Umaru Ali Shinkafi Polytechnic,

Sokoto

Department of Computer
Science

COM III Introduction to

Computer
Lecture Note
By

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 Lecturer: Mal. Aminu Aliyu

DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER:
A computer is an electronic device that can perform calculations and analysis at very
high speeds. The term computer is obtained from the word compute. A computer can be
defined as an electronic device that accepts, processes, stores, and outputs data at high
speeds according to programmed instructions.
The computer as we know it is a group of pieces of hardware put together to get a job
done faster. To accomplish its various tasks, the computer is made of different parts,
each serving a particular purpose in conjunction with other parts.
There are many different kinds of computers. The ones that most people use are called
Personal Computers (PCs). Smaller computers that are about the size of a briefcase are
called laptops or notebooks. There are also much more powerful computers called
mainframes that can be as big as a room or a house!

The basic function performed by a computer is the execution of a program.

SS
PROCESS
E Information
Data
P

INPUT OUTPUT
The Basic Function of a Computer

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BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTER
The first computers were people! That is, electronic computers (and the earlier
mechanical computers) were given this name because they performed the work that had
previously been assigned to people. "Computer" was originally a job title: it was used to
describe those human beings (predominantly women) whose job was to perform the
repetitive calculations required to compute such things as navigational tables, tide charts,
and planetary positions for astronomical almanacs. Imagine you had a job where hour
after hour, day after day, you were to do nothing but compute multiplications. Boredom
would quickly set in, leading to carelessness, leading to mistakes. And even on your best
days you wouldn't be producing answers very fast.

Therefore, inventors have been searching for hundreds of years for a way to mechanize
(that is, find a mechanism that can perform) this task.

The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aids
the memory of the human performing the calculation. A skilled abacus operator can
work on addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand
calculator (multiplication and division are slower). The abacus is often wrongly
attributed to China. In fact, the oldest surviving abacus was used in 300 B.C. by the
Babylonians. The abacus is still in use today, principally in the Far East. A modern
abacus consists of rings that slide over rods, but the older one pictured below dates from
the time when pebbles were used for counting (the word "calculus" comes from the Latin
word for pebble).

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A more modern abacus.
(Note how the abacus is really just a representation of the human fingers: the 5 lower
rings on each rod represent the 5 fingers and the 2 upper rings represent the 2 hands).
In 1617 an eccentric (some say mad) Scotsman named John Napier invented logarithms,
which are a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via addition. The
magic ingredient is the logarithm of each operand, which was originally obtained from a
printed table. But Napier also invented an alternative to

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tables, where the logarithm values were carved on ivory sticks which are now called
Napier's Bones.

A more modern set of Napier's Bones

Napier's invention led directly to the slide rule, first built in England in 1632 and still in
use in the 1960's by the NASA engineers of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs
which landed men on the moon.

A slide rule

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Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made drawings of gear-driven calculating machines but
apparently never built any. The first gear-driven calculating machine to actually be built
was probably the calculating clock, so named by its inventor, the German professor
Wilhelm Schickard in 1623. This device got little publicity because Schickard died soon
afterward in the bubonic plague.
In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the Pascaline as an aid for his father who was
a tax collector. Pascal built 50 of this gear-driven one-function calculator (it could only
add) but couldn't sell many because of their exorbitant cost and because they really
weren't that accurate (at that time it was not possible to fabricate gears with the required
precision). Up until the present age when car dashboards went digital, the odometer
portion of a car's speedometer used the very same mechanism as the Pascaline to
increment the next wheel after each full revolution of the prior wheel. Pascal was a child
prodigy. At the age of 12, he was discovered doing his version of Euclid's thirty-second
proposition on the kitchen floor. Pascal went on to invent probability theory, the
hydraulic press, and the syringe. Shown below is an 8 digit version of the Pascaline, and
two views of a 6 digit version:

