FILTRATION

Bhumi T. Bhatt
CKPIPSR
Department of pharmaceutics
DEFINITION
• FILTRATION is the process whereby a solid is separated from a fluid by
means of porous medium which retains the solid but allows the fluid
to pass.
• CLERIFICATION : When solids are present in very low concentration
(≤ 1% w/V ), the process of its separation from liquid is called
clarification.

➢The OBJECT of filtration in pharmaceutical industry is:

• Separation of particles from a fluid to get the sparkling liquid
• To recover solids from liquid media
• Removal of microorganism to achieve sterile preparation
• Removal of particulate matter from eye drops and parenteral
preparation
 SLURRY (FEED, The suspension of solid and liquid to
INFLUENT) be filtered is known as slurry.

FILTER MEDIUM The porous medium used to retain

the solid is termed as filter medium.

FILTER CAKE The solids collected on the filter

medium termed as filter cake.

FILTRATE The clear liquid which passes

(EFFLUENT) through the filter is called filtrate.
PROCESS OF FILTRATION
 APPLICATION OF FILTRATION
1. Production of sterile products :
• Air is filtered through HEPA filters (high efficiency
particulate air filters) or laminar air-bench to obtain
sterile air, which maintains good environment prior to
and during manufacture of sterile products.
• A solution is passed through a bacteria proof filter in Figure : Laminar air flow

order to obtain sterile solution, particularly when heat

sterilization is not suitable on account of thermolabile
nature of the contents.
• In case of sterile products, particles as small as 0.2 um
should be removed, which includes the bio-burden of
fungi, bacteria etc.
2. Production of bulk drugs
• Solids of intermediates and finished products are separated from the
reaction mixture by filtration technique. By this method, impurities
can be removed.

3. Production of liquid oral formulations

Filtration is an essential step in the production of liquid oral solutions
for obtaining clear solutions (clarification).
(a) Dewaxing of oils.
(b) Removing of undesirable solids, which interfere with the
transparency of the liquids. Examples are honey and fruit juices.
(c) Clarifying the potable water.
4. Effluent and waste water treatment:
• Waste solids must be separated from the waste liquid prior to its
disposal. Sometimes, the soluble components are precipitated and
then separated by filtration.
MECHANISMS OF FILTRATION
Similar to sieving, i.e., the particles of larger size cannot pass through
Straining the smaller pore size of the filter medium. This is commonly referred to
as surface filtration.

Solids having the momentum move along the path of streamline flow
Impingement and strike (impinge) the filter medium. Thus, the solids are retained on
the filter medium. This is commonly referred to as depth filtration.

Entanglement If the filter medium consist of cloth with a porous felt, then particles
become entangled in the mass of fibers.

Attractive In some cases, particles may arrests and collect on a filter medium as
forces result of attractive forces, or by adsorption.
TYPES OF FILTRATION PROCESSS:

I. Surface filtration (Screen filtration):

• It is a screening action by which pores or holes of the medium

prevent the passage of solids.
• The mechanisms, straining and impingement are responsible for
surface filtration.
• For this purpose, plates with holes or woven sieves are used.
II. Depth filtration
• In depth filtration, the liquid containing solid particles is forced
through a bed of porous material.
• The solid particles are trapped within the relatively coarse apertures
of the bed, allowing relatively clear liquid to pass through.
• The depth filter permits slurry to penetrate to a point where the
diameter of a solid particle is greater than the diameter of a void.
• Sand filtration and cartridge filtration are the examples of depth
filtration.
• As solid particles continue to accumulate within the filter bed, there
comes a time when either fluid flow is restricted below acceptable
limits, or solid particles are forced through the bed into the filtrate. At
this time the bed must be regenerated, or cartridge replaced.
III. Cake filtration:

