International Baccalaureate

MATHEMATICS
Applications and Interpretation SL (and HL)
Lecture Notes

Christos Nikolaidis

TOPIC 2
FUNCTIONS

2A. Theory of functions

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS) ……………………………………………………………. 1

2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS) ……………………………………….. 7

2.3 FUNCTIONS, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH ……………………………………………… 12

2.4 AN INFORMAL IDEA OF THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1 ……………………… 24

2.5 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax ……………………………………………………….. 28

2.6 LOGARITHMS logx AND lnx - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION …………. 32

Only for HL

2.7 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog ……………………………………………………… 39

2.8 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1 ………………………………………………………………… 44

2.9 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS …………………………………………………… 50

2.10 SOME DISCUSSION ON ASYMPTOTES ………………………………………………… 57

2.11 LOGARITHMS logax ………………………………………………………………………………… 61

2.12 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS ………………………………………………………………….. 68

December 2020
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS)

 BASIC NOTIONS ON COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Given two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)

y2 B

y1
A

O x1 x2

 The gradient or slope of line segment AB is given by

Δy y2  y1
m= 
Δx x 2  x1

This indicates the inclination of the line segment AB. As we are

moving along the positive direction of the x-axis, if the line
segment is
increasing ( ⁄ ) then m>0
decreasing ( \ ) then m<0
horizontal (— ) then m=0
vertical (| ) then m is not defined

 The distance between A and B is given by

dAB= ( Δx ) 2  ( Δy ) 2 = (x 2 - x 1 ) 2  (y 2  y1 ) 2

 The coordinates of the midpoint M(x,y) of the line segment AB

are given by
x1  x 2 y1  y 2
x y
2 2

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EXAMPLE 1

a) Given two points A(1,4) and B(7,12)

Δy 12 - 4 4
The slope of the line segment AB is m=  
Δx 7 1 3

The distance between them is d  (7 - 1) 2  (12  4) 2  10

1  7 4  12
The midpoint is M( , ) that is M(4,8)
2 2
b) Given two points A(1,8) and B(5,8)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same y-coordinate:

The slope of the line segment AB is m=0 (horizontal)

The distance between them is d=5-1=4

The midpoint is M(3,8)

c) Given two points A(1,5) and B(1,7)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same x-coordinate:

The slope m of the line segment AB is not defined (vertical)

The distance between them is d=7-5=2

The midpoint is M(1,6)

The notion of the function will be formally introduced later on, in

paragraph 2.3. However, we will start by presenting two families of
already known functions

Linear functions: y=mx+c or f(x) = mx+c

Quadratic functions: y=ax2+bx+c or f(x) = ax2+bx+c

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 THE EQUATION OF A LINE

Equation of a (straight) line: y=mx+c

m = gradient or slope c = y-intercept

y=mx+c
c

NOTICE:
A horizontal line has equation y=c (slope m=0)
A vertical line has equation x=c (there is no slope)

(in fact, a vertical line is not a function, that is why the

equation x=0 is not a particular case of y=mx+c)

EXAMPLE 2
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x and L2: y=-2x

In fact, the slope shows the rise of the line per each unit
Line L1: slope is 2 (y increases 2 units per each x-unit)
Line L2: slope is -2 (y decreases 2 units per each x-unit)

In both cases c=0 (since the function passes through the origin)

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EXAMPLE 3
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x+3 and L2: y=-2x+3

Line L1: slope is 2 Line L2: slope is -2

In both cases the y-intercept is 3

EXAMPLE 4
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=5 and L2: x=5

 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Consider two lines: L1: y=m1x+c1 and L2: y=m2x+c2

Parallel lines: L1 // L2 if m1= m2

Perpendicular lines: L1  L2 if m2=-1/m1

For example,
The lines y=3x+5 and y=3x+8 are parallel
1
The lines y=3x+5 and y=  x+8 are perpendicular
3

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 AN ALTERNATIVE FORMULA FOR A LINE

A more general formula for a line is

Equation of a line: Ax+By=C

If B≠0, we can solve for y and obtain the form y=mx+c

If B=0, we obtain a vertical line of the form x=c
If A=0, we obtain a horizontal line of the form y=c

EXAMPLE 5
 From Ax+By=C into the usual form
The line 2x+3y=5 may be expressed as 3y=-2x+5 and finally
2 5
y x
3 3
 From the usual form into Ax+By=C
a) The line y=-3x+7 may be expressed as
3x+y=7
1 2
b) The line y  x may be expressed as
2 3
1 2
- xy
2 3
We usually require the coefficients A,B,C to be integers.
Multiplying by 6 we obtain
-3x+6y=4
c) The line y=5 may be expressed as 0x+y=5
d) The line x=5 may be expressed as x+0y=5

 GIVEN: A POINT AND A SLOPE

The line which
 passes through point P(x0,y0)
 has slope m
is given by

y-y0 = m(x-x0)

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EXAMPLE 6
The line which passes through point P(1,2), with slope m=3 is
y-2 = 3(x-1)

 Express in the form y=mx+c

y-2 = 3(x-1)  y=3x-3+2  y=3x-1
 Express in the form ax+by=c or ax+by+c=0
y=3x-1  3x-y=1 or 3x-y-1=0

 GIVEN: TWO POINTS

The line which passes through the points P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2)
has slope
Δy y2  y1
m= 
Δx x 2  x1

and its equation is again given by the formula

y-y1 = m(x-x1)

EXAMPLE 7
Find the line which passes through the points P(1,2) and Q(4,7).
Express your answer in the form ax+by=c where a,b,cZ (integers).
Solution
Δy 72 5
The slope is m=  
Δx 4 1 3
The equation of the line is
5
y-2 = (x-1)
3
 3y-6 = 5(x-1)
 3y-6 = 5x-5
and finally
-5x+3y = 1

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2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS)

 THE SIMPLEST QUADRATIC: y=x2

Consider the function y=x2. Let us find some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=x2 … 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 …

Notice that x can take any value in R. We say that

the domain of the function is xR

The result, i.e. the value of y, is always positive or 0. We say that

the range of the function is [0,+) (or simply y≥0).

The curve of this function is known as parabola.