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A Pascaline opened

The Jacquard loom was one of the first programmable devices. A succession of steadily
more powerful and flexible computing devices was constructed in the 1930s and 1940s,
gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital
electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible
programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as
"the first digital electronic computer" is difficult (Shannon 1940). Notable achievements
include:

EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (Von
Neumann) architecture.
KonradZuse'selectromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working
machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of
programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the
world's first operational computer.
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The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tube
based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
The secret British Colossus computers (1943), which had limited programmability but
demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and
electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited
programmability.
The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research LaboratoryENIAC (1946), which used decimal
arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since
KonradZuse'sZ3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however,
ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its
programming.
Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible
and elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored program architecture" or von
Neumann architecture. This design was first formally described by John von Neumann
in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of
projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced
around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first to be
demonstrated working was the Manchester Small- Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM
or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first practical
implementation of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally
described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but did not see full-time
use for an additional two years.
Today, we have computer systems that are small, fast and highly.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Computers have certain definite characteristics that make them unique. These
characteristics include:

Speed: The computers have the ability to execute or carry out instructions at very great
speed.
Accuracy: Computers per se do not make errors i.e. there is accuracy of work. Any error
is usually caused by the human elements.
Storage: Computers can store large volume of data/information on secondary storage,
which can be retrieved at a later time.

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Consistency: Computers have the ability to consistently follow instructions without
getting tired.
Repetitiveness: Computers have the ability to continue processing over an extended
period.
Complexity: Computers have the ability to carry out very complex operations that beats
the best human ability.

2. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified based on the following parameters:

The age of technology

Type of data processed
The size
The Purpose or scope
Classification by Age of Technology
This classification is also referred to as GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller,
cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
Their characteristics are:
Very big, taking up entire rooms

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Very expensive to operate
Using a great deal of electricity
Generated a lot of heat
Often malfunctions
Relied on machine language to perform operations
Able to solve only one problem at a time.
Their input was based on punched cards and paper tape. The Output was displayed on
printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
Their characteristics are:
The computers become smaller
They are faster, cheaper and are more energy-efficient
They are more reliable than the first-generation computers.
They used assembly language to perform operations
Generated lesser heat
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.
These were the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this
generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

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Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were reduced and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors.
Characteristics of computers in this generation are:
They were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Drastical increase in speed
The computers are highly efficient
Keyboard is used as input device
Monitor and printouts are used for output
Users interacted with the third generation computers through an operating system, which
allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program
that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled
an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in
1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and
memory to input/output controls - on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first
computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas
of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

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As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices are based on artificial intelligence. They are still in
development. Applications that have been developed so far in this generation are:
Voice recognition that is being used today.
Parallel processing and superconductors which is helping to make artificial intelligence
a reality.
Quantum computation, molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
Classification by type of data processed
The classification of computers based on the type of data processed is:
Digital computers
Analog computers
Hybrid computers
Digital computer - These are computers that operate on discrete values. That is, values
that occur at a point in time. E.g. 0,1,2,3… The output from digital computers is usually
in the form of discrete values. This class of computers is commonly found in the
business environments, and they include Desk Calculators,

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Adding machines, and most of the computers we have around, that is, the personal
computers.
Analog computer - An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous
physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved. The output of analog computers is usually represented in the form of
smooth curves or graphs from which information can be read.
In general, analog computers are limited by real, non-ideal effects. Some examples of
analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:
Differential analyzer,Kerrison Predictor, mechanical integrator, MONIAC Computer
(hydraulic model of UK economy), operational amplifier, slide rule, thermostat, Torpedo
Data Computer, Water integrator , Mechanical computer etc.
Hybrid computer - Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog
computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller
and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of
differential equations. In general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can
solve most complex equations at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is
generally an appreciable fraction of the speed of light. On the other hand, the precision of
analog computers is not good; they are limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision.

