02 Solutions

2.1 Types of Solutions 2.5 Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions

2.2 Expressing Concentration of Solutions 2.6 Colligative Properties and Determination
2.3 Solubility of Molar Mass
2.4 Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions 2.7 Abnormal Molar Masses

Topicwise Analysis of Last 10 Years’ CBSE Board Questions (2016-2007)

VSA
34 SA I
SA II
32
VBQ
Number of questions

28 LA

24

20

16

12

0
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
Topic

8 Maximum total weightage is of Colligative 8 Maximum SA I and SA II type questions

Properties and Determination of Molar Mass. were asked from Colligative Properties and
8 Maximum VSA type questions were asked from Determination of Molar Mass.
Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar
Mass.

QUICK RECAP

8 Solution : A perfectly homogeneous mixture of in lesser amount or whose physical state is

two or more components is called solution. changed during the formation of solution is
called solute.
8 Solute : The component which is present
22 CBSE Chapterwise-Topicwise Chemistry

8 Solvent : The component which is present in Volume v V2

larger amount and determines the physical percentage   % = × 100
state of the solution is called solvent. V (V1 + V2 )

8 Types of solution : Depending upon the nature Mass by w  w2

of solute and solvent, solutions are classified as volume   % = × 100
V Vsolution(in mL)
follows : percentage
X Gaseous solutions : Solutions in which
Mass fraction w1 w2
gas acts as solvent are known as gaseous x1 = or x2 =
solutions. w1 + w2 w1 + w2

Solute Solvent Examples Strength w2(in g)

(g L–1) × 1000
Solid Gas Iodine vapours in Vsolution (in mL)
air, dust or smoke
Parts per w2
particles in air. × 106
million (ppm) (w1 + w2 )
Liquid Gas Water vapours in
air (humidity) Molarity, (M) w2 × 1000
(mol L–1) M2 × Vsolution(in mL)
Gas Gas Air

X Liquid solutions : Solutions in which Molality, (m) w2 × 1000

liquids are present in larger amount. (mol kg–1) M2 × w1(in g )
Solute Solvent Examples Mole fraction, n1 n2
x1 = or x2 = ,
Solid Liquid Salt/sugar in water (x) n1 + n2 n1 + n2
Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water (x1 + x2 = 1)
In case of gases only,
Gas Liquid Aerated drinks, O2 p1 p2
in water y1 = or y2 = ,
p1 + p2 p1 + p2
X Solid solutions : Solutions in which solids (y1 + y2 = 1)
are present in larger amount.
8 Solubility : Maximum amount of substance
Solute Solvent Examples that can be dissolved in a specified amount of
Solid Solid Alloys, copper solvent at a specified temperature is called its
dissolved in gold solubility.
Liquid Solid Hg in Ag, Hg in Zn 8 Factors affecting solubility of a solid in a
(Amalgam) liquid :
Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen X Nature of solute and solvent : Polar solutes
in palladium. dissolve in polar solvents and non-polar
solutes in non-polar solvents. (i.e., like
8 Different methods for expressing dissolves like).
concentration of solution : X Effect of temperature :
– If the dissolution process is endothermic
Method of Formula (DsolH > 0), the solubility increases with
expressing rise in temperature.
Mass w2 – If dissolution process is exothermic
w
percentage   % = × 100 (DsolH < 0), the solubility decreases with
W (w1 + w2 ) rise in temperature.
Solutions 23

X Effect of pressure : Pressure does not have solution. p1 = p°1 x1 and p2 = p°2 x2 where p°1
any significant effect on solubility of solids in and p°2 are vapour pressures of pure
liquids as these are highly incompressible. components 1 and 2 respectively, at the same
temperature.
8 Factors affecting solubility of a gas in a liquid :
X Effect of pressure : Henry’s law states that 8 Dalton’s law of partial pressures :
“the partial pressure of the gas in vapour Ptotal = p1 + p2 = x1 p1° + x2 p2°
phase (p) is proportional to the mole
= (1 – x2)p1° + x2 p2°
fraction of the gas (x) in the solution”
p = KH x where, KH is the Henry’s law = p1° + (p2° – p1°)x2
constant and is different for different gases 8 If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the
at a particular temperature. components 1 and 2 respectively in the vapour
Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, phase then, p1 = y1 Ptotal and p2 = y2 Ptotal
the lower is the solubility of the gas in the 8 Raoult’s law for solid-liquid solutions : It
liquid. states that relative lowering in vapour pressure
X Effect of temperature : As dissolution is
of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is
an exothermic process, then according to equal to the mole fraction of the solute.
Le Chatelier’s principle, the solubility should
p° − ps
decrease with increase of temperature. = x2 where,
p°
8 Raoult’s law : It states that for a solution of p° = vapour pressure of pure solvent
volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure
ps = vapour pressure of solution
of each component of the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction present in x2 = mole fraction of solute.