We can easily see that the graph of the function y=-x2 is

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 THE QUADRATIC FUNCTION

A quadratic function has the form

y=ax2+bx+c

The graph of a quadratic is always a parabola. The basic

characteristics of its graph as shown below:

y-intercept

roots

vertex

1) a≠0. The sign of a shows the concavity of the function:

If a>0 the graph looks like If a<0 the graph looks like

(concave up) (concave down)

2) Discriminant: Δ=b2-4ac. It determines the number of roots

Δ>0: 2 roots Δ=0: 1 root Δ<0: No real roots

-b Δ
3) x-intercepts (or roots): x1,2= , (only if Δ≥0)
2a
4) y-intercept: for x=0 we obtain y=c

-b
5) axis of symmetry: x= (it’s also the x-coordinate of the vertex)
2a
x1  x 2
If we know the two roots x1,x2 the vertex is at x=
2

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6) According to Δ, the graph looks like

Δ>0: 2 roots Δ=0: 1 root Δ<0: No real roots

EXAMPLE 1
Consider y=2x2-12x+10

 a=2 (+tive), so the graph looks like U (concave up)

-b Δ
 Δ= b2-4ac = 64>0, thus two roots: x1,2= = 1 and 5
2a
 y-intercept: y=10
-b 15
 Axis of symmetry: x= i.e. x=3. (Or otherwise x= 3)
2a 2
For x=3, we obtain y=-8. Hence, the vertex is V(3,-8)

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NOTICE FOR THE GDC (Casio)

We can find the roots 1 and 5 in

Equation – Polynomial (degree 2)

We can find more characteristics in Graph mode: G-Solv (F5)

Options in our example

F1 (ROOT): for the roots 1 and 5

F2 (MAX) or F3 (MIN): for the vertex (3,-8)

F4 (YCEPT): for y-intercept 10

 THREE FORMS OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

A quadratic can take the following 3 equivalent forms:

1) Traditional form: y=ax2+bx+c

2) Factorization form: y=a(x-r1)(x-r2) [r1,r2 roots]
3) Vertex form: y=a(x-h)2+k [V(h,k) vertex]

Let us clarify by the following examples.

EXAMPLE 2
We consider again
y=2x2-12x+10 (1)

We find the roots: 1 and 5. Thus the factorization is

y=2(x-1)(x-5) (2)

We find the vertex: V(3,-8). Thus the vertex form is

y=2(x-3)2-8 (3)

Notice: if you expand (2) or (3) you will obtain (1)

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EXAMPLE 3
Let
y=-3x2-15x+42 (1)
By using the GDC,
we find the roots: -7 and 2. Thus the factorization is

y=-3(x+7)(x-2) (2)

we find the vertex: V(-2.5, 60.75). Thus the vertex form is

y=-3(x+2.5)2+60.75 (3)

Notice: if you expand (2) or (3) you will obtain (1)

EXAMPLE 4
Consider f(x)=3x2+12x. Find both analytically and by GDC
a) the roots and the factorization.
b) the equation of the axis of symmetry
c) the minimum value of y and the coordinates of the vertex.
d) the vertex form of f(x).
Solution
a) Analytically:
The factorization is y = 3x2+12x = 3x(x+4)
So the roots are x=0, x=-4
By using GDC – Graph mode
The roots are x=0 and x=-4
So the factorization is y=3(x-0)(x+4), that is y=3x(x+4)
- b - 12
b) x= = =-2. That is x=-2.
2a 6
c) Analytically:
For x=-2, it is y=3(-2)2+12(-2)=-12. Thus ymin =-12
Thus the vertex is V(-2,-12)
By using GDC - mode: ymin =-12 and V(-2,-12).
d) f(x) = 3(x+2)2-12

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2.3 FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH

 DEFINITION
Let us formally introduce the notion of the function:

f: X → Y

A function f from a set X to a set Y assigns

to each element x of X
a unique element y of Y

We write: We say:
f(x)=y f maps x to y
f: x ֏ y y is the image of x

EXAMPLE 1
Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}. The following is a function f: X → Y

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Indeed, each element of X has a unique image in Y.

We say
f maps 1 to a or a is the image of 1
2 to b b is the image of 2
3 to d d is the image of 3
We write
f(1)=a , f(2)=b , f(3)=d
or f: 1 ֏ a f: 2 ֏ b f: 3 ֏ d

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EXAMPLE 2

Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}

 The following is a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we do not mind if two elements of X have the same image)

 Notice though that the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “each x of X”, but here 3 has no image)

 Finally, the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “unique y of Y”, but 2 has two images)

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 DOMAIN AND RANGE

For a function f: X → Y,

The set of all x’s involved is called DOMAIN

The set of all y’s involved (only the images) is called RANGE

Consider again the function f: X → Y given by

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Then DOMAIN : xX={1,2,3}

RANGE : y{a,b,d}

We usually denote the domain by Df and the range by R f .

Here, the sets X and Y are subsets of R, the set of real numbers.

Our functions usually have a specific pattern. For example, consider

the function f which maps
1 ֏2 2 ֏4 3 ֏6 4 ֏8 and so on
in other words f maps each value x to its double 2x.

We say that the function f is given by

f: x ֏ 2x
or f(x)=2x
or y=2x

Thus the formula of the function gives any possible result, e.g.

f(1)=2, f(15)=30, f(2.4) = 4.8 etc

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If we restrict the function f from R to the interval X=[0,10], we

still have the function f: X→ R, given by
f(x)=2x, 0≤x≤10
but now
DOMAIN : x[0,10]
RANGE : y[0,20] (why?)

 GRAPH

We know that the pairs (x,y) that satisfy the equation of the
function y=f(x) can be represented as points (x,y) on the Cartesian
plane and form the graph of the function.

The graph clearly shows the DOMAIN and the RANGE of the
function. For example,

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

DOMAIN: Projection on the x-axis, i.e. Df : x[1,8]

RANGE: Projection on the y-axis, i.e. R f : y[2,6]

We may observe, for example, that the points

(1,2), (5,3), (7,6), (8,5) lie on the curve.

That implies

f(1)=2 f(5)=3 f(7)=6 f(8)=5

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We have already studied the graphs of two families of functions;

linear and quadratic functions. The graphs are straight lines and
parabolas respectively.

EXAMPLE 3
 f(x)=2x, or otherwise y=2x is represented by the graph

x 0 1 2 3

2 y 0 2 4 6

x
0 1 2

Here Df : xR R f : yR

 f(x)=x2, or otherwise y= x2 is represented by the graph

4
x -2 -1 0 1 2

y 4 1 0 1 4

x
-2 -1 1 2

Here Df : xR R f : y[0,+∞)

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EXAMPLE 4
x 2 , 2 x  0
Consider the function f(x)  
x , 1 x 5
The graph is given below

5
4
3
2
1

x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Clearly, Df : x[-2,0][1,5] and R f : y[0,5]

NOTICE:
The graph also shows if we have a function or not

x
1 2 3 4 5

This is not a function, since f(3) for example is not unique!

Vertical line test:

Any vertical line intersects the graph at most once.

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 AN “AGGREEMENT” FOR THE DOMAIN

Usually, a function is simply given as a formula of the form y=f(x),

where x and y are real variables.