• Cake filtration occurs when a liquid containing solid particles is forced

through a porous filter medium which is open enough to allow the
passage of the liquid, but tight enough to retain the solid particles.
• As more and more liquid is forced through the medium, the solids
form a thicker and thicker filter cake.
• The main characteristic of cake filtration is that the cake which is
formed must be porous enough to permit continued fluid flow
through it as filtration progresses.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURFACE AND DEPTH FILTRATION
SURFACE FILTRATION DEPTH FILTRATION
The size of the particles retained is slightly higher than The size of the particles retained is much smaller
the mean pore size of the medium. than the pores through which fluid passes.
Mechanical strength is low. Mechanical strength is high.
The size of the particles retained is more predictable. The size of the particles retained is less predictable.
It has low capacity. It has high capacity.
Equipment is expensive because it should require Cheaper because ancillary equip ment is not
ancillary equipment such as edge clamps, which should required.
have much finer tolerances..
Example is cellulose membrane filter. Examples are ceramic filters, and sintered (bed)
filters.
THEORIES OF FILTRATION
• The flow rate of liquid may be expressed as:
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Rate =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

• The rate of filtration may be expressed as volume (liters) per unit time
(dv/dt).
• The factors affecting rate of filtration were studied by Darcy.
• The driving force is proportional to area of the filtering surface and pressure
drop, across it.
• The resistance is due to the viscosity of the liquid, and any resistance offered by
filter cake and of filter media.
• This may be expressed mathematically thus:
𝑑𝑣 𝐾 . 𝐴 .△𝑃
F= = ……………………………….. (1)
𝑑𝑡 η𝑅

𝑑𝑣 𝐾 . 𝐴 .△𝑃
F= = ……………………………….. (2)
𝑑𝑡 η (𝑙+𝑟)
Where :F= Flow rate of filtrate △ 𝑃 = Total Pressure drop
K = Proportionality Constant n = Filtrate viscosity
dv = Volume of filtrate l = Resistance of filter cake (Thickness of cake)
dt = Time r = Resistance of filter medium
• Now ‘l’ , Resistance of filter cake depend upon :
❖ Thickness of cake – l, cm
▪ Amount of filtrate has passed
▪ Solid content of the slurry
❖ Nature of cake like
▪ Loose
▪ Compact
• The resistance of the filter cake – ‘l’ expressed as specific cake
resistance – ‘α’ where:
l= Resistance of filter cake (Thickness of
α . 𝑉 .𝑊 cake)
l= ……………………….. (3) α = Specific cake resistance
𝐴
V = Volume of filtrate passed in time 't', mL
A = Filter Area, cm2
W = Weight of cake solids/unit volume of
filtrate, g/mL
• Substituting the value of ‘l’ from equation (3) in equation (2)

𝑑𝑣 𝐾 . 𝐴 .△𝑃
F= = α . 𝑉 .𝑊+𝑟 ……………………………….. (4)
𝑑𝑡 η 𝐴

(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 ×𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)

Rate of filtration =
(𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ×𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟)
 Poiseuille’s equation

• Poiseuille’s equation is:

V = π△Pr4
ηL
Where V = rate of flow
△P = pressure difference across the filter, Pa
r = radius of the capillary, m
L = Thickness of the filter cake, m
η = viscosity of the filtrate, Pa.s
❖ If the cake is composed of bulky mass of particles and the liquid flows
through the void, then the flow of liquid through these expressed by
Poiseuille’s equation.
Kozeny – Carman Equation
• Kozeny – Carman equation is widely use for filtration

Where
ε = porosity of the cake
S = specific surface area of the particles comprising the cake , m2 / m3
K = Kozeny constant
△P = pressure difference across the filter, Pa
L = Thickness of the filter cake, m
η = viscosity of the filtrate, Pa.s
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF FILTRATION

(1) Area of Filter:

• Volume of filtrate will be proportional to the area of the filter, as area
increases cake thickness decreases and ultimately rate of filtration
decreases.
• Area can be increased by
❖Using a number of small units in parallel. e.g. Filter press
❖In rotary filter, filter cake is removed continuously so an infinite
area for filtration.
(2) Pressure Drop:
• The rate of filtration is proportional to the over all pressure drop.
• Pressure drop can be increased by:
A. Reduced pressure beneath the filter
❖By connecting the filtrate receiver to a vacuum pump
❖By the use of the filter-leaf.

