedback in every cycle to refine the product customer feedback after delivering each
continuously. increment.

Cost The Spiral Model is more expensive due to its The Incremental Model is more cost-
rigorous risk management and iterative efficient for projects with clear
approach. requirements.

Usage The Spiral Model is commonly used for large, The Incremental Model is used for smaller
critical, and complex projects. projects requiring faster delivery.

Q15. Explain incremental model in detail.


The Incremental Model is a software development life cycle (SDLC) approach where the product is
developed and delivered in small, manageable increments or sections. This model allows developers to
build the system piece by piece, with each increment adding new functionality.
Key Characteristics:
1. Incremental Development: The system is designed, implemented, and tested incrementally (a little
more is added each time) until the entire product is complete.
2. Delivery in Chunks: Instead of delivering the complete system at once, smaller functional modules
are delivered to the customer.
3. Customer Feedback: Feedback is obtained at the end of each increment, which can influence
subsequent development.
4. Flexibility: Changes can be made in later increments based on evolving requirements.

Stages of the Incremental Model:

1. Initial Planning:
o Requirements are gathered and analyzed.
o A system architecture is designed to allow incremental additions.
2. Design of Increment:
 o The first increment is designed to include the most critical and basic functionalities.
3. Development of Increment:
o Code for the increment is written, tested, and integrated into the existing system.
4. Testing:
o Each increment is thoroughly tested before moving to the next one.
o Testing ensures that the previous functionalities work seamlessly with the new ones.
5. Delivery:
o The working increment is delivered to the customer for use and feedback.
6. Repeat:
o Steps 2–5 are repeated for each subsequent increment.
Advantages:
 Early Delivery: Partial working systems are delivered early, improving customer satisfaction.
 Risk Management: Early increments address high-risk areas, reducing project risks.
 Customer Feedback: Ongoing feedback ensures the product aligns closely with user needs.
 Flexibility: Adaptable to changing requirements at lower costs.
 Better Resource Allocation: Workload can be distributed over time, making resource management
easier.

Q16. Explain project procurement management.

Ans:
Project Procurement Management is a vital aspect of project management, focusing on the acquisition and
management of external products and services required to complete a project. It is one of the nine key
project management knowledge areas, ensuring that necessary resources are procured effectively and
efficiently.
Key Aspects of Project Procurement Management
1. Purpose:
o Acquiring goods and services needed for the project from outside the performing
organization.
o This includes handling resources like office supplies, technology, or outsourced services such
as data centers, call centers, or accounting.
2. Scope:
o Managing contracts and purchase orders issued by authorized project team members.
o Administering contracts issued by external buyers and fulfilling the obligations imposed by
those contracts.
3. Processes Involved:
Project Procurement Management includes the following four main processes:
o Planning Procurement Management:
 Determines what needs to be procured, when, and how.
 Focuses on identifying procurement requirements and creating a strategy.
o Conducting Procurements:
 Involves obtaining seller responses, evaluating proposals, selecting suitable sellers,
and awarding contracts.
o Controlling Procurements:
 Manages relationships with sellers, monitors their performance, and ensures
compliance with contractual obligations.
 Adjustments or changes are made as needed to ensure the project stays on track.
o Closing Procurements:
 Finalizes and settles all contracts or agreements, resolving any open items.
Importance of Project Procurement Management
 Resource Acquisition: Projects often require external resources that are unavailable internally.
 Outsourcing Opportunities: Organizations can outsource entire business processes or functions,
previously known as "subcontracting."
 Risk Mitigation: Establishing well-defined contracts reduces risks related to vendor performance
and delivery.
 Relationship Management: Helps maintain productive relationships with external sellers and
stakeholders.

Q17. Write a short note on stakeholder management.