If the domain of the function is not given, we agree that

Df is R
or Df is the largest possible subset of R

For example,

 if f is given by f(x)=2x, we assume that xR

2
 if f is given by f(x)= , we assume that xR-{0} =R*
x
(we may also write Df : x≠0)

We mainly deal with the following cases

1. f(x) is a function with no restrictions on x,

for example a polynomial [say f(x)=2x3+3x2+1], then

Df = R

Α
2. f(x) = , then B cannot be 0, thus
Β

Df = R – {roots of the equation B=0}

3. f(x) = Α , then A  0.

Df = the solution set of the inequality A  0

4. f(x) = logA or f(x)=lnA, then A>0. 1

Df = the solution set of the inequality A>0

5. f(x) = is a combination of all the above.

We find the subset of R where all our restrictions hold.

1
The functions f(x)=logx and f(x)=lnx are not known yet. They will be introduced
later on within this topic.

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EXAMPLE 5

a) f(x) = 3x-9. Clearly, Df : xR

5
b) f(x) = . Restriction: 3x-9  0
3x - 9

Solve: 3x-9=0  3x=9  x = 3

Thus, Df : xR-{3}. We may also write Df : x≠3

c) f(x) = 3x - 9 . Restriction: 3x-9  0

Solve: 3x-9  0  3x  9  x  3

Thus, Df : x[3,+  ). We may also write Df : x  3

d) f(x) = ln(3x - 9) . Restriction: 3x-9>0

Solve: 3x-9>0  3x>9  x > 3

Thus, Df : x(3,+  ). We may also write Df : x>3

x2
e) f(x) = 2
Restriction: x2-3x+2  0
x  3x  2

Solve: x2-3x+2=0  x=1 or x=2

Thus, Df : xR-{1,2}

f) f(x) = x 1 3 2  x Restrictions: x-1  0 and 2-x  0

Solve: x-1  0  x  1

2-x  0  x  2

Thus, Df : x[1,2] We may also write Df : 1  x  2

1  x2
g) f(x) = Restrictions: 1-x2  0 and x  0
x

Solve: 1-x2  0  x2  1  -1  x  1

Thus, Df : x[-1,0)  (0,1]

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 SPECIFIC POINTS ON A GRAPH

y
y-intercept
max

max
x

min

x-intercepts
Roots

For y=f(x)
 y-intercept: We set x=0 and find y
 x-intercepts (roots): We solve the equation f(x)=0
 local max-min: (as shown above)

When we have two graphs y=f(x) and y=g(x), it also useful to know
the intersection points of the two graphs

y
f(x)

g(x)

Intersection points

These points (x,y) can be found by solving the equation f(x)=g(x) to

obtain x and then using either y=f(x) or y=g(x) to obtain y.

All notions above, namely y-intercept, x-intercepts (or roots), max,

min, intersection points can be easily found in GDC – Graph mode.

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EXAMPLE 6

Consider the functions f(x)=(x-3)2-4 and g(x)=x-5.

For f :
y-intercept: for x=0, we obtain y=5
x-intercepts or roots: We solve (x-3)2-4=0
(x-3)2-4=0  (x-3)2= 4  x-3 = ±2  x = 2+3 or x =-2+3
Hence x=5 or x=1
max-min: for this particular function (quadratic), we know that
there is only a minimum.
We have a min at the vertex, i.e. at point (3,-4)
We say: We have a min at x=3. The min value is y=-4

For intersection points of f and g :

f(x)=g(x)  (x-3)2-4=x-5  x2-6x+9-4=x-5  x2-7x+10=0
 x=2 or x=5
By using either f(x) or g(x) we find y=-3, y=0 respectively.
Hence, the curves intersect at points (2,-3) and (5,0)

Indeed, the graphs of f(x) and g(x) are as follows

Remark: Confirm all the results by using GDC – Graph mode.

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 SOVING EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES BY USING GRAPHS

We can solve
 equations of the form f(x)=g(x)
 inequalities of the form f(x)>g(x) or f(x)≥g(x)

by using GDC - graph mode

METHOD A: we find the intersection points of the graphs

y1 = f(x)
y2 = g(x)
Solutions of f(x)=g(x): x-coordinates of intersection points
Solutions of f(x)>g(x): intervals where y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x)

METHOD B: we find the roots of the graph

y1 = f(x)-g(x)

Solutions of f(x)-g(x)=0: the roots of the graph

Solutions of f(x)-g(x)>0: intervals where y1=f(x)-g(x) is positive

EXAMPLE 7
Consider again the functions of Example 6
f(x)=(x-3)2-4 and g(x)=x-5.

a) Solve the equation f(x)=g(x).

METHOD A: Look at the graphs of y1=f(x) and y2=g(x)
(see Example 6). The intersection points occur at x=2, x=5
METHOD B: The equation can be written
f(x)-g(x) = (x-3)2- 4 - (x-5) =0
Look at the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC). Roots: x=2, x=5

b) Solve the inequality f(x)>g(x).

METHOD A:the graph of y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x) (see Example 6)
when x<2 or x>5
METHOD B: the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC) is positive
outside the roots, that is when x<2 or x>5

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EXAMPLE 8
Solve the equation 2x = 2x+3.
(a) by using the function SolveN of your GDC
(b) by considering the graphs of
y1=2x
y2=2x+3.

(c) by considering the graph

y=2x – (2x+3)
Solution
(a) SolveN gives two roots:
x = -1.29643  -1.30
x = 3.24702  3.25

For the following we need the diagrams

diagram 1 (for (b)) diagram 2 (for (c))

(b) Intersection points in diagram 1: x  -1.30 and x  3.25

(c) Roots of the function in diagram 2: x  -1.30 and x  3.25

Further question: (d) Solve the inequality 2x < 2x+3

Solution
According to either diagram 1, or diagram 2

-1.30 < x < 3.25

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2.4 AN INFORMAL IDEA OF THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1

 DISCUSSION

Consider the functions f(x)=x+10 and g(x)=x-10

Notice that
f(0) = 10 g(10) = 0
f(1) = 11 g(11) = 1
f(2) = 12 g(12) = 2
f(3) = 13 g(13) = 3 and so on.

In simple words,

the function f ands 10 to any value

the function g does the inverse process, i.e. it subtracts 10.

The inverse function of f, that is g, will be denoted by f-1

f(x)=x+10
f-1(x)=x-10
Mathematically
If f(x)=y then f-1(y)=x.

In fact, f and f-1 are inverse to each other.

Along the same lines

original function inverse function

f(x)=x+3 f-1(x)=x-3

f(x)=2x f-1(x)=x/2

f(x)=10x f-1(x)=x/10

f(x)=x2 (where x≥0) f-1(x)= x

f(x)=ex ?