B. By increasing the pressure on the slurry to be filtered.

❖Gravity
❖By Pump
(3) Viscosity of filtrate :
• An increase in the viscosity of the filtrate will increase the resistance
to flow.
• So that the rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the viscosity
of the fluid.
• The rate of filtration may be increased by raising the temperature of
the liquid, which lowers its viscosity.
• It is not practicable if thermolabile or volatile material.
(4) Temperature:
• Increased temperature reduce the viscosity of thick liquids such as
syrup, glycerin, liquid paraffin and thus filtered quickly.
(5) Resistance of the filter media:
• Thicker the media, the rate of filtration is low.
• Rate of filtration is directly proportional to the pore size, of the filter
media.

(6) Cake resistance :

• Flow rate is inversely proportional to the amount of cake deposited.
• Cake resistance also depends upon the porosity of the cake.

(7) Particle size :

A decreased particle size results in higher values of ‘α’ (Specific cake
resistance) and lower the filtration rate.
FILTER MEDIA
• Filter media is a porous material through which a fluid is pass and
solid particles are retained. It act as a support for the filter cake.
(I) IDEAL PROPERTIES
• Should be chemically inert
• Should have high retention power
• Should offer as little resistance as possible to the flow.
• It should be mechanically strong
• Should be resistant to the corrosive action of the fluid
• Should possess smooth surface for easy discharge of cake.
• Retain the solids without plugging
• Low rate of entrapment of solids within its interstices
• Minimum cost
(II) CLASSIFICATION OF FILTER MEDIA
(III) MATERIALS
(1) Woven materials such as felt or cloth
• Woven material is made of wool, cotton, silk, glass, metal or
synthetic fibers (rayon, nylon etc.).
• Synthetic fibers have greater chemical resistance than wool
or cotton, which are affected by alkali and acid, respectively.
• The choice of the fiber depends on the chemical reactivity
with the slurry
(2) Perforated sheet metal
• For example stainless steel plates have pores which act as
channels as in case of meta filter (edge filter).

(3) Bed of granular solid built up on a supporting medium

• Use to reduce the resistance to the flow.
• Typical examples of granular solids are sand, asbestosand
keiselguhr.
(4) Prefabricated porous solid unit
• Sintered glass, sintered metal, earthenware and porous
plastics are some of the materials used for the fabrication.

(5) Membrane filter media

• They are available in pore size of 100 μm to even less than 0.2 µm.
• These can be used either as surface cartridges or depth type
cartridges.
(a) Surface type cartridges: Ceramic and Porcelain filter candles are
used for sterile filtration.
(b) Depth type cartridges: These are made of cotton, asbestos or
cellulose.
FILTER AIDS

• Filter aid forms a surface deposit which screens out the solids and
also prevents the plugging of the supporting filter medium.

• The objective of the filter aid is to prevent the medium from

becoming blocked and to form an open, porous cake, hence, reducing
the resistance to flow of the filtrate.
(I) IDEAL PROPERTIES :
• It should be inert
• It should be insoluble
• It should form porous cake
• It should be readily recoverable
• It should be free from impurities
• It should remain suspended in the liquid
• It should be free from moisture wherever required

(II) LIST OF FILTER AIDS

Diatomite (Diatomaceous earth) , Perlite (Aluminum silicate), Cellulose,
Asbestos, Carbon-charcoal, Kieselguhr, Talc, Kaolin, Chalk (Calcium
Carbonate), Bentonite, Magnesium Carbonate
(III) METHOD OF USE
Special precoat
Pre Coating Body-Mix
filter
• Before filtration • Small • A slurry of filter
forming a proportion of aid is fed to
precoat over filter aid is filter until a
the filter added to the layer of precoat
medium. slurry and then 2 inches.
• Pre coating is perform the • Then the slurry
done by filtering filtration. to be filtered is
a suspension of fed.
filter aid before
actual filtration.
CLASSIFICATION OF FILTRATION EQUIPMENTS
FILTRATION
EQUIPMENTS

Centrifugal
Gravity filter Pressure filter Vacuum filter
filter

Continuous Continuous
Sand filter Bag filter Batch process Batch process
process process

• Filter press • Rotary Leaf filter • Drum filter

• Chamber press drum filter • Edge filter • Disc filter
• Vertical leaf filter • Leaf filer • Meta filter
• Cartridge filter
• Edge filter
• Meta filter
FILTER PRESS ( PLATE AND FRAME
FILTER PRESS / FLUSH PLATE)
PLATE AND FRAME FILTER PRESS