Hybrid computers can be used to obtain a very good but relatively imprecise 'seed' value,
using an analog computer front-end, which is then fed into a digital computer iterative
process to achieve the final desired degree of precision. With a three or four digit, highly
accurate numerical seed, the total digital computation time necessary to reach the desired

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precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required.
Classification by Purpose or Scope
Using scope as a criterion, computers can be classified into two broad categories:
Dedicated or Special purpose computers: These are computers that are designed to carry
out only specified task. The series of instructions that these types of computer follow to
carry out its operation is in-built and cannot be modified. E.g., robots used in car
manufacturing plants.
General Purpose Computers: These are computers designed to perform a wide variety of
operations. They can be programmed to carry out scientific oriented applications or
business oriented ones just by changing the series of instructions in its memory.
Classification by Size
Using physical size as a factor, the following types of computers can be identified:
Micro-Computers: These are computers that are small in size which can be placed on the
desk or lap or palm.
Mini Computers: These are large computers that support multi users. Their speed of
operations is high compared to micros.
Mainframe Computers: These are very large computers that support multi users. Their
speed of operations and memory capacity is larger than that of a mini computer.
Super Computers: These are high-speed computer with the highest processing speeds,
used for solving complex problems and creating simulations.

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CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
Supercomputers
Most powerful type of computer.
High-capacity computers.
Fastest processing.
Used by large organizations, usually research facilities.

Supercomputer
Mainframes (shown in Figure 2 below)

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Do not have as high of capacity or a fast processing as supercomputers.
Capable of storing large amounts of data.
Large corporations use them.

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Mainframe

Slower processing speed and less storage capacity than a mainframe.

Used by medium-sized companies or departments of large corporations.
Used for specialized purposes.

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 Minicomputer
Microcomputers (shown in Figure 4 below)
Least powerful
Most widely used
Four types

THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

The functional components of a computer can be classified as:
Input Devices.
Output Device
Memory and Storage Device
CPU:
Input Devices
These refers to All those devices using which instructions/information is fed into the
computer Eg. Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Joystick, touchpad, trackball
etc.
Output Devices
These are All those devices through which processed information is presented to the user
Eg.monitor, printer, speakers etc
Memory and Storage Device:

Its again of two types RAM and ROM. For easier understanding sake, RAM is the one
with short term memory loss syndrome. Which means RAM only stores things for a
short while, whereas ROM is the one with permanent storage capacity. RAM helps
process the data faster and then store it in ROM for future use.
Central Processing Unit

CPU is simply put the brain. Its a combination of various chips and circuit boards that
help process data and convert it into machine readable format and back.
Introduction to software
PROGRAMS AND APPS
This section we will learn about:
The difference between hardware and software
Two types of software, and the differences between them
The software that comes installed on your computer
The types of software you might want to add to your computer
How to get software onto your computer
Some examples of useful software
What is a Software
Your computer is made up of Inside your computer (and on the web), and the
Hardware. The hardware include:
Monitor
Keyboard
Mouse
The System Unit and other parts inside
The Software is the set of program that control how these hardware behave, it works
with the computer to Computer get things done, such as • Write a letter• Connect a
printer• Balance your checkbook
Video call a friend• And more
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
There are two classification or types of software
Application software and
System software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

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System Software (operating system with utilities)
Performs basic tasks (coordinating keyboard, display, keeping track of files, and
controlling peripheral devices like disk drives and printers)
Helps programs to work at the same time without interfering with each other
Provides a platform for application software
Includes basic utilities (notepad, calculator, media viewer).
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
MAKING YOUR COMPUTER USEFUL
Perform more specialized tasks (word processing, spreadsheets, email, photo editing,
bookkeeping)
Installed onto your computer with disk or downloaded
Can be web based, with no need to download program onto computer
IMPORTANT TERMS
Installation: Putting program onto computer
Downloaded: Takes program from Internet, brings it down to your computer
Uploaded: Takes something from you computer and brings it up to the “cloud”
Cloud: Computers online which store files and folders
Update: When the program fixes a bug, it will then ask you to download and install
these changes…
IMPORTANT• Apps are Programs/software that do one thing really well which you
will download to your computer or device (MapQuest, Skype, Whatsappetc)
INSTALLING SOFTWARE
Purchase software
From a store
Online (From a manufactures site, Amazon, other online store)
Decide whether you want a disk or to download. If you want a disk, you will install it
using your computer CDdrive. It may come with instructions. It may also come with