Notice. In fact, the inverse function of f(x)=ex is f-1(x)=lnx

(known as logarithmic) which we are going to see in a while.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Guess the inverse function of

f(x)=3x+7
Here

I give you x, you multiply by 3 , you add 7, you find y

The inverse process is

you give me y, I subtract 7 I divide by 3 I obtain x

So the inverse function is

y 7
x=
3

But as we usually express functions in terms of x,

x 7
f-1(x)=
3

In a similar way, we can deduce that the inverse function of

f(x)=x3+5

is

f-1(x)= 3
x 5

 GRAPH OF f-1

The graph of f-1 is a reflection of f about the line y=x

y
y=x
f

f-1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

If f(x)=x2 , for x≥0, then f-1(x)= x . Their graphs are

Notice:

 f and f-1 intersect on the line y=x.

 The points of intersection are (0,0) and (1,1)

(they are on the line y=x)

 f(2)=4 and thus f-1(4)=2.

 THE INVERSE FUNCTION IN REAL LIFE PROBLEMS

In real life problems instead of x and y we may have other

parameters.
For example, a square of side a

a
has

Perimeter P=4a (it is the function y=4x)

Area A=a2 (it is the function y=x2)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

If they give us the perimeter P, then

P
P=4a  a 
4
Now the side is given in terms of the perimeter. This is in fact the
inverse function of P=4a

If they give us the area A, then

A=a2  a  A

Now the side is given in terms of the area. This is in fact the
inverse function of A=a2.

EXAMPLE 2
Let
F denote the temperature in Fahrenheit degrees
C denote the temperature in Celsius degrees

The conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit is given by

F  1.8C  32

F(30)=86 implies that 30° Celsius is equal to 86° Fahrenheit

If we solve for C then

F  32
C
1.8

C(86)=30 implies that 86° Fahrenheit is equal to 30° Celsius

We can say that
F(30)=86 (Celsius to Fahrenheit
and
F-1(86)=30 (Fahrenheit to Celsius)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.5 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax

In topic 1 we have discussed the meaning of the power ax as x

moves along the sets N, Z, Q, R.

Consider the function

y=2x

Let us find some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 1/8 1/4 1/2 0 1 4 8 …

Domain:
Range: y>0

As x can be any real value

the domain of the function is xR

As the result is always a positive number

the range of the function is yR+ (or otherwise y>0).

Notice that as x tends to -  (towards the left)

the value of y tends to 0, but it never touches 0.

To express this behavior we say that the x-axis (i.e. the line y=0) is
a horizontal asymptote of the function.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Consider now the function

y = 2-x [this is the same as y= 0.5 x (why?)]
Let us estimate some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 8 4 2 0 1/2 1/4 1/8 …

Again

Domain: xR
Range: y>0

NOTICE

In general, for the functions

y=ax and y=a-x (where a>0)

1) The result is always positive (the range is y>0)

2) if a>1, then f(x)=ax increases (the graph looks like that of 2x)
f(x)=a-x decreases (the graph looks like that of 2-x)
3) if a<1, then f(x)=ax decreases while f(x)=a-x increases)
e.g. f(x)=0.5x decreases while f(x)=0.5-x increases)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE EXPONENTIAL function y=ex

The exponential functions y=ex and y=e-x appear in many

applications. The graphs look like those of y=2x and y=2-x.

f(x) = ex f(x)=e-x

1
1

For both, the horizontal asymptote is the line y=0.

The y-intercept is y=1.

Let us now slightly modify y=ex:

y=ex+1 y= ex+2

y=2
y=1

horizontal asymptote: y=1 horizontal asymptote: y=2

y-intercept: y=2 y-intercept: y=3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Look at the following function in the graph mode of your GDC and
try to understand the information in columns 2 and 3.

To have an idea for the horizontal asymptote,

find the value of y when x=-10

The result will be very close to the horizontal asymptote.

Function Horizontal Asymptote y-intercept

y=2x line y=0 y=1

y=2-x line y=0 y=1

y=ex line y=0 y=1

y=e3x line y=0 y=1

y=3ex line y=0 y=3

y=-3ex line y=0 y=-3

y= ex+5 line y=5 y=6

y=3ex+5 line y=5 y=8

y=ex-2 line y=0 y=e-2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.6 LOGARITHMS logx AND lnx - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

 THE LOGARITHM logx

Think the question

10what exponent gives 1000?

The answer is 3

We state this fact by

log1000=3

For each positive real number x we define

log x

which is called logarithm of x to the base 10. It is connected to the

exponential 10x. It is the answer to the question

10what exponent gives x?

The formal definition is

log x = y  10 y =x

For example,

log100 = 2, since 102=100

log1000 = 3, since 103=1000

log10000 = 4, since 104=10000

etc.

Notice: use your GDC to confirm these results

Clearly,
log10=1

log1=0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

However, for log2, we should think:

10what exponent gives 2?

OK, this is difficult to answer without a GDC!!!

Our GDC gives

log2 = 0.301029…

This implies that

100.301029…=2

EXAMPLE 1
U

 log1000000 = 6,

 log107=7 Notice, in general log10x=x

But also for very small numbers

 log0.1 = -1,

 log0.01 = -2,

 log0.001 = -3,

 log0.000001 = -6,

NOTICE (Just for information)

In some way, log n indicates the size of the number n.

For example, if n is a 3-digit number, then 100≤n<1000.

Since log100=2 and log1000=3,
log n lies in the interval [2,3)

Similarly, any 10-digit number has a logarithm within [9,10)

Any n-digit number has a logarithm between n-1 and n.

Question: how many digits does the number 2100 have?

The GDC gives log2100 = 30.1. Therefore, 2100 has 31 digits!

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logx (just a rough idea)

A new function is defined

y = logx

for positive values of x.

Let us estimate some values by using the GDC

x 1 10 20 30 40 …

y=logx 0 1 1.30 1.48 1.60 …

In fact, this is the inverse of the function y =10x

Indeed, if f(x)=10x then f-1(x)=logx since for example

f(3)=103 = 1000,
f-1(1000) = log1000=3

For y = logx
Domain: x>0
Range: yR

The function is not defined at x=0 so the graph does not touch the
vertical line x=0 (y-axis).
As x tends to 0, y tends to -.
We say that
the line x=0 is a vertical asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE NATURAL LOGARITHM lnx (just a rough idea)

In a similar way, y=lnx is the inverse function of y=ex

For example, the GDC gives

ln2=0.69314…

This implies that

e0.69314 = 2

Let us see together the functions of y=ex and y=lnx

y=ex

y=lnx

Observations:

 For y=ex: Domain: xR Range: yR+ (i.e. y>0)

 For y=lnx: Domain: xR+ (i.e. x>0) Range: yR

 The x-axis (y=0) is a horizontal asymptote of y=ex

 The y-axis (x=0) is a vertical asymptote of y=lnx

 The graph of y=ex passes through (0,1)

 The graph of y=lnx passes through (1,0)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

ONLY FOR

HL

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.7 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog

 DISCUSSION

Consider the function f(x)=x2

Notice that
f(5) = 52
f(a) = a2
f(3a+5) = (3a+5)2
f(3x+5) = (3x+5)2

In the last case the input value for f is another function of x.