Principle :
The mechanism is surface filtration. The slurry enters the frame by
pressure and flows through the filter medium. The filtrate is collected
on the plates and sent to the outlet.
A number of frames and plates are used so that surface area increases
large volumes of slurry can be processed simultaneously with or
without washing.
Construction:
• The filter press is made of two types of units,
• frames
• plates
• These are usually made of aluminum alloy.
• Frame contains an open space inside wherein the slurry reservoir is maintained
for filtration and an inlet to receive the slurry. It is indicated by two dots in the
description.
• The plate has a studded or grooved surface to support the filter cloth and an
outlet. It is indicated by one dot in the description.
• The filter medium (usually cloth) is interposed between plate and frame.
• Frames of different thicknesses are available.
• Plate, filter medium, frame, filter medium and plate are arranged in
the sequence and clamped to a supporting structure. It is normally
described by dots as 1.2.1.2.1 so on.
• A number of plates and frames are employed so that filtration area is
as large as necessary.
Working
• The working of the frame and plate process can be described in two
steps,
• Filtration operation
• Washing operation
(i) Filtration operation:
• Slurry enters the frame (marked by 2 dots) from the feed channel and
passes through the filter medium on to the surface of the plate
(marked by 1 dot).
• The solids form a filter cake and remain in the frame.
• The thickness of the cake is half of the frame thickness, because on
each side of the frame filtration occur. Thus, two filter cakes are
formed, which meet eventually in the center of the frame.
• The filtrate drains between the projections on the surface of the plate
and escapes from the outlet.
• As filtration proceeds, the resistance of the cake increases and the
filtration rate decreases.
• At a certain point, it is preferable to stop the process rather than
continuing at very low flow rates.
• The press is emptied and the cycle is restarted.
• Washing operation:
• If it is necessary to wash the filter cake, the ordinary plate and frame
press is unsatisfactory.
• Two cakes are built up in the frame meeting eventually in the middle.
• A modification of the plate and frame press is used.
• For this purpose, an additional channel is included. These wash plates
are identified by three dots.
• In half the wash plate, there is a connection from the wash water
channel to the surface of the plate.
• The sequence of arrangement of plates and frames can be
represented by dots as 1.2.3.2.1.2.3.2.1.2.3.2.1 so on.
• The steps are as follows.
(1) Filtration proceeds in the ordinary way until the frames are filled
with cake.
(2) To wash the filter cake, the outlets of the washing plates (three
dots) are closed.
(3) Wash water is pumped into the washing channel. The water enters
through the inlets on to the surface of the washing (three dots)
plates.
(4) Water passes through the filter cloth and enters frame (two
dots)which contains the cake. Then water washes the cake, passes
through the filter cloth and enters the plate (one dot) down the
surface.
(5) Finally washed water escapes through the outlet of that plate.
Advantages:

(1) Simple in construction and are available in wide range of material.

(2) Provide large filtering area in small floor space.
(3) Versatile - The capacity being variable according to number of
plates/frames.
(4) The filter cloth readily replaceable.
Disadvantages

(1) Expensive
(2) Labor cost high
(3) Washing is not very efficient.
(4) Operation is critical.
Application

(1) Used for slurry containing solid upto 5 %

(2) Use for sterile filtration
(3) Removal of precipitated proteins from insulin.
FILTER LEAF
 FILTER LEAF
Principle:
• The mechanism is surface filtration and act
as sieve or strainer. Vacuum or pressure can
be applied to increase the rate of filtration.
Construction:
• The general arrangement of a filter leaf is
shown in Figure.
• It consists of a narrow frame enclosing a
drainage screen or grooved plate.
• The frame may be of any shape, circular,
square or rectangular. The whole unit is
covered with filter cloth.
• The outlet for the filtrate connects to the
interior of the frame through suction.
Working:
• The filter leaf is immersed in the slurry.
• Vacuum system is connected to the filtrate
outlet. The slurry passes through the filter
cloth.
• Finally filtrate enters the drainage canal
and goes through the outlet into the
receiver.
• Air is passed to flow in reverse direction
which facilitates removal of cake.
Modification:
➢Sweetland filter :
• It is the later development of the pressure
leaf filter.
• Number of leaves are connected to a
common outlet.
• The vessel is cylindrical, and it is supported
by the upper part, and lower part can be
swung away. This permits the cake to be
discharged by compressed air without
removing the filter leaves from the vessel.
Uses :
• The filter leaf is satisfactory, if the solid content of the slurry is not too
high, about 5%, i.e., dilute suspensions.
Advantages:
• Ease of handling
• Less floor space
• Minimum labour
• Efficient washing
• A number of units can be connected in parallel to increase the surface
area for filtration.
• Pressure difference can be obtained either with vacuum or using
pressure up to the order of 800 kilopascals
Disadvantage:
• Not suitable if solid concentration exceeds 5 % in slurry.
ROTARY DRUM FILTER
ROTARY DRUM FILTER

