ORAL COMMUNICATION

REVIEWER

-----FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION-----
Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person to another
within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014). There is a
wide variety of contexts and situations in which communication can be manifested; it can
be a face-to-face interaction, a phone conversation, a group discussion, a meeting or
interview, a letter correspondence, a class recitation, and many others.

NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

1. Communication is a process.
2. Communication occurs between two or more people (the speaker and the receiver).
3. Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words, actions (nonverbal),
or both spoken words and nonverbal actions at the same time.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its mechanics or
process. These elements are the following:

1. Speaker-the source of information or message

2. Message-the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in
actions
3. Encoding-the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms that
the speaker understands
4. Channel-the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or nonverbal,
in which the encoded message is conveyed
5. Decoding-the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the receiver
6. Receiver-the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message
7. Feedback-the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver
8. Context-the environment where communication takes place
9. Barrier-the factors that affect the flow of communication
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Shannon-Weaver Model
Known as the mother of all communication models, the Shannon-Weaver model
(1949) depicts communication as a linear or one-way process consisting of five elements: a
source (producer of message); a transmitter (encoder of message into signals); a channel
(signals adapted for transmission); a receiver (decoder of message from the signal); and a
destination.

This model , however, has been criticized for missing one essential element in the
communication process: feedback. Without feedback, the speaker will not know whether the
receiver understands the message or not.
You sent

2. Transaction Model
Unlike the Shannon-Weaver Model, which is a one-way process, the Transaction
Model is a two- way process with the inclusion of feedback as one element

3. Schramm Model
A circular model of communication where everyone involved in an interaction is
treated equally. This is also usually used to describe synchronous interpersonal
communication.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Basically, there are five functions of communication. These are control, social
interaction, motivation, emotional expression, and information dissemination.

1. Control - Communication functions to control behavior.

2. Social Interaction - Communication allows individuals to interact with others.

3. Motivation - Communication motivates or encourages people to live better.

4. Emotional expression - Communication facilitates people's expression of their feelings and

emotions.

5. Information dissemination - Communication functions to convey information.

FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012)
list the 7 Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely used today, especially in public
relations and advertising.

1. Completeness
Complete communication is essential to the quality of the communication process
in general. Hence, communication should include everything that the receiver needs to hear
for him/ her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.

2. Conciseness
Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but making it direct or
straight to the point. Insignificant or redundant information should be eliminated from the
communication that will be sent to the recipient.

3. Consideration
 To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information about
his/her receiver such as mood, background, race, preference, education, status, and needs,
among others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport with the audience.

4. Concreteness

Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and supported by facts,
figures, and real-life examples and situations. In this case, the receiver is more connected to
the message conveyed.

5. Courtesy
The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the culture, values,
and beliefs of his/her receivers. Being courteous at all times creates a positive impact on the
audience,

6. Clearness
Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to
express ideas. It is also achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single objective in
his/her speech so as not to confuse the audience.

7. Correctness
Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and increases
the credibility and effectiveness of the message.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

There are instances when miscommunication and misunderstanding occur

because of certain barriers. To become an effective communicator, you should recognize
these barriers that hinder the communication process. This will enable you to control the
situation, reset conditions, and start anew.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal Communication refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a message.
For effective and successful verbal communication, use words to express ideas which can be easily
understood by the person you are talking to. Consider appropriateness, brevity, clarity, ethics, and
vividness when engaging in this type of communication.

1. Appropriateness-The language that you use should be appropriate to the environment or occasion
(ie., whether formal or informal).
2. Brevity-Speakers who often use simple yet precise and powerful words are found to be more
credible. Try to achieve brevity by being more direct with your words. Avoid fillers and insubstantial
expressions which do not add to the message, such as "uh," "you know," "I guess," and others.

3. Clarity-The meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted differently by a listener,

hence, it is essential for you to clearly state your message and express your ideas and feelings.

4. Ethics-Words should be carefully chosen in consideration of the gender, roles, ethnicity,

preferences, and status of the person or people you are talking to.

5. Vividness-Words that vividly or creatively describe things or feelings usually add color and spice to
communication. Hence, you are encouraged to find ways to charm your audience through the use of
vivid words.