In this way, we combine two functions,

f(x)=x2 and g(x)= 3x+5

and create a new function y=(3x+5)2.

This new function is denoted by fog.

 DEFINITION

For two functions f and g, the composite function fog is a new

function defined by

(fog)(x)=f(g(x))

The operation is called composition.

We say that fog is the composite function of f and g.

For the functions f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5 given above, we find

(fog)(x) as follows

(f0g)(x) = f(g(x))

= f(3x+5)

= (3x+5)2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

In the same way we can define the composite function (g0f)(x). It is

given by
(g0f)(x) = g(f(x))

= g(x2)

= 3x2+5

That is
(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2 while (g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

NOTICE:
 In general
fog ≠ g0f

 It is not necessary to write the answer so analytically. You can

answer directly. Look again:

f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5

For fog you just plug g into f.

(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2

For gof you just plug f into g.

(g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

 For three functions

f(x)=x2, g(x)=3x+5, h(x)= x

we can define (f0g0h)(x).

We just plug h into g, to obtain

(g0h)(x)= 3 x  5

and the result into f to obtain

(f0g0h)(x)= (3 x  5) 2

We can easily verify that

f0(g0h)=(f0g)0h

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=2x2-1 and g(x)=x+1. Find

(a) (fog)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (fog)(1) (d) (g0f)(1)

Solution

(a) (fog)(x) = 2(x+1)2-1

(b) (g0f)(x) = (2x2-1)+1 = 2x2

(c) From (a), we have

(fog)(1)=7

(d) From (b), we have

(g0f)(1) = 2

Notice for questions (c) and (d)

For (fog)(1) and (g0f)(1), it is not necessary to find (fog)(x) and

(g0f)(x) first. Alternatively, we can directly apply the definition as
follows

(c) (fog)(1) = f(g(1)) = f(2) = 7 [since g(1)=2]

(d) (g0f)(1) = g(f(1)) = g(1) = 2 [since f(1)=1]

We may also define the function fof in the obvious way:

(fof)(x) = f(f(x))

That is, we plug f into itself.

For example, if f(x)=2x-1, then

(fof)(x) = f(2x-1) = 2(2x-1)-1 = 4x-3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2
x 1
Let f(x)= and g(x)= x
2
Find (a) (fog)(x) (b) (gof)(x)

(c) (fof)(x) (d) (gog)(x)

(e) (fofof)(x) in two ways: as fo(fof) and as (fof)of

Solution

x 1 x 1
(a) (fog)(x) = (b) (gof)(x) =
2 2

x 1 x 3
1
x 3
(c) (fof)(x) = 2 = 2 =
2 2 4

(d) (gog)(x) = x= 4
x

x 3 x 7
1
x 7
(e) (fofof)(x) = [fo(fof)](x) = 4 = 4 =
2 2 8

x 1 x 7
3
x 7
Or = [(fof)of](x) = 2 = 2 =
4 4 8

 THE IDENTITY FUNCTION i(x)

It is the simple function that maps x to itself

i(x)=x or i: x ֏ x

Notice that

(foi)(x) = f(i(x)) = f(x)

(iof)(x) = i(f(x)) = f(x)

That is
foi = f and iof = f

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 COMPOSITION IN REAL LIFE PROBLEMS

We know that the area of a square a is A=a2.

What is the area of a square of side 2b+3 ?

The answer is
(2b  3) 2

In fact, we had two functions

A=a2 f(x) = x2

a=2b+3 g(x)=2x+3

and obtained

A (2b  3) 2 (f◦g)(x)=(2b+3)2

EXAMPLE 3
Let
F denote the temperature in Fahrenheit degrees
C denote the temperature in Celsius degrees
K denote the temperature in Kelvin degrees

The conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit is given by

F  1.8C  32

The conversion from Kelvin to Celsius is given by

C  K  273.15
Therefore, the conversion from Kelvin to Fahrenheit is given by
F  1.8C  32  1.8(K - 273.15)  32

F  1.8K - 459.67
Compare with
f(x)  1.8x  32
g(x)  x  273.15

(f  g)(x)  1.8(x  273.15)  32  1.8x  459.67

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.8 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1

We have seen an informal introduction to the inverse of f.

Let us define it more formally.

 DEFINITION

Let f:R→R

The inverse function f-1 is a new function such that

f(x)=y  f-1(y)=x.

For f(x)=x+10, we have seen that f-1(x)=x-10

 HOW DO WE FIND f-1 ?

Steps Example
f is given f(x) = x+10

1. Set f(x)=y 1. x+10 = y

2. Solve for x 2. x = y-10

3. Keep the solution but replace y by x 3. f-1(x)=x-10

NOTICE:
1. The inverse function of f-1 is f itself. That is

(f-1)-1 = f

2. The domain of f-1 is the range of f and vice-versa:

Df-1 = Rf Rf-1 = Df

3. It holds

(fof-1)(x) = x and (f-1of)(x) = x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=3x+5.

Find (a) f-1(x)

(b) f-1(11)

Solution
(a) We follow the three steps:
 Set 3x+5=y
y5
 3x+5=y  3x = y-5  x =
3
x 5
 f-1(x)=
3
x 5
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is f-1(11) = 2
3
Alternatively:
It is not necessary to find f-1(x).
If f-1(11)=x then f(x)=11. Hence

3x+5 = 11  3x = 6  x=2.