Principle:
• The mechanism is surface filtration under the condition of vacuum.
• In addition, compression, drying (using hot air) and removing the
filter cake (using a knife) are possible.
Construction:
• It consists of a metal cylinder mounted horizontally.
• The drum may be up to 3 metres in diameter and 3.5 metres in length
and gives a surface area of 20 metre square.
• The curved surface is a perforated plate, which supports a filter cloth.
• The drum is radially partitioned dividing the annular space into
separate compartments.
• Each of it is connected by an internal pipe to the center of the drum
through a rotating valve.
Working:
• The drum is rotated at a speed less than one revolution per minute.
• During one rotation of drum following steps are occurred
(1) Cake deposition and filtration
(2) Draining
(3) Washing of cake
(4) Drying of cake
(5) Cake removal
1) Cake deposition:
• The drum just enters the slurry in the trough. As it dips, vacuum is
applied in this segment so that the solid is build up on the surface.
The liquid passes through the filter cloth into an internal pipe and
valve. Finally the filtrate reaches the collecting tank.

2) Draining:
• As the drum leaves the slurry section, it enters the drainage zone.
Here excess of the liquid is drawn inside. Special cake compression
rollers may be included at this stage, so that the cake is consolidated
by the compression of the cake. This improves the efficiency of
washing and drying process.
3) Washing:
• As the drum leaves the drainage zone, it enters the water wash
section. Water is sprayed on the cake. A separate system of vacuum is
applied on the panel in order to suck the wash liquid and air through
the cake of solids. Wash liquid is drawn through the filter into a
separate collecting tank.

4) Drying:
• Then the cake enters the drying zone, where hot air is blown on the
cake. The cake may have the moisture content less than one percent.

5) Cake removal:
• Finally the cake is removed using a doctor knife and discharged. All
these steps are completed in one rotation of the drum. Now the drum
is ready to receive a fresh lot of slurry.
USES

(1) For continuous operation and used to filter slurries containing high
proportion of solids upto 15 to 30%.
(2) For collection of Calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate and
starch.
(3)For production of penicillin.
ADVANTAGES

(1) Automatic and continuous in operation, so that labour costs are

very low.
(2) It has a large surface area.
(3) As cake is removed, simultaneously during operation, so suitable for
concentrated slurry.
(4) Washing as well as drying is done simultaneously.
DISADVANTAGES

(1) Complex piece of equipment, with many moving parts.

(2) It is very expensive.
(3) It required, ancillary equipment such as - vacuum pumps, vacuum
receiver and traps, slurry pumps and agitators.
(4) As vacuum filter, the pressure difference is limited to 1 Bar and hot
filtrate may boil.
CARTRIDGE FILTER
CARTRIDGE FILTER

Principle:
Cartridge filter is a thin porous membrane in which prefilter and
membrane filter are combined into a single unit. The filtration action is
mainly sieve-like and the particles are retained on the surface.
Construction:
• Cartridge filter has a cylindrical configuration made with disposable or
changeable filter media.
• These are made of either plastic or metal.
• It consists two membrane filters (sieve-like) made of polypropylene a
prefilter and an actual filter for filtration.
• A protective layer surrounds them.
• The cartridges are housed in a holder.
• A number of cartridges can be placed in the same housing.
• The housing is closed with a lid. The housing has provisions for slurry
inlet and filtrate outlet.
Working:
The slurry is pumped into the cartridge holder. It passes through
cartridge filter unit by the mechanism of straining. The clear liquid
passes to the center and moves up to collect through the outlet.