Nonverbal communication refers to an interaction where behavior is used to convey and

represent meanings. All kinds of human responses that are not expressed in words are classified as
nonverbal communication. Examples of nonverbal communication are stares, smiles, tone of voice
movements, manners of walking, standing and sitting, appearance, style of attire, attitude towards
time and space, personality, gestures, and others.

Mastery of nonverbal communication is important for several reasons:

1. It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it more meaningfu truthful,
and relevant.
2. It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and perceptions without you saying a word.
3. It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the speech.
4. It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.
5. It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.
6. It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.
7. It helps make your speech more dramatic.
8. It can build a connection with listeners.
9. It makes you a credible speaker.
10. It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous delivery.

-----INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION-----

Intercultural communication happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and

SCANNING DEFINITION AND NATURE OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

create meanings while bringing in their varied cultural backgrounds (Ting-Toomey, 1999).

For some scholars, intercultural communication pertains to communication among people

from different nationalities (Gudykunst, 2003). Still, others look at intercultural
communication as communication that is influenced by different ethnicities, religions, and
sexual orientations.

Both interpretations show that intercultural communication takes place when people draw
from their cultural identity to understand values, prejudices, language, attitudes, and
relationships (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003). Moreover, this facet of communication can also be
seen as a bargained understanding of human experiences across diverse societies. Simply
put, intercultural communication is the sending and receiving of messages across languages
and cultures.

THE DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF INTERCULTURAL SENSITIVITY

 The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) offers a
structure that explores how people experience cultural differences. According to Bennett
and Bennett (2004), it has six stages. These are the following:

Stage 1: Denial. The individual does not recognize cultural differences.

An individual in the denial stage might be heard saying:

"All cities are the same; they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee shops."

Stage 2: Defense. The individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated by
them, resulting in either a superior view on own culture or an unjustified high regard for the
new one.

An individual in the defense stage might be heard saying:

"This culture does not view life the way we do; our culture is certainly better."

"Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them."

Stage 3: Minimization. Although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the
universality of ideas rather than on cultural differences.

An individual in the minimization stage might be heard saying:

"Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!"

Stage 4: Acceptance. The individual begins to appreciate important cultural differences in

behaviors and eventually in values.

An individual in the acceptance stage might be heard saying:

"These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we can learn from one
another”

Stage 5: Adaptation. The individual is very open to world views when accepting new
perspectives.

An individual in the adaptation stage might be heard saying:

"To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own and my
counterpart's background."

Stage 6: Integration. Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and see themselves
and their actions based on multifarious cultural viewpoints.

An individual in the integration stage might be heard saying:

"I can look at things from the perspective of various cultures."

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENT INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATORS

World Bank (2010) identifies the following traits that define a competent intercultural
communicator.
1. flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty

2. reflectiveness or mindfulness

3. open-mindedness

4. sensitivity

5. adaptability

6. ability to engage in divergent thinking (or thinking creatively) and systems-level thinking
(or thinking how each one in a system or organization influences each other)

7. politeness

-----SPEECH CONTEXT AND STYLE-----

TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT

1. Intrapersonal -This refers to communication that centers on one person where the
speaker acts both as the sender and the receiver of message. "The message is made up of
your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you are
thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself, you discard
certain ideas and replace them with others."

Examples:

You spent the night thinking and analyzing why a student from the other class
talked to you on the way home and you decided it probably meant nothing.


You felt happy while thinking about how your teacher appreciated you for
submitting your project before the due date and you reflected on why this was so.


2. Interpersonal - This refers to communication between and among people and establishes
personal relationship between and among them. Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that "the
inter part of the word highlights how interpersonal communication connects people... when
you engage in interpersonal communication, you and another person become linked
together... The personal part means that your unique qualities as a person matter during
interpersonal communication..."

TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

 Dyad Communication - communication that occurs between two people

Example:

 You offered feedback on the speech performance of your classmate.

  You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling down.

 Small Group -This refers to communication that involves at least three but not more
than twelve people engaging in a face-to-face interaction to achieve a desired goal. In
this type of communication, all participants can freely share ideas in a loose and open
discussion.