Thus, f-1(11) =2

Remark:

Verify that
x 5
the inverse function of f-1(x)= is f(x)= 3x+5.
3
x 5
 Set = y
3
x 5
 = y  x-5 = 3y  x = 3y+5
3
 The inverse function is y = 3x+5

In other words f and f-1 are inverse to each other.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2

Let f(x)=2x2-1 where x≥0. Find (a) f-1(x) (b) f-1(49)

Solution

(a) We follow the three steps:

 Set 2x2-1=y
y1 y1
 2x2-1=y  2x2 = y+1  x2 = x=
2 2
x 1
 f-1(x)=
2
x 1
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is
2

f-1(49) = 25 = 5

[or, f-1(49)=x implies f(x)=49 2x2-1= 49  x2=25  x=5 ]

EXAMPLE 3
x 1
Let f(x)=
x2
2x - 1
(a) Show that f-1(x)=
1x

(b) Verify that fof-1 is the identity function [that is (fof-1)(x)=x]

Solution
x 1
(a) = y  x+1= y(x+2)
x2

 x+1= y(x+2)

 x+1=yx+2y

 x-yx=2y-1

 x(1-y)=2y-1
2y- 1 2x - 1
 x= Hence, f-1(x)=
1y 1x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2x - 1 2x - 1  1- x x
1
(b) (fof-1)(x) = 1- x = 1- x = 1- x = x
2x - 1 2x - 1  2 - 2x 1
2
1- x 1- x 1- x
That is (fof-1)(x)=x (identity function)

[ In a similar way we can show that (f-1of)(x)=x ]

EXAMPLE 4
1
Let f(x)=1-2x and g(x)= . Find
x
(a) (f0g)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (g0f-1)(x)

(d) (f0g-1)(x) (e) (f0g)-1(x) (f) (f-10g-1)(x)

Solution
1 1 2
(a) (f0g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f( ) = 1-2 = 1-
x x x
1
(b) (g0f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(1-2x) =
1- 2x

(c) We firstly need f-1. Since f(x)=1-2x

1- y 1- x
1-2x = y  1-y = 2x  x = . Hence f-1(x)=
2 2
2
Now (g0f-1)(x) =
1- x
1
(d) We firstly need g-1. Since g(x)=
x
1 1 1
= y x = . Hence g-1(x)= [ that is g-1 = g ]
x y x
2
Then, (f0g-1)(x) = 1-
x
2
(e) We are looking for the inverse function of (f0g)(x) = 1-
x
2 2 2 2
1- =y  1-y = x = . Thus , (f0g)-1(x) =
x x 1- y 1- x
1
1-
(f) (f-10g-1)(x) = x = x- 1
2 2x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:
 Notice that (f0g)-1 ≠ f-10g-1 . In fact it holds

(f0g)-1 = g-10f-1

 A function is called self-iverse if f-1=f.

The graph of such a function is symmetric about y=x.

1 1
The simplest example is f(x)= , since f-1 (x)= .
x x
2x - 6
Another example is f(x)= (please confirm!)
x- 2

 PRESUPPOSITION FOR f-1

Consider the function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3

The inverse function f-1 doesn’t exist, since f-1(b) is not uniquely
determined (is it 2 or 3?). Hence, for f-1 to exist,

different values of x should map to different values of y:

X Y X Y
f f-1
x1 y1 x1 y1
x2 y2 x2 y2

NOTICE: Remember that any function must satisfy the vertical line
test. If, moreover, f is “1-1” it satisfies the

Horizontal line test

Any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 5

(a) The function f(x)=3x+1 is “1-1” since it is a straight line and

satisfies the horizontal line test.

x- 1
Thus f-1 exists: f-1(x)=
3
(b) The function f(x)=x2 is not “1-1”

Indeed, f does not satisfies the horizontal line test, as two different
values may map to the same image, for example f(-2)=4=f(2).

However, if we consider

f(x)=x2, x≥0

(that is only the curve in the first quadrant) then f is “1-1” as it

satisfies the horizontal line test.

Now f-1 exists:

f-1(x)= x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.9 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

 DISCUSSION

Consider a function f(x).

f(x)

Let’s think of the new function g(x)=f(x)+2

In fact, we add 2 units to any value of y=f(x), thus the whole graph
of f(x) moves 2 units up.

g(x)
+2

f(x)

We say that this is a vertical translation of the graph.

In a similar way we can describe other transformations of f(x), not

only in a vertical direction (applied on y) but also in a horizontal
direction (applied on x).

Let us present the most important transformations in a concise

way!

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE BASIC TRANSFORMATIONS

Consider the initial function f(x).

(In the following tables we assume a>0 and b>1)

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

vertical translation
f(x)+a a g(x)=x2+2
a units up 2

vertical translation
f(x)-a a g(x)=x2-2 2
a units down
vertical stretch
bf(x) x b g(x)=2x2 x2

with scale factor b

vertical stretch with
f(x)/b ÷b g(x)=x2/2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
reflection
-f(x) g(x)=-x2
in the x-axis

Now, as far as the horizontal transformations below are concerned,

we obtain, perhaps, the opposite of what we expect!

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

horizontal translation
f(x+a) a g(x)=(x+2)2 2
a units to the left
horizontal translation
f(x-a) a g(x)=(x-2)2 2
a units to the right
horizontal stretch with ÷b
f(bx) g(x)=(2x)2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
horizontal stretch x2
f(x/b) b
x
g(x)=(x/2)2
with scale factor b
reflection
f(-x) g(x)=(-x)2
in the y-axis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let us observe the basic transformations of the function

f(x) = x2, 0≤x≤2

in connection with the two tables above.

Let us see the vertical transformations first

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=x2+2 f(x)=x2-2
[initial function] [2 units up] [2 units down]

y 6

4 y

2 2

x x x
0 2 2 2

-2

f(x)=2x2 f(x)=x2/2 f(x)=-x2

[vertical stretch, s.f. 2] [vertical stretch s.f. ½ [reflection in x-axis]
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y y

0 2

2
-4
x x
0 2 0 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Next, we observe the horizontal transformations

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=(2x)2
[initial function] [horizontal stretch, s.f. ½
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y

4 4

x x
0 2 0 1

f(x)=(x+2)2 f(x)=(x/2)2
[2 units to the left] [horizontal stretch, s.f. 2]

y y

4 4

x x
-2 0 0 4

f(x)=(x-2)2 f(x)=(-x)2
[2 units to the right] [reflection in y-axis ]

y y

4 4

x x

2 4 -2 0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:
The horizontal translation by a units (to the right or to the left)
a 
is also denoted by the translation vector  
0
A vertical translation by b units (up or down)
0
is also denoted by the translation vector  
b 
a
The combination of those two translations is denoted by  
b 

Of course we may have a combination of several simple

transformations.

For example, 2f(x-3)+5 implies

a vertical stretch with scale factor 2, followed by

a horizontal translation 3 units to the right, followed by

a vertical translation 5 units up

NOTICE:
It can be shown that a quadratic function can always take the so-
called vertex form

y=a(x-h)2+k

This is a combination of transformations of the simple quadratic

function y=x2
Indeed,

x2 initial function
ax2 vertical stretch by scale factor a
a(x-h)2 horizontal translation by h units
a(x-h)2+k vertical translation by k units

(if a<0, we also have a reflection about x-axis)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

h 
The two translations by   imply that the initial vertex (0,0) of
k 
the function x2 moves

h units horizontally, and

k units vertically,
thus its new position is (h,k)

vertex

 THE INVERSE FUNCTION TRANSFORMATION

We have already seen that f-1(x) causes a reflection in the line y=x

f(x)=x2 f-1(x)= x
[initial function] [reflection about the line y=x]

y y

x x
0 2 0 4

The image of the point A(2,4) is A΄(4,2).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 CORRECT ORDER OF TRANSFORMATIONS

Suppose that we are looking for the image of point A(8,8) under a
sequence of transformations. Pay attention to the order!
For two consecutive transformations, we distinguish three cases.