Ans:
 Stakeholders are important part of the project management framework.
 Stakeholders request project, approve them, reject them, support them and oppose them.
 Project manager and their team must have good communication with stakeholders and address the
issues as they occur to ensure the stakeholder satisfaction.
 Project managers must learn to identify, understand and work with a variety of stakeholders.
The four processes in project stakeholder management are
 Identifying
 Planning
 Managing
 Controlling Stakeholder Management
Identifying Stakeholders:
Identifying everyone involved in the project or affected by it and determine the best ways to manage
relationships with stakeholders. Output of this process is stakeholder register
Planning Stakeholder:
Determining strategies to effectively engage stakeholders in project decisions and activities based on their
needs, interest and potential impact. Stakeholder management plan and project documents updates are
the outputs of this process.
Managing Stakeholder:
Communicating and working with project stakeholders to satisfy their needs and expectations, resolving
issues and fostering engagement in project decisions and activities. The outputs of this process are issue
logs, changes requests, project management plans updates, project documents update and organizational
process assets updates.
Controlling Stakeholder:
Monitoring stakeholder relationships and adjusting plans and strategies for engaging stakeholders as
needed Work performance information, change requests, project documents updates and organizational
process assets updates are the outputs of this process.
Q18. What is business case? explain the process for developing a business case
Ans:
A business case is a documented justification for a proposed project or initiative, providing an analysis of its
organizational value, feasibility, costs, benefits, and associated risks. It helps decision-makers understand
the potential impact and importance of the project, ensuring alignment with organizational goals.
Attributes of a Good Business Case
1. Detailed analysis of all possible impacts, costs, and benefits.
2. Clear comparison of alternatives.
3. Objectivity and inclusion of all pertinent information.
4. Systematic summary of findings.
Process for Developing a Business Case
 1. Select the Core Team:
o Include managers, business specialists, IT specialists, and end-users.
o Ensure credibility, ownership, and alignment with organizational goals.
2. Define Measurable Organizational Value (MOV):
o Identify the project’s overall goal and measurable success criteria.
o Ensure MOV aligns with the organization’s strategy and goals.
3. Identify Alternatives:
o Base Case: Maintain the status quo.
o Alternatives: Modify processes, adapt existing solutions, or build new ones.
4. Assess Feasibility and Risk:
o Consider economic, technical, and organizational feasibility.
o Identify, assess, and propose responses to potential risks.
5. Define Total Cost of Ownership (TCO):
o Include direct (upfront), ongoing, and indirect costs.
6. Define Total Benefits of Ownership (TBO):
o Highlight long-term benefits such as efficiency, accuracy, and customer satisfaction.
7. Analyze Alternatives:
o Use financial models like Payback Period, Break-Even Analysis, ROI, or Net Present Value
(NPV).
o Employ scoring models for qualitative and quantitative comparisons.
8. Propose and Support the Recommendation:
o Present the best alternative clearly, supported by data and aligned with organizational
objectives.

Q19. Explain in detail six sigma quality control.

Ans:
Six Sigma is a methodology focused on improving processes by identifying and eliminating defects to
achieve near-perfect results. The target is no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO).
Key Features:
 Data-Driven: Uses statistical analysis and facts to make improvements.
 Customer-Centric: Focuses on meeting or exceeding customer expectations.
 Belt System: Involves structured training (Yellow, Green, Black, and Master Black Belts).
 Continuous Improvement: Follows the DMAIC process for ongoing enhancements.
DMAIC Phases:
1. Define: Identify the problem and customer needs.
2. Measure: Collect and display data on current performance.
3. Analyze: Investigate root causes of issues.
4. Improve: Develop and test solutions.
5. Control: Monitor and sustain improvements using control charts.
Unique Aspects:
 Organization-Wide Commitment: Involves everyone from management to staff.
 Focus on Project Management: Uses project management tools like charters, budgets, and
schedules.
 Improvement One Project at a Time: Projects are selected based on their impact on quality.
In essence, Six Sigma aims to minimize defects and improve process efficiency, leading to better quality and
customer satisfaction.