Example:

You are participating in an organizational meeting which aims to address the concerns
of your fellow students.


You are having a discussion with your group mates on how to finish the assigned
tasks.


 Public-This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver or send the
message before or in front of a group. The message can be driven by informational or
persuasive purposes. "In public communication, unlike in interpersonal and small
group, the channels are more exaggerated. The voice is louder and the gestures are
more expansive because the audience is bigger. The speaker might use additional
visual channels such as slides or a Power Point presentation." (Hybels & Weaver,
2012, p 19)

Example:

 You deliver a graduation speech to your batch.

You participate in a declamation, oratorical, or debate contest watched by a number of

people.


 Mass Communication - This refers to communication that takes place through

television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet, and other types
of media.

Example:

You are a student journalist articulating your stand on current issues through the
school's newspaper.


TYPES OF SPEECH STYLE

The context dictates and affects the way people communicate, which results in various
speech styles. According to Joos (1968), there are five speech styles. These are (1) intimate,
(2) casual, (3) consultative, (4) formal, and (5) frozen. Each style dictates what appropriate
language or vocabulary should be used or observed.

1. Intimate - This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or
individuals. The language used in this style may not be shared in public.

2. Casual - This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular
language is used.

3. Consultative - This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language
is a must in this style. Examples of situations are communication between teachers and
students, employers and employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or President and
his/her constituents.

4. Formal - This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this Examples
are sermons by priests and ministers, State of the formal speeches, or pronouncements by
judges. is one-way. Nation Address of the President,

5. Frozen -This style is "frozen" in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in
ceremonies. Common examples are the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord's Prayer, and
Allegiance to country or flag.

-----SPEECH ACT-----
DEFINITION OF SPEECH ACTS

A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. Some
of the functions which are carried out using speech acts are offering an apology, greeting,
request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just one
word or several words or sentences. For example, "Thanks" and "Thank you for always being
there for me. I really appreciate it" both show appreciation regardless of the length of the
statement.

THREE TYPES OF SPEECH ACT

According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech
Act Theory, there are three types of acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or
context These are:

1. Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering.

"Please do the dishes."

2. Illocutionary act is the social function of what is said.

By uttering the locution "Please do the dishes," the speaker requests the addressee to wash
the dishes.

3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular
context in which the speech act was mentioned.

"Please do the dishes" would lead to the addressee washing the dishes.

There are also indirect speech acts which occur when there is no direct connection between
the form of the utterance and the intended meaning. They are different in force (i.e.,
intention) from the inferred speech act.

For example, read the following utterance.

Inferred speech act: Do you have the ability to hand over the rice?

"Can you pass the rice?"

So while the utterance literally asks the addressee if he or she has the ability to hand a plate
of rice, it actually indirectly requests the addressee to pass the rice to the speaker.

Indirect speech act: Please pass the rice.

PERFORMATIVES

Austin also introduced the concept of performative utterances: statements which

enable the speaker to perform something just by stating it. In this manner, verbs that
execute the speech act that they intend to effect are called performatives. A performative
utterance said by the right person under the right circumstances results in a change in the
world. Note that certain conditions have to be met when making a performative utterance.

For example, the phrase "I now pronounce you husband and wife," when uttered by an
authorized person such as a judge will have the actual effect of binding a couple in marriage.
However, if the same statement is uttered to the same couple in the same place by someone
who is not authorized to marry them as in the case of the accompanying picture, a robot-then
there is no effect whatsoever because a condition was not met

SEARLE'S CLASSIFICATIONS OF SPEECH ACT

As a response to Austin's Speech Act Theory, John Searle (1976), a professor from the
University of California, Berkeley, classified illocutionary acts into five distinct categories.

1. Assertive-a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth
of a proposition. Some examples of an assertive act are suggesting, putting forward,
swearing, boasting, and concluding.

Example:

No one makes better pancakes than I do.

2. Directive - a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee
perform an action. Some examples of a directive act are asking, ordering, requesting,
inviting, advising, and begging.

Example:

Please close the door.

3. Commissive - a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to doing something in
the future. Examples of a commissive act are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.

Example:

From now on, I will participate in our group activity.