Uses:
• Cartridge filter is particularly useful for the preparation of particulate
free solutions for parenteral and ophthalmic uses.
• This filter holder will process 1000 to 15000 litres of sterile solution
per hour.
Advantages

(1) Stainless steel construction permits autoclaving for sterile

operations
(2) Provide maximum filtration area in the smallest possible package.
(3) Allow quick change out of the media and save time and money.

Disadvantage
Cost of disposable elements
META FILTER / EDGE FILTER
META FILTER

Principle:
• Meta filter functions as a strainer (surface filtration) for the
separation of particles.
• In this method, metal rings contain semicircular projections, which
are arranged as a nest to form channels on the edges.
• This channel offers resistance (strainer) to the flow of solids (coarse
particles). The clear liquid is collected into a receiver from the top.
Construction:
• The meta filter consists of a series of metal rings. These are threaded
so that a channel is formed on the edges.
• It contains a grooved drainage column on which a series of metal
rings are packed.
• These rings are usually made of stainless steel and have dimensions
of about 15.0 millimetres internal diameter and 22.0 millimetres
external diameter.
• Each metal ring has a number of semicircular projections (0.8 milli
meters in thickness) on one side of the surface.
• The projections are arranged the same way up. These rings are
tightened on the drainage column with a nut. Therefore, meta filter is
also known as edge filters.
Working :
• These filters are placed in a vessel
and may be operated by pumping the
slurry under pressure or occasionally
by the application of reduced
pressure to the outlet side.
• The slurry passes through the
channels formed on the edges
between the rings.
• The clear liquid rises up and collected
from the outlet into the receiver.
ADVANTAGES
(1) Meta filter can be used under high pressures, without any danger of
bursting the filter medium.
(2) Running costs are low, as separate filter medium is not used.
(3) It can be constructed from a material that can provide excellent
resistance to corrosion and avoid contamination of sensitive
products.
(4) Removal of cake is carried out effectively, by simply backflushing
with water.
(5) Sterile products can be handled.
USES

Meta filter can be used for:

• clarification of syrups
• filtration of injection solutions
• clarification of insulin liquors
• filtration of viscous liquids can be achieved by applying pressure
 STERILE FILTERS

1.Membrane filter
2.Seitz filter
MEMBRANE FILTER
 MEMBRANE FILTER

Principle:
• Membrane filter acts like a sieve and the particulate matter is retained on the
surface of the membrane
Construction:
• Membrane filters are made using cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate
or mixed cellulose esters.
• Membrane filters are supported on a rigid base of perforated metal
plastic or coarse sintered glasses in case of fibrous pad filters.
• These are available with different pore sizes.
Pore size, μm Utility

0.010 to 0.10 remove virus particles from air

and water
0.03 to 0.65 remove bacteria

0.8, 1.2, 3.0 to 5.0 particle sizing and purifying

aerosol
ADVANTAGES

• Membrane filtration is rapid.

• These are available as disposable items and hence cross contamination
is prevented
• Bacterial growth on the membranes is not observed
• Pre-sterilized sealed packs are available.
DISADVANTAGES

• The most refined grades are expensive

• Membrane filters are brittle when dry
• Filters may get clogged
SEITZ FILTER
SEITZ FILTER

Principle:
• Filtration occurs through asbestos filter pad disc (by entanglement
mechanism of filtration). It consists of fine fibers which act as
barrier for particles.
Construction:
• It consists of two parts.
• The lower part holds a perforated disc, on it a compressed asbestos
sheet is placed. Both parts are joined together with the help of
winged nuts. There is a valve on the upper part through which
vacuum is applied.
• The asbestos sheet is made up of asbestos fibers & but may also
contain cellulose and alkaline earth such as magnesium compounds.
USES

• Seitz filters are useful for sterile filtration

• Finest pads give almost perfect filtration of small volumes.
• Viscous solutions can also be filtered.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Less risk of contaminating the • Pad may absorbs the

filtrate. medicaments.
• It is very simple to use. • They may impart alkalinity to the
• Chemical resistant so useful for filtrate.
corrosive liquids.
• For viscous solutions it is
suitable.