 Case A: vertical – horizontal

One does not affect the other, so any order is correct!

Example order image or order image

f(x) (8,8) f(x) (8,8)
2f(x+3) 2f(x) (8,16) f(x+3) (5,8)
2f(x+3) (5,16) 2f(x+3) (5,16)

 Case Β: vertical – vertical

The order matters! Changes affect, the whole expression

Example 1 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
2f(x)+6 2f(x) we multiply the whole expression by 2 (8,16)
2f(x)+6 we add 6 to the whole expression (8,22)

Example 2 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
2[f(x)+3] f(x)+3 we add 3 to the whole expression (8,11)
2[f(x)+3] we multiply the whole expression by 2 (8,22)

 Case C: horizontal – horizontal

This is the most confusing case! At each step, only x changes

Example 1 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
f(2x+6) f(x+6) x changes to x+6 (2,8)
f(2x+6) x changes to 2x (1,8)

Example 2 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
f(2(x+3)) f(2x) x changes to 2x (4,8)
f(2(x+3)) x changes to x+3 (1,8)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.10 SOME DISCUSSION ON ASYMPTOTES

1
Look at the graph of the function f(x)=
x

x
- 0 +

Notice: as x tends to + the value of y tends to 0 (the x-axis)

Also as x tends to - the value of y approaches 0 (the x-axis)
We say that
the x-axis (that is the line y=0) is a horizontal asymptote
Moreover,
for values of x near 0 (y-axis), the value of y tends to + or +
We say that
the y-axis (that is the line x=0) is a vertical asymptote

1
Similarly, for g(x)=  2 (f moved 1 unit right and 2 units up).
x- 1

1
x

Now the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

the line x=1 is a vertical asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

In general,

For Vertical Asymptotes: we are looking at points x=a where the

function is not defined

For Horizontal Asymptotes: we observe what happens if x tends to

+ or -. If the function approaches the line y=b we say that y=b is
a horizontal asymptote!

Informally, we can deduce the horizontal asymptotes by using a

GDC if we calculate the value of y for large positive values of x and
large negative values of x.

In the following graph:

2
x
- -4 0 1 +

The function is not defined at x=-4 and x=1, so

the lines x=-4 and x=1 are vertical asymptotes

As x tends to + or - the graph approaches the line y=2, so

the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
2x - 4
Consider the function f(x)=
x- 3

Observations on f(x)
Root: x=2
Vertical asymptote: x=3
Horizontal asymptote: y=2

Indeed, for very large values of x, the value of y approaches 2:

2000 - 4 1996
If x=1000, y=  2
1000 - 3 997

Similarly,
- 2000 - 4 - 2004
If x=-1000, y=  2
- 1000 - 3 - 1003

NOTICE
ax  b
In fact for a function of the form f(x)= (rational function)
cx  d
d d
the vertical asymptote is x=  (since the domain is x   )
c c
a
the horizontal asymptote is y=
c

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Thus until know we know the asymptotes in the following cases

Asymptotes
Function Graph
V.A. H.A

1
y= x = 0 y = 0
x

rational
ax  b d a
y= x=  y =
cx  d c c

y=bx
exponential y= Ae kx -- y = 0
y= Ab x

exponential y=bx + c
c units y= Ae kx  c -- y = c
up or down y= Ab x  c

y=lnx
logarithmic x = 0 --
y=logx

logarithmic
y=ln(x-c)
c units to the x = c --
y=log(x-c)
right or left

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.11 LOGARITHMS logax

We have seen the logarithms log x and ln x. However, we may have

a logarithm to any base (not only 10 or e)

 THE LOGARITHM log2x

This number is called logarithm of x to the base 2. It is connected

to the exponential 2x. The definition is given by

log2x = y  2 y =x

For example,

log28 = 3, since 23=8

log216 = 4, since 24=16

log21024 = 10, since 210=1024

etc.

For log210 our GDC gives log210=3.321928…

This implies that

23.321928…=10

EXAMPLE 1
U

Find log232, log225, log22100, log221453, log22, log21

 log232=5

 log225=5

 log22100=100 Notice, in general log22x=x

 log22=1

 log21=0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE LOGARITHM logax

In exactly the same way, for any base a>0, a≠1 we define

y
logax = y  a =x

NOTICE
U

We have already seen the logarithms logx and lnx.

In fact
we write logx instead of log10x
we write lnx instead of logex

 THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logax

A new function is defined

y = logax

In fact, this is the inverse function of the exponential function y=ax

If f(x)=ax then f-1(x)=logax

Indeed, ax=y  x= logay, hence f-1(x)=logax

If a>1 (for example if a=2), the graphs of these two functions look
like
y=ax

y=logax

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Observations:

 For y=ax: Domain: xR Range: y>0

 For y=logax: Domain: x>0 Range: yR

 The line y=0 (x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote of y=ax

 The line x=0 (y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of y=logax

 The graph of y=ax always passes through (0,1)

 The graph of y=logax always passes through (1,0)

 BASIC PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

For any base a (a>0, a≠1)

 loga1 = 0

 logaa = 1

 logaax = x

 alogax = x

 FOUR ALGEBRAIC LAWS

The following laws hold for any logax

We mention them here for log x

1) log xy = logx + logy  logx + logy = log xy

x x
2) log = logx - logy  logx - logy = log
y or y
3) log xn = nlogx  nlogx = logxn
1 1
4) log =- logx  - logx = log
x x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE
The first two laws can be combined in the following way:

ABD
logA+logB-logC+logD = log
C

If we also have coefficients we can work as follows

2logA+3logB-4logC+5logD = logA2+logB3-logC4+logD5

A 2B 3D 5
= log
C4
Thus

A 2B 3D 5
2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD = log
C4

This is the way we collect many logs into one log.

For example
32 43
2log3 + 3log4 - 4log2 = log = log36
24
or
32 43
2ln3 + 3ln4 - 4ln2 = ln = ln36
24

Look at also the opposite direction

A 2B 3D 5
log = 2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD
C4

This is the way we split one log into many logs.