8 Ideal and non-ideal solutions :

Ideal solutions Non-ideal solutions

Positive deviation from Raoult’s law Negative deviation from Raoult’s law
Vapour pressure Vapour pressure
of solution of solution
Vapour pressure

Vapour pressure
Vapour pressure

p B p° p°A p°A
= pA+ B pA p°B p°B
Ptotal
p°A pB pA
pB pA
pB
xA = 1 xA = 0 xA = 1 xA = 0 xA = 1 xA = 0
xB = 0 xB = 1 xB = 0 xB = 1 xB = 0 xB = 1
Mole fraction Mole fraction Mole fraction
xB xB xB
A – B interactions ≈ A – A – B interactions << A – A and B – B A – B interactions >> A – A and B – B
A and B – B interactions interactions interactions
DHmix = 0, DVmix = 0 DHmix > 0, DVmix > 0 DHmix < 0, DVmix < 0

e.g., dilute solution, e.g., acetone + ethanol, e.g., acetone + aniline,

benzene + toluene, acetone + CS2, acetone + chloroform,
n-hexane + n-heptane water + methanol CH3OH + CH3COOH
24 CBSE Chapterwise-Topicwise Chemistry

8 Azeotropes : The mixtures of liquids which boil X Maximum boiling azeotropes : They are
at constant temperature like a pure liquid and formed by those liquid pairs which show
possess same composition of components in negative deviations from ideal behaviour
liquid as well as vapour phase are called constant e.g., nitric acid-water mixture.
boiling mixtures or azeotropic mixtures. 8 Colligative properties : Properties which
X Minimum boiling azeotropes : They depend only on the number of solute particles
formed by those liquid pairs which show dissolved in a definite amount of the solvent
positive deviations from ideal behaviour and not on the nature of the solute are called
e.g., ethanol-water mixture. colligative properties.
Colligative properties Expression
Relative lowering of vapour pressure : When a non- p1° − p1 n2
volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent, vapour pressure of = x2 =
p1° n1 + n2
the solution is lower than that of the pure solvent which is
known as lowering of vapour pressure. Relative lowering of n2 w2 × M1
= =
vapour pressure is equal to the mole fraction of the solute n1 M2 × w1
in the solution. (Q for dilute solutions, n2 << n1)
Elevation in boiling DTb = Tb – Tb°
point : The boiling point DTb ∝ m or DTb = Kb m
of a solution containing  w2 × 1000 
a non-volatile solute is = Kb 
 M × w (in g) 
2 1
always higher than the
boiling point of the pure K b × w2 × 1000
or M2 =
solvent. This increase in DTb × w1 (in g)
boiling point is termed
Kb is called boiling point elevation constant
as elevation in boiling
or molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic
point.
constant, having unit K kg mol–1.

Depression in freezing DTf = Tf° – Tf

point : The freezing point DTf ∝ m or DTf = Kf m
of a solution containing  w2 × 1000 
a non-volatile solute = Kf 
 M2 × w1(in g) 
is always less than the
freezing point of the pure K f × w2 × 1000
or M2 =
solvent. This decrease in DT f × w1 (in g)
freezing point is termed
Kf is known as freezing point depression
as depression in freezing
constant or molal depression constant or
point.
Cryoscopic constant, having unit K kg mol–1.

Osmosis and osmotic pressure : The movement of  n2 

solvent molecules from less concentrated solution to more p = CRT =   RT ,
V 
concentrated solution through semipermeable membrane
is termed as osmosis. The hydrostatic pressure which w RT w RT
pV = 2 or M2 = 2
develops on account of osmosis is called osmotic pressure or M2 pV
the excess pressure that must be applied on the solution to
prevent osmosis is called osmotic pressure.
Solutions 25

X Two solutions having same osmotic pressure Observed value of the colligative property
at a given temperature are called isotonic i=
ue of the colligative property
Calculated valu
solutions.
X If one solution is of lower osmotic pressure, Calculated molecular mass
i=
it is called hypotonic with respect to the Observed molecular mass
more concentrated solution. The more
(Total number of moles of particles
concentrated solution is said to be hypertonic
after association / dissociation)
with respect to the dilute solution. i=
X If a pressure higher than the osmotic pressure (Total number of moles of particles
is applied on the solution, the solvent will before association / dissociation)
flow from the solution into the pure solvent X If i > 1, solute undergoes dissociation in
through the semipermeable membrane and the solution and if i < 1, solute undergoes
the process is called reverse osmosis. It is association in the solution.
used in desalination of sea water.
i −1
adissociation =
8 Abnormal molecular mass : When the n −1
molecular mass of a substance determined by
any of the colligative properties comes out to be 1− i
aassociation =
different than the expected value, the substance 1
1−
is said to show abnormal molecular mass. n
X Abnormal molecular masses are observed X For substances undergoing association or
when the solution is non-ideal (not dilute) dissociation in the solution, the various
or the solute undergoes association or
expressions for the colligative properties are
dissociation.
modified as follows :
8 van’t Hoff Factor : It is defined as the ratio
p1° − p1
of the experimental value of the colligative = ix2 ; DTb = iKbm; DTf = iKf m;
property to the calculated value of the colligative p1°
property. p = iCRT