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a special “key” which you will need to “unlock” your program.
If you download the program, you will probably want to “save it” to your computer,
check for viruses, and then install. You may also need a key, or to “validate it” in
some way
WEB BASED SOFTWARE
Usually free• You may have to download it (such as Skype)• There may be
information to give in order to use it (Facebook, email)• Can be used on all
computers• You will have to remember your login and passwords
DISCUSION
DISCUSSION
What is the value of having a program installed on your computer?
Why would you want to have a program based on the web?
What is the most useful program that you have installed on your computer?
Why would the operating system of a computer be different than that of a mobile
device?

NUMBER SYSTEMS
COUNTING
You do it daily, but how do you do it? You have been doing it for years, but how did
you learn
it? What is it? It is counting.
Examine the sequence of numbers you use when counting. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, . . . Its intentional to start with 0 because it is perhaps the most important digit
we have. but what happened when you went from 9 to 10?
What happened is that you ran out of symbols to use, so you made a note over to the
left (the 1 in the tens place) that the next number (the 0) is not really that number, but
ten plus that number. This allows you to keep on counting, 10, 11, 12, . . ., 18, 19,

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20, . . .
So what happens each time you run out of symbols in the rightmost place holder (the
one's place)? You add one to the next place to the left (the ten's place) to indicate that
the symbol in the one's place is to be added to some more stuff.
This sequence continues over and over as we count. Each time a place runs out of
symbols we start a new place to the left and start over again. So what happens each
time you run out of symbols in the rightmost place holder (the one's place)?
You add one to the next place to the left (the ten's place) to indicate that the symbol
in the one's place is to be added to some more stuff.
This sequence continues over and over as we count. Each time a place runs out of
symbols we start a new place to the left and start over again.
So far we have assumed the decimal system for our counting. Decimal means we
have 10 symbols. It is also called base-10. This is the system that we use in our
everyday existence, but what if the base changed?

COUNTING IN BASE TWO

If we use base-2 (also called binary) We will have only 2 symbols, not 10 like we
are accustomed.
This is actually easier than decimal for counting. Observe the sequence used for
counting in binary:
0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 1010, . . .
This is conceptually the same sequence we used for counting in decimal. We again
start with 0, then 1.
Ooops! we ran out of symbols already!
No problem, we just move over a 1 to the next place (in the case of binary this is the
two's place) and keep on counting: 10, 11 - ran out of symbols again, move over and
keep going:

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100, 101 - ran out, keep going: 110, 111. If that last sequence was hard for you, just
think about counting in decimal when you get to 109 –
you only move over 1 place and then start over in the one's place.
Shown below, the sequence of binary counting is listed in a form that should point
out a pattern:

COUNTING IN BASE EIGHT

We have 8 symbols - 0 through 7. We can count to 7 with no problem, but then
what? Just move left, add one there, go back and reset: . . . 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, . .
You may notice that we may need to carry this process across several places
sometimes; for instance, still in octal, what comes after 7777? Answer: 10000. See if
you can figure out that one on your own.
What happens if we use a base larger than 10? That is, what do we use for symbols
beyond 9?
Well, we just start using letters.
One example of a base larger than 10 is hexadecimal - base-16. It uses the symbols
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. This means that the symbol A in
hexadecimal (hex for short) has the decimal value of 10. Hex B is 11, and so on.
General rule for counting:
The base gives you the number of symbols to use in each place holder. When you
run out of symbols in one place holder, just move over to the left, add 1 to that place,
and start over in the place in which you just ran out of symbols.

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