For example

log72 = log(89) = log 2332 = 3log2 + 2log3

or

ln72 = ln(89) = ln 2332 = 3ln2 + 2ln3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2
Suppose lnx=a, lny=b, lnz=c. Express the following in terms of a,b,c.
y x 3y 1
lnxy, lnx2, ln , ln 2
, ln , ln x ,
z z x
Solution

 lnxy = lnx + lny = a+b

 lnx2 = 2lnx = 2a
y
 ln = lny - lnz = b-c
z
x 3y
 ln = 3lnx + lny - 2lnz = 3a+b-2c
z2
1 1
 ln = ln1 – lnx = 0-a = -a [or ln =lnx-1 = -lnx = -a]
x x
1 a
 ln x = lnx1/2 = lnx =
2 2

EXAMPLE 3
Suppose ln2=m, ln5=n. Express the following in terms of m, n.

ln10, ln50, ln2.5

Solution

 ln10 = ln(2×5) = ln2 +ln5 = m+n

 ln50 = ln(2×52) = ln2 + 2ln5 = m+2n

5
 ln2.5 = ln = ln5 - ln2 = n-m
2

 SIMPLE LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

They have the form

log a x  b

We use the definition to solve them:

x  ab

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4

Solve the logarithmic equations

(a) log 2 (x  2)  3 (a) log(x  2)  3 (c) ln(x  2)  3

Solution

(a) x  2  23  x  2  8  x  6

(b) x  2  10 3  x  2  1000  x  998

(c) x  2  e3  x  e3  2

Notice

Of course the solutions may be obtained by a GDC.

For (a) and (b), SolveN gives the exact solutions x=6 and x=998
For (c) it gives an approximation x  18.1
(this is not the exact solution, it is the approximate value of e 3  2 ).

Furthermore, if the equation contains a parameter, for example

log 2 (x  a)  3

we cannot use GDC. The solution must be expressed in terms of a

x=8-a

Although we can use our GDC to solve more complicated

logarithmic equations it is worth to see the analytical solution for
some easy examples which involve more than one logarithms.

Our target will be to bring them in one of the forms

 logA = logB so that A = B

 logA=c so that A=10c by definition

(or accordingly with logarithms of base a)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equations
(a) logx+log(x+2)= log3
(b) logx+log(x+3)= 1
3
(c) logx+log(x-2)-log(x- )=log3
4
Solution
(a) We obtain log x(x+2) = log3

Hence
x(x+2)=3  x2+2x-3=0

The solutions are x=1 and x=-3

The second solution is rejected since x>0 and x+2>0 by the original
equation. Therefore x=1.

(b) We obtain log x(x+3) = 1

Hence
x(x+3)=101  x2+3x-10=0

The solutions are x=2 and x=-5

The second solution is rejected since x>0. Therefore x=2

x(x - 2)
(c) We obtain log = log3
3
(x - )
4
Hence
x(x - 2) 9 9
=3  x2-2x=3x-  x2-5x+ =0
3 4 4
(x - )
4
The solutions are x=4.5 or x=0.5

The second solution is rejected since x>2. Therefore x=4.5

Notice

Use your GDC - SolveN to confirm the results

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.12 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

In these equations the unknown x is in the exponent. The simplest

exponential equation has the form

ax=b

According to the definition of logarithms the solution is

x=logab

We could also apply log( ) or ln( ) to the equation to obtain

different expressions of the solution
logb
ax=b  logax = logb  xloga = logb  x =
loga
lnb
ax=b  lnax = lnb  xlna = lnb  x =
lna
Notice.
Again, all the following equations can be solved directly by a GDC.
The solution will be given as a decimal number.
However, for practice on the laws of logarithms, let us find the
exact values of the solutions.

EXAMPLE 1
loga
Solve the equation 2(5x) = 9. Express the result in the form .
logb
Solution
We first divide by 2 and then apply log
log4.5
5x = 4.5  log5x = log 4.5  xlog5 = log4.5  x =
log5

Notice
ln4.5
 If we use ln( ), the answer will be x =
ln5
 This value according to the GDC is equal to 0.93453…  0.935
Check the solution by using GDC - SolveN

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Whenever we see exponentials of base e, it is preferable to use ln( ).

EXAMPLE 2

Solve the equation 10e2x = 85

Solution

We first divide by 10:

ln8.5
10e2x = 85  e2x = 8.5  lne2x =ln8.5  2x =ln8.5 x=
2

EXAMPLE 3
lna
Solve the equation 5x = 2x+1. Express the result in the form .
lnb
Solution
Method A: Let us apply ln on both sides

5x = 2x+1  ln5x = ln2x+1

 xln5 = (x+1)ln2

 xln5 = xln2+ln2

 xln5 - xln2 = ln2

 x(ln5-ln2) = ln2
ln2 ln2
 x =  x =
ln5 - ln2 5
ln
2

Method B: Simplify the equation to the form ax=b; then apply ln

5x = 2x+1  5x = (2x) 2
x
5x 5 
 x
= 2    = 2
2 2
5  ln2
 xln  = ln2 x =
2 5
ln
2
Remark
 This is the exact answer. If we are looking for an answer to
3sf, the calculator gives x=0.756.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation
6x7x-1 = 3x-2
lna
Express the result in the form
lnb
Solution
Although we can apply ln( ) on both sides and obtain

xln6 + (x-1)ln7 = (x-2)ln3

which is a linear equation and can be solved as usual, I will

recommend the quicker method: to simplify first the equation to
the form ax=b;
6 x7 x 3 x
6x7x-1 = 3x-2   2
7 3
6 x7 x 7
 x
 2
3 3
7
 14 x 
9
7
(now apply ln)  xln14  ln
9
ln(7/9)
 x =
ln14

Remark: Check the solution by GDC - SolveN

Notice:
Mind the following (common mistake)
A B  C does not imply logA  logB = logC
it implies log(A  B) = logC

If an equation contains a sum of exponentials, it doesn’t help to

apply a logarithm, as log(a x  b x ) cannot be simplified.

In such an equation we usually substitute an exponential by a new

variable y.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equations:
12
(a) 6e x  x  17 (b) 6(102x)+12=17(10x)
e
Solution
(a) Let y=ex. Then
12
6y   17  6y2-17y+12=0
y

3 4
There are two solutions: y= , y=
2 3
3 3 3
 For y= , ex =  x=ln
2 2 2
4 4 4
 For y= , ex =  x=ln
3 3 3
(b) Let y=10x. Then
6y2-17y+12=0
3 4
There are two solutions: y= , y=
2 3
3 3 3
 For y= , 10x =  x=log
2 2 2
4 4 4
 For y= , 10x =  x=log
3 3 3

EXAMPLE 6
Solve the system of equations
1 y
2(3x)-3(2y)=-22 and 5(3x)+ (2 )=9
2
Solution
Let A=3x and B=2y. Then
1
2A-3B=-22 and 5A+ B=9
2

The solution is A=1, B=8. Hence,

3x=1  x=log31  x=0 and 2y=8  y=log28  y=3

71