Q20. Work breakdown structure.

Ans:
A Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a hierarchical decomposition of the work required to complete a
project. It organizes and defines the total scope of the project by breaking it into smaller, manageable
components. Each level of the WBS provides a more detailed view of the project's tasks and deliverables.
Key Features of WBS
1. Deliverable-Oriented: Focuses on what needs to be delivered rather than how or when.
2. Hierarchy: Arranged in a tree structure, starting with the overall project at the top and breaking it
into smaller components.
3. Work Packages: The lowest level of WBS, which defines a task or deliverable that can be assigned,
estimated, and tracked.
Benefits of Using WBS
 Improved Planning and Scheduling: Helps create a detailed project schedule.
 Clear Scope Definition: Ensures all work required is included and prevents scope creep.
 Resource Allocation: Facilitates efficient allocation of resources to specific tasks.
 Better Communication: Provides clarity to stakeholders about project scope and progress.
Steps for Creating a WBS
1. Understand the Project Scope:
o Review the project objectives and deliverables.
2. Identify Major Deliverables:
o Break the project into major deliverables or phases.
3. Decompose Deliverables:
o Break each deliverable into smaller, manageable tasks.
4. Organize Hierarchically:
o Structure tasks in levels, starting from broad categories to specific tasks.
5. Validate the WBS:
o Ensure completeness and alignment with project goals.
6. Create a WBS Dictionary:
o Document detailed information about each WBS item, including task description, duration,
and dependencies.

Q21. Agile methodology?

Ans:
Agile Methodology
Agile methodology is an approach to software development that focuses on customer satisfaction through
early and continuous delivery of components developed using an iterative process. It emphasizes
collaboration, flexibility, and adaptability to changing requirements.

Key Features:
 Iterative Development: Work is divided into small iterations, allowing teams to develop, test, and
deliver functional components in manageable cycles.
 Stakeholder Collaboration: Small, dedicated teams work closely with stakeholders to create quick
prototypes, proofs of concept, or other visual tools that help clarify and solve the problem.
 Integrated Testing: The team defines iteration-specific requirements, develops code, runs integrated
tests, and engages users to verify results early in the process.
Advantages:
 Early Verification: Agile ensures that verification happens much earlier in the process compared to
the traditional Waterfall model. This allows stakeholders to fine-tune requirements when changes
are still relatively easy to implement.
  Flexibility and Adaptability: Agile enables continuous improvement by quickly responding to
changes in requirements or priorities.
Popular Agile Methodologies:
 Scrum: Focuses on sprints, daily stand-ups, and defined roles to manage and execute work
efficiently.
 Extreme Programming (XP): Places emphasis on technical excellence, including practices like pair
programming and continuous integration.

Q22. Write a short note tools and techniques used in quality control
Ans:
Tools and Techniques Used in Quality Control
Quality control (QC) involves monitoring and ensuring the quality of products or services by identifying
defects and implementing corrective actions. The following tools and techniques are commonly used in QC:
1. Statistical Process Control (SPC)
o Uses statistical methods to monitor and control processes.
o Includes tools like control charts to track variations and trends in production.
2. Check Sheets
o Structured forms used to collect and analyze data in real-time.
o Help identify patterns and frequency of defects.
3. Flowcharts
o Visual representations of processes to identify bottlenecks and inefficiencies.
o Useful for mapping steps and identifying areas for improvement.
4. Histogram
o Graphical representation of data distribution.
o Helps analyze variations and detect anomalies in quality.
5. Control Charts
o Monitor process stability over time.
o Detect trends, shifts, or outliers in production.
6. Scatter Diagrams
o Display relationships between two variables.
o Used to identify correlations that may affect quality.
7. Inspections
o Manual or automated examinations of products or processes.
o Ensures conformity to standards and specifications.
8. Six Sigma Methodology
o Data-driven approach focused on reducing defects and improving quality.
o Utilizes DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) framework.