4. Expressive - a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or
emotional reactions. Some examples of an expressive act are thanking, apologizing,
welcoming, and deploring.

Example:

I am so sorry for not helping out in our group projects and letting you do all the work.

5. Declaration - a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in the external situation.
Simply put, declarations bring into existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to.
Some examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a sentence,
and excommunicating.

Example:

You are fired!

By saying that someone is fired, an employer causes or brings about the person's

-----COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY-----

People communicate every day to establish and maintain relationships, know and
understand themselves, and find meaning in the daily grind. Moreover, since humans are
social beings who survive more effectively through sensible discourses, they are always
driven to learn the skills of creating and sustaining meaningful conversations. Successful
communication requires understanding of the relationship between words and sentences and
the speech acts they represent. However, a conversation may be complex at times, that is
why some people get lost along the way and misunderstand each other. It is only when we
willingly cooperate and speak in socially-approved ways that we can make a conversation
meaningful.

Since engaging in conversation is also bound by implicit rules, Cohen (1990) states
TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY

that strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation. Knowing and applying
grammar appropriately is one of the most basic strategies to maintain a conversation. The
following are some strategies that people use when communicating.

1. Nomination

A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and productively establish a topic.

Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open a topic with the people you are
talking to.

When beginning a topic in a conversation, especially if it does not arise from a previous
topic, you may start off with news inquiries and news announcements as they promise
extended talk. Most importantly, keep the conversational environment open for opinions
until the prior topic shuts down easily and initiates a smooth end. This could efficiently
signal the beginning of a new topic in the conversation.

2. Restriction

Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. When
communicating in the classroom, in a meeting, or while hanging out with your friends, you
are typically given specific instructions that you must follow. These instructions confine you
as a speaker and limit what you can say.

For example, in your class, you might be asked by your teacher to brainstorm on peer
pressure or deliver a speech on digital natives. In these cases, you cannot decide to talk
about something else. On the other hand, conversing with your friends during ordinary days
can be far more casual than these examples. Just the same, remember to always be on point
and avoid sideswiping from the topic during the conversation to avoid communication
breakdown.

3. Turn-taking
Sometimes people are given unequal opportunities to talk because others take much time
during the conversation. Turn-taking pertains to the process by which people decide who
takes the conversational floor. There is a code of behavior behind establishing and sustaining
a productive conversation, but the primary idea is to give all communicators a chance to
speak.

4. Topic Control

Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic
in conversations. For example, in meetings, you may only have a turn to speak after the
chairperson directs you to do so. Contrast this with a casual conversation with friends over
lunch or coffee where you may take the conversational floor anytime

Remember that regardless of the formality of the context, topic control achieves
cooperatively. This only means that when a topic is initiated, it should be collectively
developed by avoiding unnecessary interruptions and topic shifts. You can make yours
actively involved in the conversation without overly dominating it by using minimal
responses like "Yes," "Okay," "Go on" asking tag questions to clarify information briefly like
"You are excited, aren't you?", "It was unexpected, wasn't it?", and even by laughing!

5. Topic Shifting

Topic shifting, as the name suggests, involves moving from one topic to another. In other
words, it is where one part of a conversation ends and where another begins.

When shifting from one topic to another, you have to be very intuitive. Make sure that the
previous topic was nurtured enough to generate adequate views. You may also use effective
conversational transitions to indicate a shift like "By the way." "In addition to what you said,
"Which reminds me of," and the like

6. Repair

Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking listening, and
comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation For example, if everybody in the
conversation seems to talk at the same time, give way and appreciate other's initiative to set
the conversation back to its topic

Repair is the self-righting mechanism in any social interaction (Schegloff et al, 1977). II
there is a problem in understanding the conversation, speakers will always try to address
and correct it. Although this is the case, always seek to initiate the repair.

7. Termination

Termination refers to the conversation participants' close-initiating expressions that end a

topic in a conversation. Most of the time, the topic initiator takes responsibility to signal the
end of the discussion as well.
Although not all topics may have clear ends, try to signal the end of the topic through
concluding cues. You can do this by sharing what you learned from the conversation. Aside
from this, soliciting agreement from the other participants usually completes the discussion
of the topic meaningfully.